Introduksi

VIBRASI / GETARAN
terminologi yang digunakan
untuk menunjukkan adanya perubahan
besaran fisik dari suatu sistim,
yang berulang dengan interval waktu
serta arah yang kurang lebih teratur

BEROSILASI
 Getaran terjadi pada sistim elastis,
semua benda yang mempunyai massa
dan elastisitas dapat bergetar

model termudah:
Massa + Pegas
a pegas
m
p +
l posisi
i 0 setimbang
t - massa
u
d frekwensi waktu
o
 jumlah waktu dari massa
Periode melakukan gerak
1 siklus

pergerakan massa
dari posisi setimbang untuk menyelesaikan
1 siklus 1 siklus massa melalui
sampai kembali ke garis posisi setimbang
posisi setimbang semula 2 kali

banyaknya kali massa satuan untuk menunjukkan

melewati garis posisi frekwensi adalah
Frekwensi
setimbang dalam cycle per second – cps
satu waktu tertentu atau Hertz - Hz
 perpindahan maksimum
massa dari titik posisi
Amplitudo amplitudo digunakan
setimbang sampai
untuk menunjukkan
kembali ke semula “beratnya” satu getaran
penunjukan amplitudo:
➢besarnya lintasan/perpindahan
➢besarnya kecepatan
➢besarnya percepatan
Satuan
amplitudo perpindahan : inch, mil = 1/1000 inch, mm, m = 1/1000 mm
amplitudo kecepatan : inch/second, mm/second
amplitudo percepatan : mm/sec², inch/sec²
 parameter penting
“beratnya” suatu getaran

Frekwensi Amplitudo

perpindahan
kecepatan

kecepatan gerak
dalam getaran

amplitudo perpindahan = pengukuran puncak ke puncak ( peak to peak )

amplitudo kecepatan dan percepatan = pengukuran nol ke puncak ( zero to peak )
Gerakan Periodik
Gerakan yang berulang dengan interval waktu yang tetap.
Gerakan periodik sederhana dapat diwakili oleh fungsi sinusoida atau
cosinusoida, karena bentuk gelombang yang ditunjukkannya.

Gerakan Harmonik
Gerakan yang berulang dengan interval waktu yang tetap, dan simetris
terhadap posisi kesetimbangan.
Kecepatan maksimum dan percepatan nol terjadi setiap saat melewati titik
setimbang.
Kecepatan nol dan percepatan maksimum terjadi setiap saat mencapai
perpindahan/simpangan terjauh.

Gerakan Harmonik selalu periodik,

tetapi Gerakan Periodik belum tentu harmonik
Getaran Bebas, Getaran Transien
Bila suatu sistim elastis diberi gangguan berupa simpangan atau kecepatan
awal seketika, maka sistim tsb akan bergetar. Yaitu
melakukan gerak osilasi. Bila
gangguan tsb hanya seketikan di saat awal, maka getaran ini disebut
sebagai Getaran Bebas ( free vibration ).
Gerak osilasi yang terjadi semakin lama semakin melemah, kecepatannya
semakin rendah dan simpangannya semakin pendek.
Hal ini terjadi karena adanya hambatan, akibat gesekan ataupun lainnya,
disebut sebagai Redaman.
Getaran ini disebut sebagai Getaran Transien.

Getaran Paksa ( Forced Vibration )

Bila suatu sistim elastis diberi gangguan secara terus menerus ( dinamis ),
maka getaran yang timbul pada sistim disebut sebagai Getaran Paksa.
Frekwensi Pribadi ( Natural Frequency )
Frekwensi dari getaran bebas suatu sistim elastis disebut sebagai
Frekwensi Pribadi.
Besarnya frekwensi pribadi ini ditentukan oleh karakteristik fisik dari
sistim itu sendiri.
Resonansi
Pada sistim elastis yang mendapat gangguan dinamis, bila frekwensi
gangguannya sama dengan frekwensi pribadi sistim maka frekwensi ini
disebut sebagai Frekwensi Resonansi.
Resonansi ini menyebabkan sistim bergetar dengan amplitudo maksimum,
dimana amplitudo ini diperbesar oleh resonansi.
Amplitudo besar ini bisa mengakibatkan kerusakan pada sistim.
Resonansi dihindari antara lain dengan :
menurunkan frekwensi pribadi : sistim lebih lentur/fleksibel, atau massa
ditambah.
Menggunakan peredam : frekwensi pribadi turun.
Redaman
Menurunkan amplitudo getaran secara terus menerus.
Mekanisme peredaman :
1. Gesekan : antar molekul atau kering antar komponen
2. Aksi fluida : hambatan, gesekan
3. Magnetik : memotong medan magnit
 GETARAN MEKANIS
Sistim mekanis dari suatu sistim massa dan elastisitas yang mampu
bergerak relatif dan berulang dengan sendirinya setelah satu interval
waktu tertentu.
Interval waktu berulang = Periode, T
Simpangan yang ditempuh : Amplitudo, x, karena gerak ( perpindahan ).

Gerak Periodik paling sederhana = Gerak Harmonik

Hubungan antara Simpangan/Perpindahan x terhadap waktu t :

x = X sin t
X = simpangan terjauh
t = waktu
 = kecepatan sudut
Bila satu gerak harmonik bergerak lengkap dari titik asal sampai kembali lagi
ke titik asal, di plot sebagai lingkaran ( 360, 2 rad ) maka lingkar yang
ditempuh adalah t rad = 2 .
Maka periode getaran T: interval waktu
berulang gerak
 x = X sin  t

x  simpangan = jarak yang ditempuh

X = simpangan maksimum

Kecepatan gerak  x
Percepatan gerak  x
Kapal ➔ suatu struktur elastik yang komplek

BERGETAR

gaya gaya periodik yang diakibatkan oleh a.l.:

gelombang (laut, danau, sungai)
propeller
mesin mesin pada kapal
GETARAN BEBAS, TANPA REDAMAN,
1 DERAJAT KEBEBASAN ( 1 DOF )

Model Massa dan Pegas

 massa M
 pegas, dengan konstanta pegas k ➔kekakuan
x
➢ massa bergerak menurut simpangan x
M
➢ landasan bergerak (karena efek pegas)
menurut simpangan u

k
u
 x
Hukum Newton : F = M  a
M
Gaya pegas : Fpegas = kx

k
Persamaan (gaya) gerak :

u F = Fmassa + Fpegas
F = M x + k ( x – u )

Getaran bebas  getaran yang terjadi pada sistim elastis  tanpa rangsang luar

F=0
maka persamaan gerak menjadi :

Getaran bebas ➔ Mx + k (x − u) = 0

 bila landasan tidak bergerak (statik) → u = 0
persamaan gerak ➔ Mx + kx = 0
 bila gerak getaran bebas adalah gerak harmonik (sinusoidal),
persamaan geraknya menjadi : Mx + kx = 0
MX2sin t + kXsin t = 0

periode T = 2 / detik
frekuensi → jumlah getar dalam 1 detik

f = 1 / T =  / 2 perdetik
maka frekuensi getaran bebas sederhana dari sistim pegas-massa :

 f =
k rad
= detik 2
perdetik
M
  f =
k
= 2
M
Getaran bebas ➔ frekuensi pribadi yang merupakan sifat/milik sistim
Frekuensi Pribadi ( Natural Frequency ) :

fn =
n perdetik ➔ Hertz, Hz
2
x
❖ Sistim bergerak (bergetar) hanya pada 1 arah saja pada arah x
M → 1 derajat kebebasan (single degree of freedom)
❖ Sistim bergerak (bergetar) tanpa dissipasi → tanpa peredaman
k
❖ frekuensi pribadi → milik atau sifat sistim
u
❖ bila sistim bergetar pada frekuensi pribadi
→ terjadi
RESONANSI, amplitudo (simpangan
maksimum) menjadi sangat besar
selanjutnya,

