INTERNETWORKING DENGAN

TCP/IP

Presented by Dr. Suryani Alifah

Internetwork
Kumpulan jaringan yang terinterkoneksi dimana terdiri dari
jaringan-jaringan yang berbeda saling terhubung.
Misal: Penyambungan sebuah LAN dengan sebuah WAN
atau penyambungan dua buah LAN disebut Internetwork.
Permasalahan:
kompatibiltas antar perangkat (keras/ lunak)?

Internetworking
Sebagian besar jaringan saling terhubung:
Antar LAN yang berbeda tipe
Antar LAN yang serupa
Merbagai site terhubung dg WAN
Dapat membentuk jaringan yang besar
Konfigurasi tertentu dirujuk sbg internet
Setiap bagian jaringan merupakan subnetwork

Jalur Data (Data Path)

Jalur yang menghubungkan node-node pada internetwork
untuk memindahkan/ mentransmisikan data (melakukan
proses pengiriman/ penerimaan data),

Kebutuhan Internetwork
Data path/ jalur data: jalur yang menghubungkan node-node pada
internetwork untuk memindahkan/ mentransmisikan data
(melakukan proses pengiriman/ penerimaan data)
Sistem sumber juga harus mampu menginformasikan identitas
sistem tujuan yang diinginkan kepada jaringan komunikasi.
Sistem sumber harus dapat memastikan bahwa sistem tujuan
benar-benar dipersiapkan untuk menerima data
Aplikasi transfer file pada sistem sumber harus dapat memastikan
bahwa program manajemen file pada sistem tujuan benar-benar
dipersiapkan untuk menerima dan menyimpan file untuk beberapa
user tertentu.
Bila format-format file yang dipergunakan pada kedua sistem
tersebut tidak kompatibel, maka salah satu atau sistem yang lain
harus mampu melakukan fungsi penterjemahan.
5

Contoh : Arsitektur Komunikasi

Italian Business

Effective Communication

Translator

French Business

Translator

Telex Operator

Telex Operator
Physical Communication

:COMMUNICATIONS ARCHITECTURE EXAMPLE (william J. Bayda, 2000)

6

Sejarah TCP/IP
The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) mengembangkan Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) untuk
interkoneksi antar berbagai jaringan komputer pada
departemen keamanan
The Internet, an international Wide Area Network,
menggunakan TCP/IP untuk menghubungkan institusi
pendidikan dan pemerintah di seluruh dunia
TCP/IP juga digunakan secara luas untuk jaringan
komersial dan privat

Internetworking
Sebagian besar jaringan saling terhubung:
Antar LAN yang berbeda tipe
Antar LAN yang serupa
Merbagai site terhubung dg WAN
Dapat membentuk jaringan yang besar
Konfigurasi tertentu dirujuk sbg internet
Setiap bagian jaringan merupakan subnetwork

Internetworking Devices
Setiap subnetwork meliputi komunikasi antar devais yang
terhubung ke subnetwork
End systems (ESs)

Antar subnetwork saling terhubung dengan intermediate

systems (ISs)
Menyediakan fungsi routing, relay dan path komunikasi
Bridge dan router
Menggunakan berbagai protokolyang berbeda

Bridge bekerja pada layer 2

Relay antar jaringan yang serupa

Router bekerja pada layer 3

- Me-rutekan paket2 antar jaringan yang berbeda

Routers
Interconnect dissimilar subnetworks
Provide a link between networks
Provide for routing and delivery of data between processes on end
systems attached to different networks
Do not require modifications of architecture of subnetworks

Must accommodate differences among networks

Addressing schemes
Maximum packet sizes
Interfaces
Reliability

Satisfied by internetworking protocol implemented in all end

systems and routers
IP

Internetworking Terminology
Internet
Sekumpulan jaringan komunikasi ynag interkoneksi menggunakan
bridges dan/atau routers

Intranet

Digunakan oleh satu organization

Menyediakan aplikasi internet utama (World Wide Web)
Beroperasi di dalam organisasi untuk maksud internal
Can exist as isolated, self-contained internet
Dapat terhubung ke Internet

Subnetwork
Refers to a constituent network of an internet. This avoids ambiguity
because the entire internet, from a user's point of view, is a single
network

Internetworking Terminology (2)

End System (ES)

Device attached to one of the networks of an internet
Supports end-user applications or services

Intermediate System (IS)

Device used to connect two networks
Permits communication between ES attached to different networks

Bridge

IS used to connect two LANs that use similar protocols

Address filter
Does not modify packets
Layer 2 of the OSI model

Router
IS used to connect two networks that may or may not be similar
Uses an internet protocol present in each router and each end system of the
network
Layer 3 of the OSI model

Standards
Dibutuhkan guna interoperability antar perangkat
Keuntungan:
Menjamin pasar besar bagi perangkat dan
software
Memungkinkan komunikasi antar produk yang
berbeda
Kerugian
Freeze technology (???)

