ENDAPAN SEDIMENTER

(MEKANIK ATAU PLACER)

 Klasifikasi Genesis
Endapan Mineral Ekonomis
• Internal Processes
– Magmatic crystallisation
– Magmatic segregation
– Hydrothermal processes
– Lateral secretion
– Metamorphic processes
• Surface Processes
– Exhalative processes (volcanic and sedimentary)
– Supergene enrichments
– Mechanical accumulation
– Sedimentary precipitation
– Residual processes
Evans (1993) Chapter 18: Sedimentary
Deposits

Tugas minggu ini: baca bab ini dalam Evans (1993)

Endapan Allocthonous terrigenous atau
silisiklastik

• Sering disebut sebagai endapan hasil akumulasi mekanis atau

endapan placer atau alluvial
• Mineral dengan densitas (specific gravity) yang tinggi akan
terkonsentrasi pada zona tertentu akibat proses aliran air
yang membawanya.
• Akibat pengkonsentrasian mineral berat tertentu, maka
dapat terbentuk endapan mineral ekonomis tipe placer.
• Tidak selalu berupa mineral (logam) tapi bisa juga batuan
(kerakal, pasir) maupun mineral industri seperti kaolin
• Konsentrasi mekanik: Pemisahan gaya berat secara
alamiah terhadap mineral-mineral berat dari mineral
ringan oleh pergerakan air atau udara dimana mineral
- mineral berat terkonsentrasikan membentuk
endapan

• Syarat pembentukan:
– Berat jenis tinggi (3,5 – 19,4)
– Tahan terhadap pelapukan kimia dan mekanis
– Mempunyai daya tahan (durabillity, malleability)
– Kekerasan (toughness, hardness) tinggi (2,5 – 10)
– Tidak mudah larut

• Jenis endapan placer (komoditi):

Emas - Timah - Platinum - Magnetit - Kromit -
Ilmenit - Rutil - Gemstone -Zirkon - Monasit

• Umumnya umur geologinya muda, tetapi bisa juga

sangat tua
• Sumber material endapan:
– Endapan lode komersial
– Lode non komersial
– Mineral bijih terhambur:
platinum
– Rock-forming minerals:
butiran magnetit, ilmenit,
monasit, zirkon
• Prinsip pembentukan:
– Tahap pembentukan
1. Pelapukan mineral-mineral stabil dari
matriksnya
2. Konsentrasi
– Mineral stabil dipisahkan dari matriknya, dicuci
oleh air ke arah downslope
– BJ>> akan mengendap lebih dulu
– Terkonsentrasi

• Laju pengendapan dipengaruhi oleh:

– Kecepatan pergerakan fluida
– Perbedaan BJ (di air >> di udara)
– Ukuran
– Bentuk partikel
General Characteristics
1. Distribution in space & time
• Have a wide geographical distribution, some of them as ‘a giant
placer’
– Otage fluvial gold deposit, New Zealand = 148 tons Au
– Bakwanga eluvial diamond deposit, Zaire
– Titanium – bearing beach sand, eastern Australia
• The bulk of the world`s placer deposit is of Tertiary & Quarternary
age.
– Alphine orogeny; Post Mesozoic
» Primary deposits – outcropping – weathering – detrital gold
– Sea level change during Quarternary

2. Size and Grade

– Average grade: lower than from hard rock mining
– Eluvial/Colluvial are smaller & lower grade than the fluvial
deposit
– Beach deposit are much larger than in continental deposits
General Characteristics
3. Mineralogy
• Placer minerals:
– Very high specific gravities
– Usually highly hardness
– Physically durable
– Chemically inert
Fluvial beach deposit are liberated from their gangue mineral

4. Tectonic Setting
• Transitional Environment
– Major influenced by:
» Source material
» Fluctuation of sea level in Quarternary
» Mechanical concentration by wave & current
activity
• Continental environment
– Large fluvial gold placer
restricted to region of tectonic instability
e.g.: Otago Au placer
Famous Placer deposits
• South Africa was the largest gold producer in the world
until recently when it was taken over by China
• The single major sorce of South African gold reserve is
from fossil placers as a series of gold-bearing
conglomerates, named the Witwatersrand
– They were laid down 2.7 billion years ago as
gravels in the shallow marginal waters of a
marine basin.
– Associated with the gold are grains of pyrite
and uranium minerals.
– Nothing like the deposits in the Witwatersrand
basin has been discovered anywhere else.
• Mining the Witwatersrand basin has reached a
depth of 3600 m (11,800 ft).
• The deposits are running out of ore
Model Deposition
South African fossil placers (gold-bearing conglomerates)
Nugget Gold (South Australia Museum)
Klasifikasi Endapan Placer