Mx + kx = 0
Mx = −kx
k
 f =
k
x = − x ➔  = 2
M M
x = − n2 x
x +  n2 x = 0 ➔Adalah persamaan differensial linier homogen tingkat dua
yang jawab umumnya adalah :
x = A sin  n t + B cos  n t
k k
x = A sin t + B cos t
M M
 k k x = A sin  n t + B cos  n t
x = A sin t + B cos t
M M x = A n cos  n t − B n sin n t
pada t = 0, x = x 0 dan x = 0 pada t = 0, x = x o ,x = 0
maka x 0 = A  0 + B  1 k k
0 = A 1 − B  0
→ B = x 0 M M
→ A = 0
maka, x = A sin nt + B cos nt
k
x = 0 + x 0 cos t
M
periode, T sehingga  n  T = 2 rad
k k
n =   T = 2
M M
M
T = 2
k
dengan demikian
1 1 k n Mg Mg
fn = = = ; defleksi statik  = shg k =
T 2 M 2 k 
1 Mg 1 g
maka f n = =
2 MΔ 2 Δ
getaran torsi

Persamaan gerak : I = −k

perhatikan kemiripannya dengan persamaan k
gerak dari getaran linier (gerak lurus)
I = momen inersia massa
 = simpangan sudut/angu lar I

I + k = 0
 k
 +  =0
I
k 1 k
n = ; fn =
I 2 I
osilasi kapal di laut.
kapal yang mengapung di atas air adalah satu
sistim getaran, karena bila ia berubah posisi dari
posisi kesetimbangannya ia mempunyai
kecendrungan untuk kembali ke posisi semula
sehingga terjadi gerak bolak-balik yaitu gerak
osilasi → getaran
momen pengembali posisi kapal (restoring couple):
− Wh sin 
− Wh untuk sudut  yang kecil
persamaan gerak osilasi kapal :
I kapal + Wh  = 0
Wh
 +  =0
I kapal
Wh
maka,  n2 =  freq. pribadi osilasi kapal :
I kapal
1 Wh
fn =
2 I kapal h = tinggi metacenter kapal
KEKAKUAN (Stiftness) ➔PEGAS

dinyatakan sebagai
Gaya pegas :
k k
konstanta elastisitas pegas
u
F= k x
 EA
Kekakuan (stiffness) satu batang, k : k =
l

G  JP
Kekakuan (stiffness) torsi/puntir satu batang, k : k =
l
 G d4
Kekakuan (stiffness) satu pegas ulir ( helical spring ), k : k =
64  n  R 3

EI
Kekakuan (stiffness) satu pegas gulung (coiled spring), k : k =
l
 3 E  I
Kekakuan (stiffness) satu batang kantilever, k : k=
l3
Kekakuan (stiffness) pegas berbagai bentuk batang (beam), k :
 k xk
pegas serie.
u
M
F1
Gaya pegas 1 : F1 = k1  x1  x1 =
k1
k xk
k1
F2
M u Gaya pegas 2 : F2 = k2  x 2  x 2 =
k2
k xkk2
u F1 F2
total defleksi pegas : x1 + x 2 = +
M k1 k2

Gaya pegas ekivalen : Feq = keq  x tot

k k
Feq Feq
 x tot = u maka, keq =
keq x tot
 k x
u
M
konstanta pegas equivalent :

Feq F k xk
k1
keq = = M u
x tot x tot
F1
dimana, Feq  F1  F2  F k xkk2
u

M
F k1  k2 F2
keq = =
F +F k1 + k2
k1 k2
1 n
1k Fkeq = F
=
1 1 1
 = + 
keq k1 k2 keq i =1 ki u

pegas serie
 k xk k k
k xk
pegas paralel. u
M u M u

kk 1 kk 2 Gaya gravitasi akibat massa M → F di titik c

k x c
k x
mu
xn umaka,
Fn
M a M b gaya di a : Fa = = k1  (aa')
M m+n
M
Fm
Fb = = k2  ( bb' )
k a’ k k k gaya di b :
m+n
ku c’
dengan demikian,
k b’ u
F  n 1
simpangan di a : (aa') = u 
m + n k1
Fm 1
simpangan di b : ( bb') = 
m + n k2
sedangkan simpangan di b :

(cc') = (aa') +
m
(m + n)

( bb') − (aa') 
Fn m  Fm Fn 
(cc') = + −
(m + n) k1 (m + n)  (m + n) k2 (m + n) k1 
xn
m
F  n 2 m2 
a ( cc' ) = k + k  b
(m + n) 2  1 2 

M M n b Gaya pegas di titik c :

a m c
F = keq  (cc')
F
a’ F
keq =
(cc')
k c’ k b’
 F
keq =
(cc')
F
keq =
F  n 2 m2 
+
2 
(m + n)  k1 k2 
(m + n) 2
keq = 2 ➔ Untuk kondisi: m = n dan k1 = k2
n m 2

 k +x k 
x

+
x 2
 M1 2  (m n) 4
M
M
keq = = = 2k
n2
m  2 2
k xk k xk k xk k + k  k
M
u
M
u
M
u  1 2 

k
M
xk
k1
uM
k xk
k1 ➔k
u
xk
keq
1
u  keq =  ki
n
utk pegas paralel, simetris
M
i =1
k xkk2 k xkk2 k
u u
xkk2
u
M M
M
 x x

M M
Q: tentukan frekuensi pribadinya
k xk
x k xk
Sistim 1 massa
M u dengan
u 3 pegas.
M M

k xk
k x
k
k xk
k1 k1
u 2
M M uM u

k xkkk2 kk31
xk
xkk2
M u u u

M MM
k k
xk2 dengan 5 pegas.
Sistim 1 massa
u

k Mk k k
u u

k k
u
Metode Energi ( Rayleigh )
hukum kekekalan energi :
energi kinetis + energi potensial = konstan
T + U = konstan

d(T+U)/dt = 0
T 1 + U 1 = T 2 + U2
U1 = 0, karena pada saat ini massa berada pada titik netral/simpangan nol
T2 = 0, karena pada saat ini massa berada pada titik simpangan maksimum
dan dalam keadaan berhenti ( v = 0 )

T 1 + 0 = 0 + U2
Tmaks = Umaks
 uu
M M u
defleksi statis pegas ,
akibat gaya berat mg
kk xk
x k xk
M u k u
0
M m  gM m
k xk 
x(t)
u mg
k k
MEnergi potensial sistim : U pegas = k
k 1 2 k (  + x )2
U gravitasi = −mgx
u u
T=  2

k Energi kinetis sistim :

k
1
2 mx

hukum kekekalan energi :

u
energi kinetis + energi potensial = konstan
T + U = konstan
1
2 mx 2 − mgx + 1 2 k (  + x )2 = konstan
1
2 mx 2 − mgx + 1 2 k (  + x )2 = konstan
differensial,
x( mx + kx ) + x( k − mg ) = 0  k = mg
x( mx + kx ) = 0  x  0 setiap waktu
mx + kx = 0  persamaan gerak getaran bebas

T 1 + 0 = 0 + U2
Tmaks = Umaks

1
2 m(  n X )2 = 1
2 kX 2
kX 2 1 k
 =12
n 2
= 2

2 mX m
k k
n =  fn = 1
2
m m
 M

Massa Efektif, pengaruh massa pegas k xk

u
M

k xk
k1
model sistim Lumped Systems M u

massa-pegas sistim “bongkahan” M

k xkk2
u

M
seluruh massa terpusat pada “sebongkah” massa M,
pegas dianggap tak bermassa
seluruh elastisitas terpusat pada “sebongkah” pegas k,
massa dianggap tidak elastis
k k

kenyataannya, keduanya bermassa dan keduanya u

elastis dan menjadi satu kesatuan
Energi kinetis dari satu massa efektif di satu titik yang spesifik : T = 1 2 mefektif x 2

x adalah kecepatan “bongkahan” massa m.