13

Standards Organizations in Networking

Internet Society
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
more formal
NGO, but most members are from governments
ITU-T (formerly CCITT)
International Telecommunications Union
UN agency
governmental
14

Internet Society (ISOC)

Internet development and standardization
3 suborganizations
IAB (Internet Architecture Board)
overall Internet architecture

IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)

protocol engineering and development

IESG (Internet Engineering Steering Group)

monitors IETF standardization efforts

15

IETF Organization
Dikelompokkan dalam area
Aplikasi, security, routing, dll.
Setiap area mempunyai Area Director, yang juga
member IESG
Setiap area mempunyai beberapa working groups
working groups berkontribusi untuk
standards/protocols, etc.
Voluntary participation in IETF working groups
For detail see
www.ietf.org or
RFC 3160 - The Tao of IETF - A Novice's Guide to
the Internet Engineering Task Force
16

Internet Drafts and RFCs

Internet Draft

Draft and temporary documents

expires in 6 months, if IESG does not approve it as an RFC
can be resubmitted
published online
comments are welcome

RFC (Request for Comments)

final version
can obsolete previous RFCs about the same topic
actually an RFC can be of any type of document
not necessarily a standard
Best Current Practice, Experimental, Informational RFCs
April 1st RFCs (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_1_RFC )
My favorite is IP over Avian Carriers (RFC 1149)

17

Internet Standards Track

Steps involve increasing amount of scrutiny and testing
Step 1: Internet Draft
Step 2: Proposed standard
Internet Draft approved as an RFC by IESG
must remain at least six months to advance

Step 3: Draft standard

at least two independent and interoperable implementations
must remain at least 4 months

Step 4: Internet standard

Significant operational experience
key difference between ISOC and other standardization organizations

Consensus needed
18

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

An ISOC entity responsible for all unique numbers
on the Internet
including IP addresses
Almost all protocols work with numeric parameters
e.g. port numbers, error codes, status codes,
message types, options, etc.
the meanings of all numeric codes are mostly
specified in RFCs, but number assignment is
formalized by IANA
19

PROTOKOL TCP/IP

Definisi Protokol
Perlunya aturan, yaitu tata cara bagaimana mereka
dapat saling mengenal dan melakukan transfer data
tanpa error.
Harus berbicara dengan bahasa yang sama.
Protokol: Kesepakatan dalam komunikasi tentang:
- apa yang dikomunikasikan,
- bagaimana komunikasi itu terjadi
- kapan komunikasi tersebut dilakukan
21

 TCP/IP merupakan satu set protocol yang

dikembangkan untuk memungkinkan kooperasi
antar komputer dalam berbagi sumber daya antar
jaringan
TCP : Transmission Control Protocol
IP : Internet Protocol
Terdapat protokol Transport layer dan Network
layer
The most well known network that adopted TCP/IP
is Internet the biggest WAN in the world
22

TCP/IP Model
Because TCP/IP was developed earlier than the OSI
7-layer mode, it does not have 7 layers but only 4
layers
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

OSI 7-layer

FTP, SMTP, Telnet,

HTTP,

TCP, UDP
IP, ARP, ICMP
Network Interface
23

Figure 2.11
OSI v TCP/IP
Internet
Standards

IEEE
ISO
ITU-T

Process

Process

TCP/IP
Process Layer

TCP

UDP

Transport Layer

ICMP, ARP
&
RARP

IP

Network Layer

802.3

Data-Link Layer

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP architecture-- Internet layer

Machine B

Machine A

Application

Application
Router/Gateway
Transport
Internet

Internet

Internet

Network Interface

Network 1
1.
2.
3.
4.

