1.

Characteristic of phylum Echinodermata

Echinoderms are animals that are invertebrates. The name actually means spiny skin. All the animals in this
phylum exhibit spiny skin and hence are grouped together. Echinodermata may look morphologically (structure and
form) dissimilar at a glance, but they all share the same characteristic features. These animals have some really
unique shapes and have beautiful colours. They are important ecologically and geologically, as they provide valuable
clues about the geological environment.
Echinoderms are marine animals and can be found in the depths of the ocean as well as in the intertidal zone.
An interesting feature of this phylum is that all animals belonging to Echinodermata are marine. There are no
freshwater or terrestrial organisms in this phylum. Water vascular system present in the echinoderms is a
unique circulatory system. This accounts for the gaseous exchange, circulation of nutrients, waste elimination as well
as locomotion. This system has a central ring canal and radial canals that extend along each arm. Through
these structures, water circulates. The madreporite is a structure present on top of the body. This is responsible for
regulation of the water in the water vascular system.
Echinodermata adalah hewan yang invertebrata. Nama sebenarnya berarti kulit berduri. Semua hewan di
filum ini memperlihatkan kulit berduri dan karenanya dikelompokkan bersama. Sekilas Echinodermata
mungkin tampak secara morfologis (struktur dan bentuk) berbeda, tetapi mereka semua memiliki fitur
karakteristik yang sama. Hewan-hewan ini memiliki beberapa bentuk yang sangat unik dan memiliki warna
yang indah. Mereka penting secara ekologis dan geologis, karena memberikan petunjuk berharga tentang
lingkungan geologis.
Echinodermata adalah hewan laut dan dapat ditemukan di kedalaman lautan maupun di zona intertidal.
Fitur yang menarik dari filum ini adalah bahwa semua hewan yang termasuk Echinodermata adalah hewan
laut. Tidak ada organisme air tawar atau terestrial dalam filum ini. Sistem vaskular air hadir dalam
echinodermata adalah sistem sirkulasi yang unik. Ini menjelaskan pertukaran gas, sirkulasi nutrisi,
pembuangan limbah dan juga penggerak. Sistem ini memiliki kanal ring sentral dan kanal radial yang
memanjang di sepanjang masing-masing lengan. Melalui struktur ini, air bersirkulasi. Madreporite adalah
struktur yang ada di atas tubuh. Ini bertanggung jawab untuk pengaturan air dalam sistem vaskular air.

- Characteristic Features of Phylum Echinodermata

a. These are exclusively marine animals.
b. The larval forms show bilateral symmetry and adult forms show radial symmetry.
c. They are triploblastic.
d. It exhibits organ system grade of organisation.
e. They have a true coelom.
f. The body is uniquely shaped. It can star like, elongated or spherical.
g. The body is unsegmented without a head.
h. The body surface is covered with calcareous spicules.
i. Body cavity has the distinguishing water vascular system.
j. Tube feet help in locomotion.
k. The brain is absent but a nervous system is present with a nerve ring and radial nerve cords.
l. Respiration occurs through tube feet and gills.
m. Sense organs are poorly developed and include tactile organs, chemoreceptors, terminal tentacles
etc.
n. Sexes are separate.
o. Fertilisation is external.
p. Lost parts can be regenerated.

a. Ini adalah hewan laut eksklusif.

b. Bentuk larva menunjukkan simetri bilateral dan bentuk dewasa menunjukkan simetri radial.
c. Mereka triploblastik.
d. Ini menunjukkan tingkat organisasi sistem organ.
e. Mereka memiliki coelom sejati.
 f. Tubuh berbentuk unik. Itu bisa berbintang seperti, memanjang atau bulat.
g. Tubuh tidak teregmentasi tanpa kepala.
h. Permukaan tubuh ditutupi dengan spikula berkapur
i. Rongga tubuh memiliki sistem pembuluh darah air yang membedakan.
j. Kaki tabung membantu penggerak.
k. Otak tidak ada tetapi sistem saraf hadir dengan cincin saraf dan tali saraf radial.
l. Respirasi terjadi melalui kaki tabung dan insang.
m. Organ-organ indera berkembang tidak baik dan termasuk organ-organ sentuhan,
chemoreseptor, tentakel dll.
n. Jenis kelamin terpisah.
o. Perkembangbiakan bersifat eksternal.
p. Bagian yang hilang dapat beregenerasi