Kastalov (1971):
Two types of alluvial placer:
• Autochthonous = nearby primary source/paleo-
placer (not have been fluvially transported)
~ elluvial, colluvial deposits
• Allochthonous = have been fluvially transported
~ fluvial placer deposit
Youngsen & Craw (1999):
• Primitive placer
• Trunk placer
MacDonald (1983):
 Based on geological environment
Klasifikasi Endapan Placer (Mac Donald, 1983)
• Continental placer
– Elluvial placer
– Colluvial placer
– Alluvial placer  Fluvial
– Desert Placer
– Glacial placer
• Transitional placer
Endapan pada pantai (transisi laut dan darat)
Agen: Arus & Angin
• Marine placer
- Mulanya endapan transisional
- Transisi  tergenang
- Endapan placer marine
Klasifikasi Endapan Placer (Evans, 1993)
• Eluvial – Coluvial
– Overlie or very near source rock
– No reworking of resistant minerals
– Grade is normally lower than other
– Enrichment is partly caused by the removal of soluble
minerals by groundwater & partly by transport of the
lighter mineral by running water & wind action
• Fluvial
– Relatively far from source rocks
– Any reworking of resistant minerals
– Gold & cassiterite  are the main minerals
– Size larger & grade higher
– Important environment: river terraces & valley fill
– Requirements for formation:
• Appropriate source rock
• Climate
• Morphology
• Distance from sources
 Beach Sand Deposits
Genesis
 Natural sorting of the surf, which is concentrated heavy
minerals at the high-water mark and removes the lighter
fraction
 Transport sediment by wind
 Climate change in Plio-Pleistosen, during which changes of
sea level have resulted in several periods of marine
transgression and regression, which have reworked an
extensive zone of clastic sediments
 e.g. Eneabba rutile – zircon – ilmenit sand deposit –
Western Australia
Diamondiferous beach sands of the south – western coast
of Africa.
 Marine Placers
Genesis
 Occurs on the continental shelf ±5 km of the coast
 Formed by the submergence of heavy mineral
accumulation, which originally concentrated in a
continental or litoral environments
Offshore current activity  redistribution the heavy
minerals

Ore minerals: mainly cassiterite (Thailand, Malaysia &

Indonesia)
Also : Gold, diamond, titaniferous magnetite, chromite,
ilmenite, monazite, rutile, zircon and wolframite

 Marine placers in Indonesia

 Tin = Tin islands, Sumatera (Bangka, Belitung, etc).
 Paleo placer Deposit
 Distribution in space & time
 Space: Canada, South Africa, Ghana, Brazil
 Ore mainly: Gold & Uranium
 Time: Proterozoic - Archaean
 Size & grade deposits
 Witwatersrand Gold placer deposits
Production: > 35.000 ton & grade 10 g/t Au
Reserves: 50.000 tonnes
 Blind-Elliot Lake: 300 x 106 ton U
Grade: 0.1% U3O8 & 0.05% ThO2
 Jacobina – Brazil: 7.1 – 12.7 g/t Au
 Mineralogy -- Host rock
 South Africa, Brazil, Ghana: Native Gold
 Blind –Elliot lake: Uraninite, Brannerite – Qzt, Py
 Host-rock: Conglomerate (>90% Clasts)
 Tectonic Setting
 Intra Continental setting
 Thick succession of dominantly shallow water
 Terrigenous sediment
 Basement : metamorphed continental rock
Physical properties
Provenances
Beberapa Endapan Placer yang Penting di Indonesia

• Timah
• Emas
• Intan (Diamond)
• Bijih besi (pasir besi, iron sand)
• Pasir kuarsa, termasuk mineral
berat seperti zirkon
 Tin
• Tin is one of the earliest metals known and used.
• Because of its hardening effect on copper, tin was used in bronze implements
as early as 3,500 B.C., although the pure metal was not used until about 600
B.C.
• About 35 countries mine tin throughout the world. Nearly every continent
has an important tin-mining country.
• Tin is a relatively scarce element with an abundance in the earth's crust of
about 2 parts per million (ppm), compared with 94 ppm for zinc, 63 ppm for
copper, and 12 ppm for lead. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer
deposits; at least one-half comes from Southeast Asia.
• The only mineral of commercial importance as a source of tin is cassiterite
(SnO2), although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides
such as stanite, cylindrite, frankeite, canfieldite, and teallite.
• Most tin is used as a protective coating or as an alloy with other metals such
as lead or zinc. Tin is used in coatings for steel containers, in solders for joining
pipes or electrical/electronic circuits, in bearing alloys, in glass-making, and in a
wide range of tin chemical applications. Secondary, or scrap, tin is an important
source of the tin supply.
 Tin Mineral: Cassiterite
• Chemistry: SnO2, Tin Oxide
• Class: Oxides and Hydroxides
• Group: Rutile
• Uses: major ore of tin
• Cassiterite is a mineral that has ornately faceted specimens with high
luster. It is generally opaque, but its luster and multiple crystal faces cause a
nice sparkle. Cassiterite has been an important ore of tin for eons and is
still the greatest source of tin today. Most sources of cassiterite today are
not primary deposts but alluvial deposits containing weathered grains. The
best source of original-formation cassiterite is at the tin mines of Bolivia,
where it is found in hydrothermal veins. Although found throughout the
world in many igneous rocks, cassiterite is usually only a minor constituent.
The Bolivia veins and those worked and nearly exhausted in Cornwall,
England, somehow concentrated the tin in a way not fully understood by
geologists.
 Tin Mineral: Cassiterite
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Color is black or reddish brown or yellow.