Transport

Network Interface

Network Interface

Network 2

Transfer of information across networks through gateways/routers

Corresponding to OSI network layer: routing and congestion control
Global unique IP address and IP packets
Best-effort connectionless IP packet transfer: no setup, routed independently, robust, out
of order, duplicate, or lose of packet
27
Figure 2.11

TCP/IP architecture-- Network interface layer

Machine A

Machine B

Application

Application
Router/Gateway

IP
packet

Transport
Internet
Network Interface

Packet
of network1

IP
packet

IP
packet

Internet
Network InterfaceS

Packet
of network1

Network 1

1.
2.
3.

Transport
Internet

IP
packet

Network Interface

Packet
of network2

Packet
of network2

Network 2

Concerned with network-specific aspects of the transfer of packets

Corresponding to part of OSI network layer and data link layer
Different network interfaces: X.25, ATM, frame relay, Ethernet, etc

28
Figure 2.11

The procedure executed at routers

1. Router receives a frame from one network (e.g., N1) through
its physical layer
2. The data link entity for N1 extracts the IP packet from the
frame and passes the IP packet up to its network entity.
3. The network entity checks destination IP address (finds the
packet is not for itself) and determines the next hop based
on destination IP address (i.e., routing) , this next hop
router will be in another network (e.g. N2)
4. Network entity passes the IP packet down to the data link
entity for N2
5. Data link entity for N2 encapsulates the IP packet in a frame
of N2 and passes the frame down to physical layer for
transmission to the next router through network N2.
29

App.

SMTP

HTTP

Transport

TCP

Internet

Network
Interface 1
(e.g., Ethernet driver)

RTP

DNS

UDP

IP

Network
Interface 2

TCP/UDP Provides
a network
independent
platform

IP provides
independence
from underlying
networks

Network
Interface 3

(e.g., PPP driver)

TCP/IP protocol graph

30
Figure 2.12

ADDRESSING PADA TCP/IP

Terdapat 4 level pengalamatan yang digunakan
pada internet menggunakan protokol TCP/IP:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Alamat fisik/ physical address,

Alamat logika/ logical address,
Alamat port/ port address,
Alamat khusus aplikasi/ application-specific
address.

Setiap alamat dihubungkan dengan salu layer pada

arsitektur TCP/IP
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

31

32

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER:

PHYSICAL ADDRESS

Data Link and

Physical Layers
Message

Application

Segments

Transport
Network

h M
h h M

h M

h M

h h M

h h M
Packets

Network Interface
h h h M

h h h M
Frames

34

87 10

Data

packet
discarded

packet
discarded

packet
accepted

3
4

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

35

87 10

Data

Sebagian besar LAN menggunakan alamat fisik 48-bit (6-byte)

yang ditulis sebagai digit 12 hexadecimal; dimana setiap byte
(2 hexadecimal digits) dipisahkan dengan colon, sbb:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

36

 Hanya alamat hardware (MAC address) yang

unik untuk setiap host
Perlu mengubah alamat jeringan ke alamat MAC
Source IP =
158.132.148.66

Destination IP = 158.132.148.132
Packet

Ethernet
Packet
Ethernet
Frame

Ethernet address = ?
37

ARP Address Resolution

Protocol

Case 1

1. Broadcast: Who has got IP address

158.132.148.132? Whats your
Ethernet address?

2. Reply: I do. My Ethernet address is

00-60-8C-41-37-52
3.

Ethernet Frame

Ethernet address = 00-60-8C-41-37-52

38

ARP Address
Resolution Protocol

Case 2

1. Broadcast: Who has got IP address

158.132.148.132? Whats your
Ethernet address?

Router

3.

2. Reply: The IP you indicated is not in your network. You

can give the packet to me first. My MAC address is 0060-8C-12-34-56
Ethernet Frame

Ethernet address = 00-60-8C-12-34-56

39

ARP Cache
Will have a heavy traffic if so many ARP
broadcast messages are generated
Each host will have a cache to store the
mappings (from IP to MAC address) that were
obtained before
IP Address

MAC Address

158.132.148.80

00-60-8C-27-35-9A

158.132.148.28

02-60-8C-1A-37-49

An entry will only be kept in the cache for a

limited amount of time (say, 2 minutes)