- Classification of Phylum Echinodermata

Phylum Echinodermata is classified into the following classes:
a. Asteroidea d. Holothuroidea
b. Ophiuroidea e. Crinoidea
c. Echinoidea
- Examples
a. Asterias (Starfish) Bintang Laut d. Cucumaria (Sea cucumber) Teripanng
b. Echinus (Sea urchin) Landak Laut e. Ophiura (Brittle star) Bintang Rapuh
c. Antedon (Sea lily) Bintang Bulu

2. Characteristic of phylum Annelids

Having over 17,000 species, Phylum Annelida is a large phylum. Annelids are also known as ringworms or
segmented worms. They exist in various environments including marine waters, fresh waters and also in moist
terrestrial areas. The size of the annelids can range from a few millimetres to an amazing three metres in length. The
Australian earthworm measures around 3 metres. Furthermore some species from this phylum exhibit some unique
shapes and brilliant colours.
Annelids exhibit bilateral symmetry and are invertebrate organisms. They are coelomate and triploblastic. The
body is segmented which is the most distinguishing feature of annelids.
Memiliki lebih dari 17.000 spesies, Filum Annelida adalah filum besar. Annelida juga dikenal sebagai
kurap atau cacing tersegmentasi. Mereka ada di berbagai lingkungan termasuk air laut, air tawar dan juga di
daerah darat lembab. Ukuran annelida dapat berkisar dari beberapa milimeter hingga tiga meter. Cacing
tanah Australia berukuran sekitar 3 meter. Lebih jauh beberapa spesies dari filum ini memperlihatkan
beberapa bentuk unik dan warna-warna cemerlang.
Annelida menunjukkan simetri bilateral dan merupakan organisme invertebrata. Mereka coelomate
dan triploblastic. Tubuh tersegmentasi yang merupakan fitur annelida yang paling menonjol.

- Characteristics of Phylum Annelida

a. They have a long and segmented body.
b. Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical.
c. They are triploblastic.
d. Also, they exhibit organ system grade of organisation, showing organ differentiation.
e. The body is covered with a thin cuticle.
f. They are coelomate. A body cavity or coelom is present.
g. Annelids live in moist environments, moist soil, freshwater and marine water.
h. They have parapodia and chitinous setae, used for locomotion.
i. Their body appears red due to the presence of haemoglobin.
j. Excretory and nervous systems are present.
 k. The digestive system is complete and developed.
l. Respiration happens through the general body surface.
m. These invertebrates have a true closed circulatory system.
n. Sexes may be separate or united, wherein they are called hermaphrodites.
o. Fertilization can be internal or external.
p. Learn more about Phylum Aschelminthes here.

a. Mereka memiliki tubuh yang panjang dan tersegmentasi.

b. Annelids simetris secara bilateral.
c. Mereka triploblastik.
d. Juga, mereka menunjukkan tingkat organisasi sistem organ, menunjukkan diferensiasi
organ.
e. Tubuh ditutupi dengan kutikula tipis.
f. Mereka coelomate. Ada rongga tubuh atau coelom.
g. Annelida hidup di lingkungan lembab, tanah lembab, air tawar, dan air laut.
h. Mereka memiliki parapodia dan setae chitinous, digunakan untuk penggerak.
i. Tubuh mereka tampak merah karena adanya hemoglobin.
j. Sistem ekskresi dan saraf hadir.
k. Sistem pencernaan lengkap dan dikembangkan.
l. Respirasi terjadi melalui permukaan tubuh secara umum.
m. Invertebrata ini memiliki sistem sirkulasi tertutup yang benar.
n. Jenis kelamin dapat terpisah atau bersatu, di mana mereka disebut hermafrodit.
o. Perkembangbiakan bisa internal atau eksternal.

- Examples of Annelids
a. Earthworm (Cacing Tanah) c. Lugworms (Caacing Gelang)
b. Leeches (Lintah) d. Polychaetes (Cacing Bulu)

3. Definition of cell
Cells are the building blocks of life. They are the simplest units that have all the characteristics of life.
Sel adalah blok bangunan kehidupan. Mereka adalah unit paling sederhana yang memiliki semua
karakteristik kehidupan.

4. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

PROKARYOTIC CELL
Prokaryotic cells are cells that do not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Organisms within
the domains Bacteria and Archaea have prokaryotic cells, while other forms of life are eukaryotic. However,
organisms with prokaryotic cells are abundant and make up much of Earth’s biomass. Organisms that have
prokaryotic cells are unicellular and are called prokaryotes. A prokaryotic cell contains only a single membrane,
which surrounds the cell as an outer membrane.
Sel prokariotik adalah sel yang tidak memiliki inti sejati atau organel yang terikat membran.
Organisme dalam domain Bakteri dan Archaea memiliki sel prokariotik, sedangkan bentuk kehidupan
lainnya adalah eukariotik. Namun, organisme dengan sel prokariotik berlimpah dan membentuk banyak
biomassa bumi. Organisme yang memiliki sel prokariotik adalah uniseluler dan disebut prokariota. Sel
prokariotik hanya mengandung satu membran tunggal, yang mengelilingi sel sebagai membran luar.

- Example of prokaryotic cell

a. Bacterial cells (Sel Bakteri) b. Archaeal celss (Sel Archae)
 c. Blue-green algae (Ganggang Biru-Hijau) d. Mycoplasma (Mikoplasma)

- Components of a Prokaryotic Cell

A prokaryotic cell consists of different parts with special functions. Let’s look at each part in detail:
1. Cell Envelope : Cell envelope is the covering of a prokaryotic
cell that protects it from injuries and shock. From outside to
inside it has the following layers
2. Glycocalyx : It is made up of macromolecules and could be
loose (called slime layer) or thick (called capsule).
3. Cell wall : It is made of peptidoglycan and is just below the
Glycocalyx. Its functions are to provide shape and structural
support and protect bacteria from bursting or collapsing. So
Bacteria can either take up Gram stain (Gram-positive bacteria)
or cannot take up Gram stain (Gram-negative bacteria).
4. Plasma membrane – This innermost layer is semi-permeable. It
functions to prevent leakage from the cell and allow
the exchange of material between the inside and outside of the
cell.
5. Cytoplasm : It is the semi-fluid structure within the plasma
membrane where the cell’s important parts float. Although prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles, they
contain some other important structures described below.
6. Mesosomes : They are extensions of the plasma membrane into the cell in the form of tubules or lamella. They
help with the following functions:
a. Cellular respiration and secretion.
b. Increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
c. Cell wall formation.
d. DNA replication and distribution of genetic material to daughter cells.
7. Chromatophores
These are also membrane extensions especially found in cyanobacteria. Chroma means colour. Therefore, these
structures have photosynthetic pigments inside.
8. Ribosomes
In prokaryotes, the cytoplasm has small structures associated with the plasma membrane called ribosomes. Here,
proteins are made from messenger RNA. Prokaryotes have the 70S ribosome which is made of 30S (smaller) and
50S (larger) subunits. Ribosomes generally occur in groups called polysomes.
9. Inclusion Bodies
They exist freely in the cytoplasm without a membrane. They act as storage for reserve material in prokaryotic
cells. Special gas storing vacuoles are seen in cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria.
10.Flagella
Some bacteria have extensions coming from their cell wall called flagella that help them move. A single flagellum
has three parts – basal body, hook and filament.

Sel prokariotik terdiri dari berbagai bagian dengan fungsi khusus. Mari kita lihat setiap bagian secara
detail:
1. Sel Amplop: Sel amplop adalah penutup sel prokariotik yang melindunginya dari cedera dan syok.
Dari luar ke dalam memiliki lapisan berikut
2. Glycocalyx: Terdiri dari makromolekul dan bisa longgar (disebut slime layer) atau tebal (disebut
kapsul).
3. Dinding sel: Ini terbuat dari peptidoglikan dan tepat di bawah Glycocalyx. Fungsinya untuk
memberikan bentuk dan dukungan struktural dan melindungi bakteri agar tidak pecah atau runtuh.
Jadi Bakteri dapat mengambil pewarnaan Gram (bakteri Gram-positif) atau tidak dapat mengambil
pewarnaan Gram (bakteri Gram-negatif).
4. Membran plasma - Lapisan paling dalam ini semi permeabel. Fungsinya untuk mencegah kebocoran
dari sel dan memungkinkan pertukaran bahan antara bagian dalam dan luar sel.
5. Sitoplasma: Ini adalah struktur semi-cair di dalam membran plasma tempat bagian-bagian penting
sel mengapung. Meskipun prokariota tidak memiliki organel yang terikat membran, mereka
mengandung beberapa struktur penting lainnya yang dijelaskan di bawah ini.
6. Mesosom: Merupakan ekstensi membran plasma ke dalam sel dalam bentuk tubulus atau lamella.
Mereka membantu dengan fungsi-fungsi berikut:
 a. Respirasi dan sekresi sel.
b. Meningkatkan luas permukaan membran plasma dan konten enzimatik.
c. Pembentukan dinding sel.
d. Replikasi DNA dan distribusi materi genetik ke sel anak.
7. Kromatofor
Ini juga ekstensi membran yang terutama ditemukan di cyanobacteria. Chroma berarti warna. Oleh
karena itu, struktur ini memiliki pigmen fotosintesis di dalamnya.
8. Ribosom
Pada prokariota, sitoplasma memiliki struktur kecil yang terkait dengan membran plasma yang
disebut ribosom. Di sini, protein dibuat dari messenger RNA. Prokariota memiliki ribosom 70S yang
terbuat dari subunit 30S (lebih kecil) dan 50S (lebih besar). Ribosom umumnya terjadi dalam
kelompok yang disebut polisom.
9. Badan Inklusi
Mereka ada secara bebas di sitoplasma tanpa membran. Mereka bertindak sebagai penyimpanan
bahan cadangan dalam sel prokariotik. Vakuola penyimpan gas khusus terlihat pada cyanobacteria
dan bakteri fotosintesis lainnya.
10. Flagella
Beberapa bakteri memiliki ekstensi yang berasal dari dinding sel mereka yang disebut flagella yang
membantu mereka bergerak. Flagel tunggal memiliki tiga bagian - badan basal, kait dan filamen.