Sedangkan kecepatan setiap titik pada pegas dianggap linier
y
terhadap kecepatan x , yaitu l x
dengan demikian, energi kinetis dari pegas adalah :
l
m pegas m pegas
T(tambahan dari pegas) =  ( x ) dy =
y
1
2 l
2 1
2 x 2
0
l 3
terlihat masih ada massa efektif dari pegas dalam sistim sebesar 1/3 dari
massa pegas keseluruhan, sehingga frekuensi pribadi sistim nendapatkan
pengaruh juga dari massa pegas (massa badan elastis).
k
n =
m + 13 m pegas
Getaran Badan (Hull) Kapal
kemungkinan getaran badan kapal adalah sbb:

1. Hull girder vertical vibration

2 ~ 5 nodes, 1 ~ 4 modes
2. Hull girder horizontal vibration
2 ~ 5 nodes, 1 ~ 4 modes
3. Hull girder torsional vibration
4. Hull girder longitudinal vibration
Perhitungan frekuensi pribadi getaran (vertikal) badan/Hull kapal

pendekatan dengan getaran pada batang bebas-bebas (free-free beam) :

d 2x
Getaran bebas, persamaan gerak :
2
= −n
2
x
dt
frekuensi f n = 1
2 n

Pada batang bebas-bebas (free-free beam),

➔gaya yang menyebabkan defleksi pada panjang l akibat berat sendiri (= Ml ·a)
adalah : w
F = Ml  a = l  x
g
w = berat per unit panjang
l = panjang batang pada titik pembahasan /perhatian
x = percepatan pada arah defleksi x l

x
Statika Struktur ➔ beban bengkok pada batang (beam) :
d 4x
EI 4  per unit panjang
dl
E = modulus elastisita s
I = momen inersia penampang

maka,
d 4x F w
EI 4  − = − x  Gaya dinamis per unit panjang
dl l g

d 2x
dari : 2
= −n2 x
dt
d 2x 2
n2 = − dt = − x = percepatan
x x defleksi
n = frekuensi pribadi

maka,…….
 x x1 xn
= = = konstan
x x1 xn
x
x = 1 x
x1
d 4x w w x1
EI 4 = − x = −
 x
dl g g x1
d 4x w x1
4
= − x
dl EIg x1

d 4x
atau, 4
= m 4
x
dl
w x1
dimana, m = −
4

EIg x1
x1 4  EIg 
- =m  
x1  w 
 d 4x
dari : 4
= m 4
x dan fn = 1
2 n2
dl
x x1
fn = 1
2 − = 1
2 −
x x1
 EIg  m
2
EIg
fn = 1
2 m  4
=
 w  2 w

1 d 4x
dimana, m = 4
x dl 4
untuk panjang batang (beam): l = L

m2 EIg L4
fn =
2 w L4
EIg (mL)
2
m 2 L2 EIg
fn = =
2 wL4
2 wL4
bila berat batang (beam) keseluruhan: W = w · l
maka,
fn =
(mL )
2
EIg
➔berdasarkan teori getaran pada batang
2 WL3 bebas-bebas (free-free beam)
Untuk badan kapal ( Hull ) dengan asumsi sebagai batang (beam),
hasil empirisnya adalah :
I
fN =  ➔ Otto Schlick
L3
fN = frekuensi pribadi badan kapal, [per menit]
I = momen inersia penampang → amidship, [in2ft2]
 = displacement dari kapal, [ton]
L = panjang kapal, [ft]
 = koeffisien empiris
nilai , menurut Schlick :

Kapal dengan fine lines  = 156.850

(termasuk kapal perusak/destroyer)
Kapal Samudra, fine lines  = 143.500

Kapal kargo, full lines  = 127.900

 nilai , menurut Todd :

Kapal tanker besar, muatan penuh 1 = 130.000

2 = 282.000
3 = 28.000
Kapal tanker kecil, muatan penuh 1 = 100.000
2 = 217.000
3 = 21.500
Kapal kargo, 1 = 112.000
dengan muatan + 60% displacement 2 = 243.000
3 = 24.000

1 untuk fN = [per menit] 2 untuk fN = [per menit] 3 untuk fN = [per menit]

I = [in2ft2] I = [m4] I = [m2cm2]
 = [ton]  = [MN]  = [ton]
L = [ft] L = [m] L = [m]
 Kekurangan dari rumus empiris tersebut dimuka adalah tidak memasukkan
efek dari massa tambahan (virtual mass/weight) akibat air ikutan/bawaan
disekeliling badan kapal (entrained water).

pendekatan empiris Todd :

B
Faktor inersia vi rtual = + 1,2
3H
B = lebar kapal, breadth
H = kedalaman kapal dalam air, draught
I
sehingga, f N = 
 vir L3
 vir = berat virt ual
 B  I
 vir =  + 1,2  maka, fN = 
 3H   B  3
 + 1, 2 L
 3H 
Massa Virtual, pengaruh massa air masukan/bawaan (entrained
water) pada massa kapal dan getaran badan kapal (hull vibration)

Dasar Teori.
Pada dasarnya kapal yang bergerak, badannya (hull) bergetar. Getaran pada
setiap seksi dari penampang lintang kapal akan mendorong air pada posisinya
kearah menjauh dari badan kapal, yang kemudian ruang kosongnya itu
menarik air lain untuk masuk mengisinya. Dengan demikian gerak aliran air
tersebut merupakan gerak osilasi pada sekeliling badan kapal yang berada
didalam air, yang disebut sebagai pengaruh ikutan/bawaan air (entrained water
effect). Akibat dari pengaruh ini adalah seakan massa dari badan kapal sebagai
badan elastis bertambah besar, sehingga juga mempengaruhi semua parameter
dinamik dan getaran dari badan kapal, dimana pertambahannya disebut
sebagai pertambahan massa maya (added virtual mass). Fenomena ini telah
dibuktikan oleh a.l. Burril (1935), Todd (1961) melalui risetnya, yang
kemudian mengeluarkan nilai nilai koefisien untuk pertambahan massa maya
ini.
 ➢Model berupa satu silinder berjari-jari a
bergerak didalam fluida dengan kecepatan V.
➢Asumsi gerak 2Dimensi sehingga panjang
silinder bisa dianggap =1.
➢Fluida disekeliling silinder akan bergerak
dengan bergeraknya silinder tersebut.
➢Satu elemen fluida pada jarak r dari pusat
silinder bergerak dengan resultan
kecepatannya: Va 2
v=
r2
2 4
V a
Energi kinetis dari elemen fluida : Telemen = 2 v rddr = 2  4 rddr
1 2 1
r
Fluida diasumsikan tak hingga, maka energi kinetis total dari fluida :
2  2 4
V a
Ttotal =   12  3 ddr = 2 V 2a 2
0 a
r
jumlah massa fluida yang berpindah oleh gerak silinder per panjang silinder :
M' = a 2

Energi kinetis dari air di sekeliling silinder : Tair sekeliling = 12 M'V 2

M ➔ pertambahan massa maya dari pengaruh ikutan/bawaan air (entrained
water).
M ➔ massa dari silinder per unit panjang silinder.