40

NETWORK LAYER:
ALAMAT LOGIKA

Network Layer
Message

Application

Segments

Transport
Network
Network Interface

h M
h h M

h M
h h M

h M
h h M

Datagrams / Packets
42

Alamat jaringan/Network dan

Subnet
Headerditambahkan ke setiap segmen pada
Network layer
Total
Length

3
Segment

IP

Time to
Live

Protocol

Header
CheckSum

Source Address
Destination Address

Segment
43

 Total Length Total length of a packet (up to

65535 bytes)
Time to Live How many times this packet can
be routed on the network (up to 255)
Protocol The transport layer protocol that the
packet belongs to
TCP: 6
UDP: 17
ICMP: 1

Source address the network address of the

computer that sends the data
Destination address the network address of
the computer that the data is sending to
44

 (Already mentioned)
Each computer (host) must have a unique network
address (or IP address for TCP/IP suite)
Each IP address is 32-bit long (four bytes)
The four-byte address is written out as a.b.c.d
e.g.
Byte 1
Byte 2
Byte 3
Byte 4
158

132

161

99

IP addresses are hierarchical

network I.D. and host I.D.
Each Network I.D. on the Internet needs to be
registered to the Internet Assigned Number
Authority

45

Class A for very large network

1 bit
0

7 bits

24 bits

Net I.D.

Host I.D.

Only 27 (63) networks can belong to this class

Each network, there are 224 hosts or computers
Very few class A networks in the world
e.g. Arpanet the earliest packet switched
WAN (started 40 years ago)
46

Class B for medium size network

2 bits
1

14 bits
Net I.D.

16 bits
Host I.D.

214 (16384) networks can belong to this class

Each network, there are 216 (65536) hosts or
computers
Polyus address belongs to this group
e.g. 158.132.14.1

1001 1110
Network I.D.

1000 0100

0000 1110
Host I.D.

0000 0001
47

Class C for small network

3 bits
1

21 bits
0

Net I.D.

8 bits
Host I.D.

221 networks can belong to this class

Each network, there are only 28 (256) hosts or
computers

48

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Class D for multicast network

4 bits
1

28 bits
0

Group no.

Packets are addressed to a multicast group

Not often supported on Internet

49

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Special Addresses
Host I.D. = all 1s Directed broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts in the network or
subnetwork, not assigned
Host I.D. = all 0s This network, not assigned
Network I.D. = 127 is reserved for loopback and
diagnostic purposes, not assigned
Network I.D. + Host I.D. = all 1s Limited
broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts in the current network,
not assigned
50

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Subnets
A class B address can have 65536 hosts
Difficult to manage
Usually subdivide into a few small subnets
Subnetting can also help to reduce broadcasting
traffic
158.132.1.0
158.132.0.0
Total 65536 hosts

Router

Router

158.132.2.0

158.132.3.0
All traffic to
158.132.0.0

All traffic to
158.132.0.0

Each subnet 256 hosts51

Subnet Mask
How does the router know which subnet a packet
should go?
For each interface of the router, a subnet mask is
provided to redefine which part of the address is
Net ID and which part is Host ID
Become classless addressing
A subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
1111 1111.1111 1111. 1111 1111. 0000 0000
1s Net ID

0s Host ID
52

158.132.1.10
Router

E0
A packet with destination
address 158.132.1.10

S0
S1
S2

Routing Table

Subnet
Mask

S0

S1

S2

158.132.1.0

158.132.2.0

158.132.3.0

255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0

158.132. 1. 10
AND 255.255.255. 0
158.132. 1. 0

1001 1110.1000 0100.0000 0001.0000 1010

AND 1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111.0000 0000
1001 1110.1000 0100.0000 0001.0000 0000
Advantage: easy to compute

53

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

F. Routing
How a packet finds its way to a computer in a
network?
By using Routers
Routing is the selection of a path to guide a
packet from the source to the destination
Criteria in selecting a path may be:
Shortest path
Quickest path
Cheapest path
54

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Internet
router

U.S.
212.64.123.98

The red path is the

shortest path
Hong Kong
158.132.161.99

55

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Each router has a table that records the

estimated distance to all other routers
If a router knows the entire network topology,
the shortest path can be calculated
To achieve this, routers broadcast Link State
Advertisement to all other routers periodically
By means of routing protocol
Each router knows the exact topology, and then
calculates the shortest path
In practice, it is not possible for a router to all
paths. Only the nearer ones are kept
Hence can give wrong estimation
56

ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Part I
9. TCP/IP

Host A
158.132.148.66
Default gateway: Router C

Subnet
158.132.166.0
S0

Router A

T0
T1

T0
S1

S1
T1

S1 158.132.166.0 Direct
255.255.255.0
T1 160. 64. 0. 0 Forward
255.255. 0. 0

T0

S0
Router C

Routing Table

Router B T0

Routing Table
S0 160. 64.124.0 Direct
255.255.255.0
S1 160. 64.123.0 Direct
255.255.255.0

S0

Subnet
160.64.124.0

S1
Subnet
160.64.123.0
Host B
57
160.64.123.98

Obtaining an IP Address

Obtaining an Internet Address

Static addressing
Each individual device must be configured with an IP
address.

Dynamic addressing

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP initialization sequence
Function of the Address Resolution Protocol
ARP operation within a subnet

Static Assignment of IP Addresses

Each individual device
must be configured
with an IP address.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

(RARP)

MAC HEADER

IP HEADER

Destination

Destination

FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF

255.255.255.255

Source

Source

FE:ED:FD:23:44:EF

????????

RARP REQUEST
MESSAGE

What is my IP
address?

BOOTP IP
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) operates in a
client/server environment and only requires a single
packet exchange to obtain IP information.
BOOTP packets can include the IP address, as well as
the address of a router, the address of a server, and
vendor-specific information.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Allows a host to obtain an IP address using a defined
range of IP addresses on a DHCP server.
As hosts come online, contact the DHCP server, and
request an address.

Problems in Address Resolution

In TCP/IP communications, a datagram on a local-area
network must contain both a destination MAC address and
a destination IP address.
There needs to be a way to automatically map IP to MAC
addresses.
The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), which can automatically obtain MAC
addresses for local transmission.
TCP/IP has a variation on ARP called Proxy ARP that will
provide the MAC address of an intermediate device for
transmission outside the LAN to another network segment.

TRANSPORT LAYER:
PORT ADDRESSING

Transport Layer Protocols

Transport Layer
Message

Application

Segments

Transport

h M

h M

h M

Network
Network Interface

67

Dividing and Reassembly

Source Port

TCP

Destination
Port

Sequence Number
Acknowledgement
Number

Message

Checksum
Message Data

68

Sender

2
Timeout
A2
retransmit

A1

A3

Recipient
69

 A Typical Procedure
Sender

TCP divides a message into segments

Add sequence no.
Send the segments in sequence and wait for acknowledgement
If an acknowledgement for a segment is not received for a certain
period of time, resend it until an acknowledgement is received

Recipient
When receiving segments, send the acknowledgement with correct
number
Reassembly the segments back to the message

70

Port Multiplexing
A computer may perform a number of network
applications at the same time
FTP + SMTP + HTTP, etc.

Each computer has only one network address, how

can it serve so many applications at the same time?
by port multiplexing
FTP
Port 21
Network add:
158.132.161.99

SMTP
Port 25

HTTP
Port 80
71

Well-known Port Numbers

Some port numbers are reserved for some purposes

Port 21: FTP file transfer

Port 25: SMTP mail transfer
Port 23: TELNET remote login
Port 80: HTTP Web access

These port numbers are well known to all

computers in the network
E.g. whenever a client access port 25 of the server, it
means the client needs SMTP service

72

Client

SMTP Server
Located by: network
address + TCP port no.

SMTP port
= 1357

Source Port
= 1357

Destination
Port = 25

SMTP port
= 25

Sequence Number
Acknowledgement
Number
Checksum
Message Data

73

Client A

SMTP + FTP Server

Network address:
158.132.161.99
SMTP port
= 25

SMTP port
= 1357

Client B

FTP port
= 21

FTP port
= 1361
74

TCP
Usual transport layer is Transmission Control Protocol
Reliable connection

Connection
Temporary logical association between entities in different systems

TCP PDU
Called TCP segment
Includes source and destination port (c.f. SAP)
Identify respective users (applications)
Connection refers to pair of ports

TCP tracks segments between entities on each connection

APPLICATION LAYER

 Application layer protocols define the rules when

implementing specific network applications
Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate
and efficient data delivery
Typical protocols:
FTP File Transfer Protocol
For file transfer
Telnet Remote terminal protocol
For remote login on any other computer on the network
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
For mail transfer
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
For Web browsing
77