EUKARYOTIC CELL
- Pili and Fimbriae:
11. Nucleoid
Nucleoid is the
Pili Fimbriae genetic material
Long tubular structures Short, bristle-like structures in prokaryotes.
(Struktur tubular panjang) (Struktur pendek, seperti bulu) It does not have
Only in Gram-negative bacteria In both, Gram-positive and negative a nuclear
(Hanya terdapat pada bakteri Gram- bacteria membrane.
Negative) (Pada keduanya, bakteri Gram – Many bacteria
positive dan negatif ) contain small
Help in the transfer of genetic Help bacteria attach to surfaces circular DNA
material between cells (Membantu bakteri menempel pada
called plasmid.
(Membantu mentransfer materi permukaan) Nukleoid
genetik antar sel) adalah bahan
genetik pada prokariota. Itu tidak memiliki membran nuklir. Banyak bakteri mengandung
DNA sirkular kecil yang disebut plasmid.

EUKARYOTIC CELL
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are enclosed by a plasma membrane.
Organisms that have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, fungi, plants and animals. These organisms are grouped into
the biological domain Eukaryota. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of structures called organelles, which perform various functions within
the cell. Examples of organelles are ribosomes, which make proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum, which sorts and
packages the proteins, and mitochondria, which produce the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They
also have a true nucleus, which contains the genetic material DNA and is surrounded by a nuclear envelope. All of
the organelles are stabilized and given physical support through the cytoskeleton, which is also involved in sending
signals from one part of the cell to the other. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoskeleton is composed mainly of three types
of filaments: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. The gel-like substance that surrounds all the
organelles in the cell is called cytosol.

Sel eukariotik adalah sel yang mengandung nukleus dan organel, dan ditutup oleh membran plasma.
Organisme yang memiliki sel eukariotik termasuk protozoa, jamur, tumbuhan dan hewan. Organisme ini
dikelompokkan ke dalam domain biologis Eukaryota. Sel eukariotik lebih besar dan lebih kompleks daripada
sel prokariotik.
 Sel eukariotik mengandung berbagai struktur yang disebut organel, yang melakukan berbagai fungsi
di dalam sel. Contoh organel adalah ribosom, yang membuat protein, retikulum endoplasma, yang memilah
dan mengemas protein, dan mitokondria, yang menghasilkan molekul energi adenosin trifosfat (ATP). Mereka
juga memiliki nukleus sejati, yang berisi DNA materi genetik dan dikelilingi oleh amplop nuklir. Semua
organel distabilkan dan diberi dukungan fisik melalui sitoskeleton, yang juga terlibat dalam mengirimkan
sinyal dari satu bagian sel ke bagian lainnya. Dalam sel eukariotik, sitoskeleton terdiri terutama dari tiga jenis
filamen: mikrotubulus, mikrofilamen, dan filamen menengah. Zat seperti gel yang mengelilingi semua organel
dalam sel disebut sitosol.