Asumsi: seperti kapal, silinder tersebut tidak seluruhnya didalam air maka
pertambahan massa maya hanya setengah dari massa silinder yang didalam air
keseluruhannya.

pertambahan masa maya (added virtual mass) = 1

2 a 2
per unit panjang silinder.
Luas bidang silinder yang berada didalam air, adalah luas bidang permukaan
setengah silinder = ½ a²

Jumlah pertambahan massa maya = A ; dimana A = ½ a² (per unit panjang

silinder)

Jika panjang silinder adalah l , maka jumlah pertambahan massa maya = Al

Karena silinder terapung bebas, maka Al adalah juga massa fluida yang
dipindahkan, yang juga adalah massa dari silinder itu sendiri
dikembangkan untuk
bentuk badan kapal

➢ untuk badan kapal, pertambahan massa maya tergantung pula pada

kerampingan (slenderness) pada arah gerak kapal, yaitu perbandingan
lebar/kedalaman, breadth/draught.

➢ breadth adalah lebar lokal pada satu seksi pada garis air yaitu b,
sedangkan draught adalah kedalaman kapal didalam air yaitu d. Faktor
kerampingan yaitu b/2d dapat digunakan untuk perhitungan ini.
➢ untuk badan kapal, pertambahan massa maya per unit panjang = A(b/2d),
dimana A adalah luas bidang yang berada dibawah air pada satu seksi badan
kapal.
➢ untuk keseluruhan kapal, dengan panjang kapal L, maka pertambahan massa
maya = L
b
 A
0
2d
dx

Aplikasi praktis pada badan kapal

❖ badan kapal terdiri dari banyak seksi yang lebarnya (breadth) sangat
bervariasi, maka diambil moulded breadth, B, sebagai faktor lebarnya
❖ perbandingan yang digunakan adalah B/d yang lebih praktis daripada
perbandingan b/2d yang lebih teoritis

❖ suatu faktor koreksi k digunakan agar hasilnya lebih baik dan lebih
mendekati hasil empiris, sehingga faktornya menjadi k(B/d)
Dengan demikian,
kB
pertambahan massa maya (added virtual mass) = ( )M
d

Total massa maya : M' = 1 +

kB 
M M adalah massa total kapal
 d 

Burrill menyatakan nilai k adalah ½ , sehingga : M' = 1 +

B
M
 2d 
( 1935 )

 1 B
Todd berdasarkan risetnya kemudian, menyatakan : M' = 1,2 + M
 3d
( 1961 )
Tabel nilai faktor B/d untuk perhitungan total massa maya
(total virtual mass) menurut Burrill dan Todd

B/d Burrill Todd

2,0 2,00 1,86
2,25 2,12 1,95
2,50 2,25 2,03
2,75 2,37 2,11
3,00 2,50 2,20
3,25 2,62 2,28
3,50 2,75 2,36
 Shake, rattle and Roll (Vibration in ships)
Posted by Stuart Slade on December 18, 1998 at 03:03:07 (updated June 27, 1999):

Vibration has been a matter of concern to ship designers since the end of the 19th
century although its presence in ship characteristics was known long before that time and
its importance has become much emphasized over the last half century. Some sailing
warships, particularly the lightly-built frigates, suffered from serious vibration aft when
driven hard, probably as a result of flow interaction while there are accounts of mast/sail
combinations causing such severe vibration that crewmen were thrown from their feet or,
worse, from their mast-top positions. However, for most of the history of the ship, the
problem was not regarded as being of any great importance. The situation began to
change with the introduction of steam propulsion. A French naval design book (Theorie
de Navir) published in 1894, contains a discussion of ship vibration, written from the
premise that the phenomenon was the result of the propeller. The slow-rotating props
used at that time had relatively few blades per shaft, a combination that generated a long
wave-length (low frequency) vibration that felt like the hull flexing in a heavy sea. This
was not regarded as being anything out of the ordinary and probably explains why ship’s
trials reports of the era contain so few mentions of vibration unless the situation was
really unusual. There were, however, enough really unusual cases to start people
thinking.

Vibration is defined as a relatively small amplitude oscillation around a rest position. It

can be transverse (at right angles to the rest line), longitudinal (orientated along the rest
line) or torsional (twisting around the rest line). Transverse vibration is the most
commonly encountered, torsional is frequently present but its effects are subversive,
longitudinal vibration is comparatively rare but can cause truly hellish problems. All hull
components have “natural frequencies”; these are the frequencies at which the component
will vibrate when struck. Another vital term is resonance. This is a state that occurs when
the natural frequency of hull components matches that of an imposed vibration. The
components act as amplifiers, the effect only being limited by system damping.
Looking at the sources of vibration in a ship, it is easiest to start from the front of the
power train and work backwards. Its important to remember that vibration doesn’t really
pass through air, it travels along things and the routes that it follows are as important as
the vibrations themselves. The boilers of course generate their own series of vibrations
but these are largely isolated from the power train proper (the steam lines absorb and
damp vibration). The real problems start with the ship’s engines.

Reciprocating and diesel engines are universally bad news. They are not continuous
action; they operate in a series of jerks, each of which adds a kick to the vibration
patterns. I won’t bother with reciprocating engines since they were dying out by 1914
but diesels are very much of contemporary interest. The problem with diesels is that, for
a given size, there is a fixed amount of power generated per cylinder. The only way to
add power is to add cylinders (this assumes that engine room dimensions etc prevent the
sheer size of the diesel increasing further but I understand there are nasty problems in
designing big diesels. Trouble is, if cylinders are added, they lengthen the crankshaft.
After a very limited number of additions, the lengthened crankshaft begins to flex and
vibrate all on its own. This is torsional vibration at its most elemental and is, by the way,
why big automobile engines with a straight line configuration (the so-called straight-8s
and so on) got abandoned. On a ship, its a killer.

Steam and gas turbines, when new and/or in good repair, do not, by themselves generate
excessive vibration. It’s possible to stand a dime on its edge on the casing of an LM-
2500 running flat out (I’ve done it) and watch it stand for several seconds. That happy
state will remain as long as the turbine blades continue to be perfect and rotate in a
smooth gas flow. Eventually, though, this ceases to be the case. Microscopic defects in
the metal of the steam/gas intake and blades eventually fail, causing small pits to appear
in the surface of the intake and the blades. These set up eddies in the gas flow that have
two bad effects. One is that a turbulent gas flow is much more erosive than a smooth
flow so the progressive deterioration of the blade will accelerate. The hotter and higher
pressure the intake, the more erosive the gas and the higher the standards of metallurgy
required to resist those conditions. If the steam (temperature and pressure) conditions
adopted exceed the ability of the metals use din the intake area and blades to resist their
erosive effects, then the result will be a short-lived, very unreliable powerplant. With gas
turbines, this is less of a problem since they are maintained by pulling the entire engine
and replacing it. With steam turbines, deteriorated blades can be replaced but the trend in
engine performance is ever-downwards until it reaches a point where performance loss
and vibration reach unacceptable levels and the plant is worn out. The other is that the
blades themselves are no longer rotating in a smooth environment and start to shake.
This sets up vibration which gets transmitted down the turbine shaft to the gears.