Application Layer Examples

 TCP/IP is built on connectionless technology, each

datagram finds its own way to its destination
Transport Layer protocols define the rules of
Dividing a chunk of data into segments
Reassemble segments into the original chunk

Typical protocols:
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
UDP User Datagram Service
Use when the message to be sent fit exactly into a datagram
Use also when a more simplified data format is required

79

 Network layer protocols define the rules of how to

find the routes for a packet to the destination
It only gives best effort delivery. Packets can be
delayed, corrupted, lost, duplicated, out-of-order
Typical protocols:
IP Internet Protocol
Provide packet delivery
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Define the procedures of network address / MAC address translation
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
Define the procedures of error message transfer
80

Application Layer
Application

Transport
Network
Network Interface

81

B. Example: SMTP
SMTP Server

Client

Virtual

SMTP

SMTP

TCP

TCP

IP, ARP, ICMP

Network Interface

Actual

IP, ARP, ICMP

Network Interface
82

 The underlying layers have guaranteed accurate

data delivery
We need to make a lot agreements with the server
in application layer before sending mail
1.
2.
3.
4.

Agree on how data is represented

Binary or ASCII
Ensure the right recipient

There may be 1000 users served by the server

Ensure the client has the right to send mail

Some clients are not welcome

How to tell the server it is the end of the message

All mail looks the same

:
83

 Example: SMTP
The following mail is to be sent:
Date: Fri, 18 Jan 02 13:26:31 EDT
From: enpklun@polyu.edu.hk
To: tchsun@eee.hku.hk
Subject: meeting
Lets get together Monday at 1pm.

84

Client

SMTP Server
access port 25 of server

220 eee.hku.hk SMTP Service at 20 Jan

02 05:17:18 EDT
HELO polyu.edu.hk
250 eee.hku.hk Hello,
polyu.edu.hk
MAIL From: <enpklun@polyu.edu.hk>

250 MAIL accepted

85

Client

SMTP Server

RCPT To:<tchsun@eee.hku.hk>
250 Recipient accepted
DATA
354 Start mail input; end with
.

Date: Fri, 18 Jan 02 13:26:31 EDT

From: enpklun@polyu.edu.hk
To: tchsun@eee.hku.hk
Subject: meeting
Lets get together Monday at 1pm.
.

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 The agreement made in the SMTP protocol

All messages use normal text
All ASCII characters
The responses all begin with numbers
To indicate the status when receiving the command
Some words are reserved words
HELO, MAIL, RCPT
Mail ends with a line that contains only a period

The information passed with the SMTP messages

The recipient name
The sender name
The mail
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C. Domain Name (mentioned before)

Every computer has a network address
e.g. 158.132.161.99
To access a computer, we need to specify its
network address
Human beings are weak in memorizing numbers
We prefer computer name or domain name
e.g. hkpu10.polyu.edu.hk
Need a machine on the Internet to convert name to
number
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Domain name hierarchy

Example:
hkpu10.polyu.edu.hk
Computer name

The domain within

edu.hk
One of the
educational
institutions in H.K.

The domain
within hk
Note: edu.hk is
not the same as
edu

Root domain name

other examples:
com commercial company
org general organization
net major network centre
gov government org.
mil militrary group
edu education org.

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 An organization needs to register its domain name

e.g. PolyU has registered its name to the domain
of edu.hk
Once a domain name is assigned, the organization is
free to assign other names belong to its domain
e.g. we can have
hkpu10.polyu.edu.hk
smtp.polyu.edu.hk
mail.polyu.edu.hk

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Where is
www.yahoo.com?

Client

Domain Name Server (DNS) of

polyu.edu.hk

usually UDP
Address of www.yahoo.com
Become
client
Where is
www.yahoo.com?

Where is yahoo.com?
Address of the DNS
of Yahoo.com
Address of www.Yahoo.com

DNS of Yahoo.com
DNS of com

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 Nevertheless, such a complicated procedure needs

not perform in most cases
Client computers usually remember the answers
that it got before
It reduces the loading to the root DNS
To further reduce loading, there can be many root
DNS on the Internet
e.g. there are a few com root DNS

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