• Luster is adamantine or greasy.
• Transparency crystals are transparent in thin crystals otherwise opaque.
• Crystal System is tetragonal; 4/m 2/m 2/m
• Crystal Habits include eight-sided prisms and blocky or stubby crystals terminated by a
blunt four-sided or complex pyramid. The prisms are composed of two four sided prisms with
one of the prisms being dominant. Also thin acicular needles or blades are common. Can be
massive, granular, fibrous and botryoidal. A concretionary form combined with quartz and
hematite is called "wood-tin".
• Cleavage is good in two directions forming prisms, poor in a third (basal).
• Fracture is conchoidal to uneven.
• Hardness is 6 - 7
• Specific Gravity is 6.6 - 7.0+
• Streak is white, but at times brownish.
• Associated Minerals include, but are not limited to, tourmalines, molybdenite, bismuthinite,
topaz, fluorite, arsenopyrite and wolframite.
• Other Characteristics: high refractive index of approximately 2.0.
• Notable Occurences include the La Paz and Colquiri areas of Bolivia; Cornwall, England;
Durango, Mexico; Malaya; Indonesia; Russia and China.
• Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, hardness, twinning and high index of refraction
(luster).
Tin mineral: Cassiterite (SnO2)
 SE Asia
granitoids

Gasparon and Varne (1995)

Cobbing (2005)
Crow and van Leeuwen (2005)
Pasir kuarsa yang
mengandung kasiterit
(Koba, Bangka Selatan)
Penambangan timah placer di darat (Toboali, Bangka)
Offshore Dredging
Pantai Permis, Bangka
“Illegal” offshore mine
Tambang Besar Nudur 1
Sn processing
Endapan Emas di Indonesia (Van Leeuwen, 1994)
Placer gold mining (Tewah, Central Kalimantan)
Gold-bearing Conglomerate
 Endapan Fe Placer (Ironsand)
• Ironsand adalah pasir yang memiliki kandungan logam besi
(iron) yang tinggi.
• Umumnya ironsand berwarna kehitaman
• Mineral pembawa besi khususnya terdiri dari magnetite,
Fe3O4, yang tertarik oleh batang magnet
• Dijumpai di banyak lokasi di Indonesia, khususnya di
pantai selatan Jawa, pantai barat Sumatra serta beberapa
lokasi di Nusa Tenggara
• Pertama kali ditambang oleh PT Antam di pantai Cilacap,
sekarang ada beberapa lokasi baru yang akan ditambang
seperti Kulon Progo dan Lumajang.
43
Indonesian Iron Deposits-Occurrences
 Ironsand

New Zealand
Jawa Barat

45
 Pasir Besi (Ironsand)

http://jualhasiltambang.blogspot.co
m/

http://cvkaryamakmurs.indonetwork.co.id 46
 Intan di Kalimantan
• Intan Aluvial (placers)
• Kalimantan Selatan (Martapura)
• Kalimantan Barat (S. Kapuas)
• Kalimantan Timur
• Kalimantan Tengah (Purukcahu)
Origin of the Borneo Diamond
Parkinson’s Hypothesis
 Tugas Minggu Ini
• Buatlah ringkasan dalam bentuk tulisan ilmiah
sekitar 10 halaman yang berisi endapan mineral
ekonomis (baik yang sudah terbukti maupun yang
masih potensi) di wilayah area kerja Saudara
• Bentuk tulisan ilmiah baku: abstrak, pendahuluan,
diskusi, kesimpulan dan daftar pustaka. Kirim ke
email khamimyk@gmail.com.com paling lambat
dua minggu dari sekarang.