Now, there is an interesting effect on a gearbox if it is placed directly between the

compressive loads generated by drive shaft from the turbine and the compressive loads
traveling up the shafts from the screws. The gearbox explodes. This is not good. Gearing
was impossible with the first generation of turbine driven ships (the direct-drive ships).
Since screws work more effectively at slow speeds than at high and turbines work more
effectively at high speed than low, there was a dichotomy that could not be resolved.
Either the screws ran so fast they cavitated, shaking the ship the way a terrier shakes a rat
or the turbines ran so slowly they guzzled fuel. This is when (a) people began to realize
there was much more to this vibration business than they had thought and (b) screw
design suddenly took several large leaps forward. The solution was a thing called a thrust
block that took the compression loadings in the shafts and prevented them being
transmitted to the gearbox. This meant geared turbines could be designed and the world
got easier. Then somebody had a BLIFFO. Mass damps (absorbs) vibration. Mass
keeps gears nicely in line and prevents flexing. In ship’s gearing, mass is good. Lets
have LOTS of it guys!!! As a result, the thrust blocks and main reduction gearing in a
ship are about as over-engineered as it is possible to get. There is a price paid; all that
metal takes some design accommodation and there are mechanical penalties in getting the
bits moving but they’re nothing compared with the benefits. The main reduction gearing
generates vibration of its own (particularly if a resentful sailor tosses a wrench into it -
usually good for a one-year to 18 month refit and repair). But, by and large, it is a
vibration sump rather than a generator. What it tends to do is isolate the mechanical
vibration forward from the hydrodynamic vibration aft to the great benefit of all. Well -
mostly. The massive reduction gears cannot absorb torsional vibration from diesels which
is why trying to gear diesels to a common shaft is an unhappy experience. It can be done
but the designer usually does so while trying to work out what he did to deserve the
punishment.

Coming out of the back end of the main reduction gearing are the shafts. These are
important from two points of view. Firstly, they run the a substantial proportion of the
length of the ship and carry vibration along that length, transmitting it to any vulnerable
component. The shafts are the primary means by which vibration is transmitted into the
ship which is why their design and layout is so essential to the success of the design.
Secondly, they are important generators of vibration in their own right. This vibration is
both torsional and transverse. The shaft is a long steed rod being twisted at one end. At
the other end is the resistance provided by the water against the effort to turn the screw in
it. This means that the engine end of the shaft will turn before the screw end, setting up
torsional stress in the shaft. When the screw starts to turn, this energy is released in
making the screw turn a bit faster. It overruns the engine end so now there is torsional
stress in the opposite direction - this is released by slowing the screw down. This
happens in a series of cycles and quickly settles down into series of pulses - torsional
vibration. There is a trick here. Every so often the gods look down on naval engineers
struggling with slide rules in their tiny offices with green steam coming out of their ears
and give us a break. The frequency of that torsional vibration is pretty fixed and is
proportional to the length of the shaft. If one shaft is half that frequency longer than
another, the torsional vibrations from them will cancel out, often almost completely. This
is why twin-screw cruisers (for example) usually have asymmetric shaft lengths. With
quad-screwed ships, the designer gets an even greater benefit since the shaft lengths on
each side can be manipulated to provide cancelling torsional vibration frequencies on
each side and then between side. The fact that this can’t be done with triple screws is as
good a reason as any for not using the layout though there are many, many more. Shafts
can also generate transverse vibration by literally shaking in their tunnels. It is a lot to
ask any foundry to produce a shaft 200 feet long that is perfectly dynamically balanced
all the way down. Somewhere it won’t be and spinning at ship-applicable speeds, it’ll
cause vibration. The next solution is to block the shaft at regular points and physically
prevent the vibration from occurring. The blocks have to be resilient to absorb vibration
or they will simply transfer it to the ship. Problem is, every block also absorbs power and
the situation quickly develops where the resistance from the blocks is so high that the
shaft won’t turn. The best solution to transverse shaft vibration is to keep the shaft as
short as possible (this also reduces torsional vibration) and get it out of the hull as quickly
as possible (there are, of course, many reasons why a designer might want to keep the
shaft’s within the hull but that’s another matter). Which is why modern merchant ships
have their machinery aft.

I have always wondered if that consideration interested the designers of the British G-3
Battlecruiser? By putting the machinery aft, could they have had in mind (as a subsidiary
benefit) cutting vibration??? By the way, this shows another problem with a centerline
shaft - it has to be inside the hull for a lot of the way and also (nasties of nasties) runs
right through the ship’s structural nodes - putting it in a perfect position to distribute
vibration evenly throughout the aft section. Also, the gun turret supports are directly on
top of it, wrapping the center shaft in a heavy carry-through structure that also serves to
distribute the vibration (guns do not like being mounted on flexible supports). Finally, we
get to the end of the shaft and reach the witch’s cauldron - the screws. Hydrodynamically,
the pressures on the screws change across the blade, along the length of the blade,
following the contours of the blade and all of the above change in accordance with speed
of rotation and the relative speed of the water impacting on the blades. For many years,
people attempted to get a handle on this situation using uniformly continuous relational
mathematics and failed. Today, the calculations use that are non-uniform and discrete.

In general, each propeller blade has six components of displacement, three translations
and three rotations and six corresponding force components at each nodal point. How
many nodal points are there? As many as you want, friends, and the more you have the
less inaccurate the answer. Scary isn’t it?
In general, the screws work best when the are rotating cleanly in smooth water. Thus
vibration will be cut down if the water impacting on the screws is smooth - best achieved
when it is faced with as few changes in direction as possible. The screws need to be far
enough apart so that disturbance from one does not impact on another. They need to
have large separation from the hull so that the water flow between the topmost tip on the
screw and the hull plating is enough to permit smooth flow (very difficult on a centerline
shaft and why merchant ships with single screws have that characteristic thumping feel
on their fantails). Each blade of the screw has to be designed so it cuts the water cleanly,
leaving it smooth for the next. As the blades get more numerous (essential to absorb
power) they get less efficient. Each screw leaves a spiral race behind it - this causes
vibration when it hits the hull and rudders (putting a rudder in a screw race does wonders
for steering but there is a price to be paid for that in potential vibration.

Each prop generates its own resonance frequency. This is easy to calculate its the
number of blades on the prop times the speed of rotation. Thus, a five-bladed prop
turning at 300 rpm will generate vibration at 5x300=1,500 pulses per second or 1.5 kHz
(kilohertz). That’s easily detectable on passive sonar at long range. If the natural
frequency of a hull component is 1.5 kHz, beware, trouble looms. If there is a bar of
turbulence in the water, every time a blade hits it, that blade will shake and transmit that
shaking up the propshaft to the gearing from whence it will radiate forwards. This is
called blade beat and is a bear. Nobody knew it existed until the 1950s when US
submariners detected it and started to use it for ASW. It was crucially vital because,
radiating forward, it revealed the position of a Russian submarine while it was
approaching (most sonar-detectable noise radiates aft). The Russians hadn’t got a clue
blade beat even existed until the mid-1970s when the Walkers blew the secret. Scythe-
shaped blades kill off blade beat very nicely since the curved edge of the blade hits the
turbulence progressively (much as a curved sword slices flesh more efficiently than a
straight edge). There is a low pressure area on the edge of props that can be low enough
to cause bubbles of water vapor to form. These expand and eventually collapse against
the prop blade, striking it like a tiny hammer. There are thousands of them. They really
start a propeller vibrating nicely. Cavitation can also form in the screw race. If the
designers are really unlucky they get a thing called sheet cavitation where the blade
generates a large bubble that envelopes the blade and part of the hub; this can rip of a
blade without trouble. Sheet cavitation is a major design blunder Small, fast running
many-bladed props are much more prone to cavitation that slow-running, larger, fewer
bladed ones.