- Example of eukaryotic cell

a. Plant cell c. Fungi
b. Animal cell d. Protozoa

5. The differences between plant and animal cell

Plant and animal cells have several differences and similarities. For example, animal cells do not have a cell wall
or chloroplasts but plant cells do. Animal cells are mostly round and irregular in shape while plant cells have fixed,
rectangular shapes. Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, so they have several features in common, such
as the presence of a cell membrane, and cell organelles, like the nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.
Sel tumbuhan dan hewan memiliki beberapa perbedaan dan kesamaan. Sebagai contoh, sel-sel
hewan tidak memiliki dinding sel atau kloroplas tetapi sel-sel tumbuhan memilikinya. Sel-sel hewan
sebagian besar bundar dan bentuknya tidak beraturan sementara sel-sel tumbuhan memiliki bentuk
persegi yang tetap. Sel tumbuhan dan hewan keduanya merupakan sel eukariotik, sehingga mereka
memiliki beberapa fitur yang sama, seperti keberadaan membran sel, dan organel sel, seperti nukleus,
mitokondria, dan retikulum endoplasma.

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Wall Present Absent
Chloroplasts Present Absent
Centrioles Absent Present
Vacuole A large central vacuole Small and many vacuole

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose)
Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
Vacuole One or more small vacuoles (much smaller One, large central vacuole taking up to 90% of
than plant cells). cell volume.
Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower plant forms (e.g.
chlamydomonas)
Chloroplast Absent Plant cells have chloroplasts to make their own
food.
Cytoplasm Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Plastids Absent Present
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
(Smooth and
Rough)
Peroxisomes Present Present
Golgi Present Present
Apparatus
Plasma Only cell membrane Cell wall and a cell membrane
Membrane
Microtubules/ Present Present
Microfilaments
Flagella Present in some cells ( e.g. mammalian Present in some cells (e.g. sperm of bryophytes
sperm cells) and pteridophytes, cycads and Ginkgo)
Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. Lysosomes usually not evident.
Nucleus Present Present
Cilia Present Most plant cells do not contain cilia.

6. The structure of organelle cell in a plant and its function; The structure of organelle cell in an
animal and its function

Parts of Cell Functions

- Controls cells activities such as a cell growth and repair of worn-out parts
Nucleus
- It’s essential for cell division
Cell Surface Membrane Control substances entering or leaving the cell

Cell Wall Protects the cell from injury and give the plant cell a fixed shape

Descriptions Parts of the Nucleus

The dense material within the nucleus Nucleoplasm
Making proteins in the cell Nucleolus
Controls activities in the cell, made up of proteins and DNA Chromatin
Separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cytoplasm Nuclear Envelope

the functions of the following membrane systems and organelles in the cell.
a. Centrioles
To help cell with cell division in animal cell

b. Chloroplasts
Is essential for photosynthesis chloroplast are oval structure found in plant cells, contaion green pigment
called chlorophyll

c. Golgi apparatus
- Chemically modifies substances made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Stories and packages these substances in vesicles for secretion out of the cell

d. Mitochondria
Produce energy that may be used by the cell to perform cell activities

e. Ribosomes
They are needed to synthesise proteins in the cell, the ribosomes attached to the ER (Endoplasmic
reticulum) make proteins that are usually transported out of the cell, the ribosomes lying freely in the
ccytoplasm make proteins that are used within the cytoplasm of that cell

f. Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Transport protein made by ribosomes to the golgi apparatus

g. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

- Synthesises substances such as fats and steroids. Sex hormones in mammals are steroids
- Converts harmful substances into haarmless materials. This process is called detoxification

h. Vacuoles
- Store substances within the cell

Cells Function Adaptation to function

To deliver oxygen - Red blood cell contains haemoglobin. Haemoglobin binds to

to all parts of the oxygen and transports it round the body
body - Circular and biconcave shape. This increases the surface area to
volume ratio
- It lacks nucleus. This enable the cell to store more haemoglobin
for transport of oxygen
 To transport - Long hollow tubes extending from the roots to the leaves
water and mineral - They are narrow and have no cross-walls to obstruct water flow
salts through the lumen
- They do not have protoplasm to offer resistance to water flow

To absorb water The root hair cell has a long and narrow root hair. This increases
and mineral salts the surface area to volume ratio of the cell. Water and mineral
from the soil salts can be absorbed at a faster rate.

How do cells work Definition Examples

together in a
multicellular organism?
Simple tissue Cells of the same kind may group Epidermis,, mesophyll tissues in leaves that
together to form a simple tissue carry out photosynthesis

Complex tissue Contains more than one type of cells Blood consist of red blood cell, white blood
cell, platelets, and plasma

Organ An organ contains more than one type
of tissue, all working together for a
specific function
Organ system Consists of several organs working
together for a common purpose
The stomach contains gland tissue, muscular
tissue, nervous tissue
Root system, the shoot system, and digestive
system