Given all the possible sources of vibration, its no wonder that ships vibrate and
sometimes that vibration exceeds acceptable limits. Those limits are much tighter now
than they were 30 years ago because electronic equipment really does not like being
thrown a few feet in the air a dozen times per second. If vibration is unacceptable, then
the designers try new screws (hoping to change the natural vibration and get rid of
resonance), add extra shaft blocks, brace things, change the water flow aft and swear that
it is all the crew’s imagination (the latter never works but it might one day so is worth
trying). Bad vibration can take years to correct - each item has to be checked and changed
until the right combination is struck. Its called “running trials”.

Stuart
 Latihan / Contoh Soal

Saat seorang ABK (anak buah kapal) berdiri

ditengah-tengah lantai dek kapal dengan
konstruksi seperti pada gambar disamping,
maka lantai dek itu berdefleksi statik sebesar
δst ;
Hitunglah berapa langkah per detik ABK ini
berlari sehingga bisa membuat lantai dek ini
akan bergetar dengan amplitudo/defleksi
vertikal yang paling besar.
Satu platform jembatan timbang di pelabuhan dengan massa 4 ton di
rancang dengan pembatasan getaran bebasnya tanpa beban adalah
3 hz.
(a) Tentukan konstanta pegas maksimum yang bisa digunakan untuk
setiap pegas dari total 3 pegasnya yang serupa.
(b) Bila ada satu truk kontainer dengan massa 40 ton sedang
ditimbang diatas platform jembatan timbang tsb, hitung frekuensi
getaran pribadi platform jembatan timbang itu sekarang.
 Satu motor diesel untuk penggerak kapal
mempunyai massa 220 kg dipasang pada
dudukan A dan B dengan menggunakan
pegas yang masing masing kekakuannya
105 kN/m. Jari jari girasi dari titik berat
mesin G ini adalah 115 mm.

Saat mesin belum dihidupkan, hitunglah

frekuensi getaran pribadi dari mesin ini
untuk getaran osilasi keatas-kebawah (fn)y
dan getaran osilasi rotasi terhadap titik
berat G (fn)..

Saat mesin bekerja, pada putaran berapakah sebaiknya mesin ini tidak
dioperasikan. Diasumsikan bahwa saat mesin bekerja terjadi suatu ketidak
seimbangan rotasi yang kecil, dan tidak terjadi getaran osilasi keatas-
kebawah.
the figure,
Contoh Contoh Soal Getaran Bebas Tanpa Redaman.

#1.
Satu beban 3 kg tergantung pada pegas sehingga pegas
berdefleksi memanjang 42 mm. Hitung konstanta
kekakuan pegas k itu.

#2.
Hitung frekuensi pribadi fn dari sistim massa-
pegas seperti pada gambar disamping.

#3.
Satu sistim massa-pegas seperti gambar
disamping ditarik kebawah sejauh 100 mm
dari titik posisi setimbangnya (equilibrium)
kemudian dilepas. Hitung periode getarannya
τ , defleksi statiknya pada saat sistim diam
δst , dan kecepatan maksimumnya vmax.
#4.
Suatu plunyer vertikal dengan massa 2,5 kg
terpasang seperti pada gambar yaitu ditahan oleh
2 buah pegas dengan konstanta kekakuan masing-
masing yang dalam keadaan tertekan. Hitung
frekuensi pribadi fn getaran dari plunyer ini.

#5.
Dalam keadaan setimbang silinder dengan massa
30 kg menekan pegas spiral pada gambar
disamping sehingga berdefleksi tertekan sejauh
50 mm. Kemudian silinder tersebut ditekan lagi
kebawah sejauh 25 mm dan dilepaskan. Hitung
berapa Hz frekuensi getaran pribadi fn sistim ini
kemudian bergetar.
 #6.
Satu silinder dengan massa 10 kg diikat dengan
pegas dan melalui pulli pulli seperti pada gambar
disamping. Hitung frekuensi pribadi fn sistim ini
bila bergetar.

#7.
Suatu peluncur dengan massa 0,1 kg
berosilasi didalam lubang. Peluncur itu
disebelah kanan ditahan oleh 1 buah pegas,
dan di sebelah kiri ditahan oleh 2 buah
pegas yang masing mempunyai konstanta
kekakuan pegas k = 90 N/m. Pada saat
awal t = 0 simpangan x0 = 3 mm dan kecepatannya v = 12 mm/detik. Hitung
besarnya simpangan dan kecepatannya setelah waktu t = 2 detik. Hitung pula
periode getarannya τ .
#8.
Tentukan konstanta kekakuan pegas eqivalen keq
pengganti pegas pegas pada gambar (a) dan (b)
disamping ini.

#9.
Seorang wanita dengan berat
massa 55 kg berdiri ditengah papan
sehingga papan tersebut
berdefleksi ditengah sejauh 22mm.
Bila wanita itu bergerak sehingga
papan bergetar, hitung berapa
frekuensi pribadi fn getaran papan
tersebut.
#10.
Massa sebesar 25 kg tergantung pada 2 buah pegas
melalui katrol atau pulli dengan masing masing
konstanta kekakuan k = 1200 N/m. hitung frekuensi
pribadi fn getaran dari sistim ini.

#11.
Hitung frekuensi pribadi fn getaran dari
sistim katrol seperti pada gambar
disamping.
#12.
Hitung frekuensi pribadi fn getaran
dari sistim katrol seperti pada
gambar disamping.
c08.qxd 6/28/06 4:48 PM Page 609

Article 8/2 Free Vibration of Particles 609

Sample Problem 8/1

A body weighing 25 lb is suspended from a spring of constant k  160 lb/ft.

At time t  0, it has a downward velocity of 2 ft/sec as it passes through the posi-
tion of static equilibrium. Determine k = 160 lb /ft
(a) the static spring deflection st
(b) the natural frequency of the system in both rad/sec (n) and
cycles/sec ( ƒn )
W = 25 lb
(c) the system period 
(d) the displacement x as a function of time, where x is measured from the
position of static equilibrium Fs = kδst
(e) the maximum velocity vmax attained by the mass k(δ st + x) kx
δst
( ƒ) the maximum acceleration amax attained by the mass. Equilibrium
position x

≡
Solution. (a) From the spring relationship Fs  kx, we see that at equilibrium
mg
mg 25 mg

mg  kst st    0.1562 ft or 1.875 in. Ans.
k 160
Helpful Hints
(b) n 
k
m

160
25/32.2
 14.36 rad/sec Ans.
You should always exercise extreme
caution in the matter of units. In the
 (14.36)   2.28 cycles/sec
1 Ans. subject of vibrations, it is quite easy
ƒn
2 to commit errors due to mixing of
feet and inches, cycles and radians,
1 1 and other pairs which frequently
(c)    0.438 sec Ans.
ƒn 2.28 enter the calculations.

(d) From Eq. 8/6:
 Recall that when we refer the mo-
ẋ 0 tion to the position of static equilib-
x  x0 cos nt  sin nt rium, the equation of motion, and
n
2 therefore its solution, for the pres-
 (0) cos 14.36t  sin 14.36t ent system is identical to that for
14.36
the horizontally vibrating system.
 0.1393 sin 14.36t Ans.

As an exercise, let us determine x from the alternative Eq. 8/7:

  ẋ 
x 0 n
x 
x02  (ẋ 0 /n)2 sin nt  tan
1
0


0   sin 14.36t  tan  

14.36
2 (0)(14.36)
2 2
1
2

 0.1393 sin 14.36t

(e) The velocity is ẋ  14.36(0.1393) cos 14.36t  2 cos 14.36t. Because the
cosine function cannot be greater than 1 or less than
1, the maximum velocity
vmax is 2 ft/sec, which, in this case, is the initial velocity. Ans.

( ƒ) The acceleration is

ẍ 
14.36(2) sin 14.36t 
28.7 sin 14.36t

The maximum acceleration amax is 28.7 ft/sec2. Ans.

c08.qxd 6/28/06 4:48 PM Page 610

610 Chapter 8 Vibration and Time Response

Sample Problem 8/2

x
The 8-kg body is moved 0.2 m to the right of the equilibrium position and c
released from rest at time t  0. Determine its displacement at time t  2 s. The
viscous damping coefficient c is 20 N  s/m, and the spring stiffness k is 32 N/m. 8 kg

Solution. We must first determine whether the system is underdamped, criti- k

cally damped, or overdamped. For that purpose, we compute the damping ratio .

c 20 Equilibrium
n 
k/m 
32/8  2 rad/s    0.625
2mn 2(8)(2) position
x
Since   1, the system is underdamped. The damped natural frequency is mg
d  n
1
2  2
1
(0.625)2  1.561 rad/s. The motion is given by Eq. 8/12
and is cx· = 20x·

x  Ce
nt sin (dt 
)  Ce
1.25t sin (1.561t 
) kx = 32x

The velocity is then
ẋ 
1.25Ce
1.25t sin (1.561t 
)  1.561Ce
1.25t cos (1.561t 
) N

Evaluating the displacement and velocity at time t  0 gives

x0  C sin
 0.2 ẋ 0 
1.25C sin
 1.561C cos
 0 Helpful Hint
Solving the two equations for C and
yields C  0.256 m and
 0.896 rad.
We note that the exponential factor
Therefore, the displacement in meters is e
1.25t is 0.0821 at t  2 s. Thus,
  0.625 represents severe damp-
x  0.256e
1.25t sin (1.561t  0.896)
ing, although the motion is still

Evaluation for time t  2 s gives x2 
0.01616 m. Ans. oscillatory.

Sample Problem 8/3

The two fixed counterrotating pulleys are driven at the same angular speed
0. A round bar is placed off center on the pulleys as shown. Determine the nat- ω0 ω0
a
ural frequency of the resulting bar motion. The coefficient of kinetic friction be-
tween the bar and pulleys is k. Central y
position
Solution. The free-body diagram of the bar is constructed for an arbitrary dis- a a
–– ––
placement x from the central position as shown. The governing equations are 2 2
x

[ΣFx  mẍ] k NA
k NB  mẍ

A G B
[ΣFy  0] NA  NB
mg  0 µk NA µk NB
NA mg NB

[ΣMA  0] aNB
a2  xmg  0 Helpful Hints
Eliminating NA and NB from the first equation yields
Because the bar is slender and does
2k g not rotate, the use of a moment
 ẍ  a x  0 equilibrium equation is justified.
 We note that the angular speed 0
We recognize the form of this equation as that of Eq. 8/2, so that the natural fre-
does not enter the equation of mo-
quency in radians per second is n 
2k g/a and the natural frequency in cy-
tion. The reason for this is our as-
cles per second is
sumption that the kinetic friction
1 force does not depend on the relative
ªn 
2k g/a Ans.
2 velocity at the contacting surface.
c08.qxd 6/28/06 4:48 PM Page 636

636 Chapter 8 Vibration and Time Response

Sample Problem 8/7 Oy

A simplified version of a pendulum used in impact tests is shown in the figure.

Derive the equation of motion and determine the period for small oscillations
O Ox
about the pivot. The mass center G is located a distance r  0.9 m from O, and the
radius of gyration about O is kO  0.95 m. The friction of the bearing is negligible.
– –
r r
Solution. We draw the free-body diagram for an arbitrary, positive value of the
angular-displacement variable , which is measured counterclockwise for the coor-
dinate system chosen. Next we apply the governing equation of motion to obtain θ G θ

[ΣMO  IO ¨]
mgr sin  mkO2 ¨

gr
or ¨  sin  0 Ans.
kO2
mg
Note that the governing equation is independent of the mass. When is small,
sin  , and our equation of motion may be written as Helpful Hints
gr
With our choice of point O as the
¨  0
kO2 moment center, the bearing reac-
tions Ox and Oy never enter the
 The frequency in cycles per second and the period in seconds are equation of motion.

k
gr
1 gr 1 kO2  For large angles of oscillation, deter-
ƒn    2 Ans.
2 O
2 ƒn mining the period for the pendulum
requires the evaluation of an elliptic

(9.81)(0.9)  2.01 s
2
(0.95)
For the given properties:   2 Ans. integral.

l l
— —
2 2
Sample Problem 8/8 O
m
The uniform bar of mass m and length l is pivoted at its center. The spring k k
of constant k at the left end is attached to a stationary surface, but the right-end
spring, also of constant k, is attached to a support which undergoes a harmonic B
yB = b sin ω t
motion given by yB  b sin t. Determine the driving frequency c which causes
resonance.
Helpful Hints

As previously, we consider only the
Solution. We use the moment equation of motion about the fixed point O to changes in the forces due to a move-
obtain ment away from the equilibrium
position.



k
l
2 
sin
l
2
l
cos
k sin
yB
2 
l
2
cos 
1
12
ml2 ¨ Oy

Assuming small deflections and simplifying give us θ Ox

¨ 
6k
m

6kb
ml
sin t
k —
2(
l sin θ
) mg (l sin θ – y
k —
2 B )
 The natural frequency should be recognized from the now-familiar form of the
 The standard form here is ¨  n2 
equation to be
M0 sin t klb
, where M0  and IO 
n 
6k/m IO 2
1
12 ml . The natural frequency n of a
2

Thus, c  n 
6k/m will result in resonance (as well as violation of our small- system does not depend on the exter-
angle assumption!). Ans. nal disturbance.
c08.qxd 6/28/06 4:48 PM Page 646

646 Chapter 8 Vibration and Time Response

Sample Problem 8/10

The small sphere of mass m is mounted on the light rod pivoted at O and b
k
supported at end A by the vertical spring of stiffness k. End A is displaced a
O
small distance y0 below the horizontal equilibrium position and released. By the m A
energy method, derive the differential equation of motion for small oscillations
of the rod and determine the expression for its natural frequency n of vibration. l
Damping is negligible.

Solution. With the displacement y of the end of the bar measured from the b y k
equilibrium position, the potential energy in the displaced position for small val- —
O l δ st
ues of y becomes y

V  V e  Vg 
1
2
1 b
k(y  st)2
kst2
mg y
2 l   m A
Equilibrium
position
where st is the static deflection of the spring at equilibrium. But the force in
the spring in the equilibrium position, from a zero moment sum about O, is
(b/l)mg  kst. Substituting this value in the expression for V and simplifying yield Helpful Hints

For large values of y, the circular
1 2
 V ky motion of the end of the bar would
2
cause our expression for the deflec-
The kinetic energy in the displaced position is tion of the spring to be in error.

 
2
T
1 b
m ẏ  Here again, we note the simplicity of
2 l the expression for potential energy
when the displacement is measured
where we see that the vertical displacement of m is (b/l)y. Thus, with the energy
from the equilibrium position.
sum constant, its time derivative is zero, and we have

    12 ky   0
2
d d 1 b
(T  V)  m ẏ 2
dt dt 2 l

which yields

l2 k
ÿ  y0 Ans.
b2 m

when ẏ is canceled. By analogy with Eq. 8/2, we may write the motion frequency
directly as

l
n 
k/m Ans.
b

Alternatively, we can obtain the frequency by equating the maximum ki-

netic energy, which occurs at y  0, to the maximum potential energy, which oc-
curs at y  y0  ymax, where the deflection is a maximum. Thus,

 
2
1 b 1
Tmax  Vmax gives m ẏ max  ky 2
2 l 2 max
Knowing that we have a harmonic oscillation, which can be expressed as y 
ymax sin nt, we have ẏ max  ymaxn. Substituting this relation into our energy
balance gives us

 
2
1 b 1 l
m ymaxn  ky 2 so that n 
k/m Ans.
2 l 2 max b

as before.
JURUSAN TEKNIK MESIN
FAKULTAS TEKNIK U.I.

Lengan AB dari keran pengangkat

muatan di kapal terbuat dari batang baja
uniform dengan panjang 10 m dan luas
penampang 2500 mm². Satu muatan
yang akan dimuat kedalam kapal
tergantung statis pada keran dengan
berat W. Kabel Penarik beban dan
penahan CDEBF terbuat dari baja pula
dengan luas penampang 100 mm².
Rangkaian kabel CDEB pada pulley bisa
diabaikan, dianggap satu kabel saja.
Hitung konstanta elastisitas (pegas
ekivalen) dari sistim pengangkat muatan
ini pada arah vertikal. Modulus Young
baja E = 207·109 N/m².
 Satu ocean-going luxury liner yang besar
mempunyai masalah getaran. Kapal ini
mempunyai 4 propeller dengan massa
12.200 kg setiap propellernya. Masing
masing propeller digerakkan oleh poros
berrongga yang panjang dengam ukuran
L= 71,6 m, ID= 0,28 m dan OD= 0,56 m.
Kapal berlayar dengan putaran poros
adalah 258 rpm.
Hitung frekuensi pribadi getaran
longitudinal dari poros panjang dan
propeller tersebut.
Apa yang terjadi bila propeller yang
digunakan mempunyai 4 sudu.
Bagaimana cara mengkoreksi masalah getaran tersebut.
 Satu pesawat terbang ringan dengan
propulsi baling baling digerakkan oleh
motor bakar 4-langkah 9 silinder radial.
Daya motor diteruskan melalui satu poros
pendek kepada kedua bilah baling baling
yang terbuat dari aluminium. Momen
inersia baling baling arah aksial besarnya
adalah 17,62 kg•m2, sedangkan momen
inersia efektif dari seluruh komponen
mesin radial yang bergerak/berputar adalah 0,544 kg•m2. Konstanta elastisitas puntir
dari poros baling baling adalah 0,45×106 N•m2/rad.
(a) Hitung berapa besarnya frekuensi pribadi dari sistim propulsi pesawat terbang
tersebut. (b) Bila motor radial penggerak itu dioperasikan pada kecepatan putaran
200 rpm, jelaskan apa yang kemungkinan terjadi.
 Latihan

Satu poros propeller kapal sepanjang 5 m terbuat dari bahan komposit terdiri dari
baja (steel) dan Aluminium. Konstruksi poros tersebut adalah seperti yang
ditunjukkan pada gambar diatas.
Modulus geser baja Gst = 80  109 Pa, untuk Aluminium Gal = 26,7  109 Pa
Hitunglah :
a) Koefisien pegas torsi dari poros propeller tersebut bila konstruksinya seperti
pada gambar.
b) Koefisien pegas torsi dari poros propeller tersebut bila konstruksinya adalah
poros Aluminium didalam poros baja itu adalah poros pejal.
 ØDEGAARD & DANNESKIOLD-SAMSØE • CONSULTING ENGINEERS IN NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL
M A R I N E

Propeller
Noise and
Vibration
Today, strict noise and vibration
requirements on board ships
make accurate predictions es-
sential. Analysis of the sources of
noise and vibration is a prerequi-
site for such predictions, and in
this respect marine propellers are
often critical.

Ødegaard & Danneskiold-

Samsøe has developed the
Boundary Element Method based
code ProPulse in order to deter-
mine the propeller noise and
vibration characteristics.
Artist’s sketch of a cavitating propeller. The
cavitation area on the propeller blades and the
pressure pulses and integrated forces on the
ship hull can be predicted by ProPulse.

• Pressure distribution on the

propeller blades in uniform and
non-uniform wake fields

• Effective wake distribution

• Cavitation extent

• Propeller-induced pressure
pulses and integrated forces on
the hull
• Noise source strength of the
propeller
Boundary element model of propeller in wake
field. Numbered contours indicate axial speed
of water in fractions of ship speed and the
arrows indicate the transverse velocity field in
the water.
Propeller Noise and Vibration
Propeller as a source of noise
and vibration
The unsteady inflow to the propeller
blade, while passing through a non-
uniform ship wake, causes dynamical
changes in the blade pressure distribu-
tion. A decrease in pressure to a level
below vapour pressure causes the water
to boil locally on the propeller blade, e.g.
intermittent cavitation occurs.
Two consequences of cavitation
First, when the cavitation bubbles
collapse broad band noise is generated.
The noise is radiated to the surrounding
marine environment and transferred into
the ship structure.
Second, the cavitation extent varies
during the 360 degrees revolution of the
propeller blade. With a typical V-shaped
ship wake field, the cavitation volume
reaches its peak when the propeller
blade is close to the hull. The fluctuating
volume of the cavity causes a pressure
pulse as the blade passes the hull, acting
on the hull plating in the aft ship. This
causes surface forces to excite the hull
structure at blade passing and multiple
blade passing frequencies.
Due to these effects, propeller-induced
noise and vibration are primarily related
to cavitation. Pressure pulses due to
propeller blade thickness and loading,
and shaft forces due to load variation on
the propeller blades during the 360
degrees revolution are other possible
sources of vibration.
Computational procedure Cavitation extent
The computational procedure comprises
the following steps:
experiment prediction
• Mesh-generation using hyperboloidal
panels allowing for accurate
representation of propeller geometry.
• Full unsteady algorithm for obtaining 0°
the complex propeller flow in a non-
uniform wake field.
• CFD-based code for determining the
effective wake.
• Experimentally validated algorithm
20°
for predicting cavitation extent.
• Prediction of propeller-induced
pressure pulses on the ship hull
using a hull panel model with the
effects of free surface included.
• Integration of pressure pulses to total 40°
excitation forces on the hull.
The background material required for the
calculations comprises:
• Propeller geometry Illustration of cavitation extent for
• Wake field data RoRo-vessel propeller: experiment
• Hull line plan and prediction.
Ship design stage
The program can be used as a prediction
tool to compare the noise and vibration
consequences of different propeller
parameters: Effective wake distribution
• The surface area of the blade
• The load distribution along the
radius
• The shape of the blade
• The number of blades

ProPulse: A successful tool Pressure pulses and integrated

ProPulse is an in-house developed forces on the hull
Boundary Element Method based code.
The tool is applicable to both ship design
and troubleshooting, allowing for
numerical manipulation of all significant
propeller parameters. The following
propeller characteristics can be pre-
dicted:

• Pressure distribution on propeller

blades
• Cavitation extent
• Effective wake
• Acoustical source strength
• Pressure pulses on the ship hull
• Excitation forces on the ship hull
Contours of single-amplitude pres-
sure pulses at blade passing fre-
quency calculated for a twin-screw
RoRo-vessel. The pressure pulses
are integrated by ProPulse to yield
the total integrated excitation forces
on the hull.
Effective wake calculated for a twin-
screw RoRo-vessel. ProPulse applies
a 3D Euler-solver to calculate the
effective wake fraction and distribu-
tion.

Ødegaar
Ødegaardd & Danneskiold-Samsøe
Titangade 15, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark, Website: www.odegaard.dk
Phone: +45 3531 1000, Fax: +45 3531 1001, E-mail: ods@oedan.dk