4/320 PERFORMANCE OF OIL RESERVOIRS

Van Everdingen dan Hurst menunjukkan water influx tanpa

dimensi WeD sebagai fungsi waktu tanpa dimensi tD dan jari –
B
jari tanpa dimensi rD yang ditunjukkan oleh :
kt
tD = 6. 328 × 10−3
φµw ct r2e
ra
rD =

Eo
F
re
ct = cw + cf
dimana : N
t = waktu, hari 0
k = permeabilitas dari akuifer, md 0
φ = porositas dari akuifer
µw = viskositas air dalam akuifer, cp
ra = jari - jari akuifer, ft Gambar 4.27 Plot garis lurus Havlena dan Odeh (Setelah:
re = jari - jari reservoir, ft Havlena dan Odeh, 1963).
cw = compresibilitas air, psi−1
Contoh 4.9 Parameter material ballance, underground
Kombinasi persamaan 4.4.27 dengan 4.4.21 memberikan : withdrawal F, dan ekspansi minyak Eo of a dari sebuah
reservoir minyak jenuh (asumsi, m = 0) yang diberikan
dibawah ini :
F
= [4.4.28]
Eo
Metodologi yang tepat untuk menyelesaikan hubungan p F Eo
linear di atas dirangkum dalam langkah-langkah berikut. 3500 – –
Langkah 1. Dari sejarah produksi dan tekanan lapangan yang 3488 2.04 ×106 0.0548
lalu, hitung underground withdrawal F dan 3162 8.77 ×106 0.1540
ekspansi minyak Eo. 2782 17.05 ×106 0.2820
Langkah 2. Asumsikan konfigurasi akuifer, misal, Linier atau
radial. Dengan asumsi bahwa kompresibilitas batuan dan air dapat
Langkah 3. Asumsikan jari – jari akuifer ra dan kalkulasikan diabaikan, hitung initial oil in place.
Solusi
jari – jari tanpa dimensi rD.
Langkah 4.Plot F /Eo vs. (∑∆pWeD )/Eo pada skala kartesian Langkah 1. Langkah paling penting dalam menerapkan MBE
jika asumsi parameter akuifer benar, plot akan adalah memferifikasi bahwa tidak ada aliran
menunjukkan garis lurus dengan N akan air. Dengan anggapan bahwa reservoir adalah
memotong dan kostanta water influx B adalah volumetrik, hitung initial oil- in-place N dengan
kemiringan. Perlu dicatat bahwa empat plot menggunakan setiap titik data produksi
berbeda mungkin terjadi. individu dalam Persamaan 4.4.15, atau:
Keempatnya adalah:
N = F /Eo
(1) Menyebar secara acak dari masing-masing titik,
yang menunjukkan bahwa perhitungan dan /
atau data dasar salah. F Eo N = F /Eo
(2) Garis kurva sistematis ke atas menunjukkan
bahwa jari-jari akuifer yang diasumsikan (atau 2.04 ×106 0.0548 37 MMSTB
jari-jari tanpa dimensi) terlalu kecil. 8.77 ×106 0.1540 57 MMSTB
(3) Garis kurva sistematis ke bawah menunjukkan 17.05 ×106 0.2820 60 MMSTB
bahwa jari-jari akuifer yang dipilih (atau jari-
jari tanpa dimensi) terlalu besar. Langkah 2. Perhitungan di atas menunjukkan bahwa nilai
(4) Kurva berbentuk S menunjukkan bahwa yang dihitung dari initial oil- in-place meningkat,
kesesuaian yang lebih baik dapat diperoleh jika seperti yang ditunjukkan secara grafis pada
aliran air linier diasumsikan. Gambar 4.28, yang menunjukkan perambahan
air, yaitu, water drive reservoir.
Gambar 4.27 menunjukkan ilustrasi skematik dari Langkah 3. Untuk lebih sederhana, pilih model aquifer pot
metodologi Havlena dan Odeh dalam menentukan untuk mewakili perhitungan perambahan air
parameter akuifer yang tepat. dalam MBE seperti yang diberikan oleh
Perlu dicatat bahwa di banyak lapangan besar, tenaga Persamaan 4.4.24, atau:
pendorong air linier tak terbatas dengan yang menunjukkan Langkah 4. Hitung syarat F / Eo dan p / Eo dari persamaan
hasil memuaskan menggambarkan perilaku tekanan 4.4.24:
produksi. Untuk penurunan tekanan Unit, masuknya air
kumulatif dalam kasus linier tak terbatas hanya sebanding
dengan √𝑡 dan tidak memerlukan estimasi dimensi waktu tD.
Dengan demikian, water influx WeD Van Everdingen dan
Hurst yang tidak berdimensi dalam Persamaan 4.4.27
digantikan oleh akar waktu, untuk memberikan:

3500 0 – – –
Oleh karena itu, bentuk linear MBE dapat dinyatakan sebagai 3488 12 2 . 04 × 10 6 0.0548 3 7. 23
sebagai:

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 PERFORMANCE OF OIL RESERVOIRS 4/321

7.00E+07

6.00E+07

5.00E+07

4.00E+07
N, STB

3.00E+07

2.00E+07

1.00E+07

0.00E+07
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time, days

Gambar 4.28 Indikasi dari water influx.

7.00E+07

6.00E+07

5.00E+07

4.00E+07
F/Eo

N = 35 MMSTB
3.00E+07

2.00E+07

1.00E+07

0.00E+07
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
∆p/Eo

Gambar 4.29 F/Eo vs.

t,.p/Eo .

Langkah 5. Plot F /Eo vs. t,.p/Eo, seperti yang ditun-jukkan di mana variabel yang membentuk ekspresi di atas
pada Gambar 4.29 dan menentukan intersep didefinisikan oleh:
dan kemiringan:
Intercept = N = 35 MMSTB F = Np[Bo + ( Rp − Rs)Bg ] + WpBw
= Np[Bt + ( Rp − Rsi )Bg ] + WpBw
Slope = K = 9983
Eo = ( Bo − Boi) + ( Rsi − Rs)Bg
4.4.5 Permasalahan 5: Combination drive reservoirs = Bt − Bti
Kasus yang relatif rumit ini melibatkan penentuan tiga hal
Eg = Boi[( Bg /Bgi) − 1]
berikut yang tidak diketahui:
(1) initial oil-in-place N; Havlena dan Odeh membedakan Persamaan 4.4.9 sehubungan dengan
(2) ukuran gas cap m; (3) tekanan dan mengatur ulang persamaan yang dihasilkan untuk
Water influx We. menghilangkan m, untuk memberikan:
MBE umum yang mencakup tiga tidak diketahui di atas
diberikan oleh Persamaan 4.4.9 sebagai:
F = N(EO + mEg) + We g − F \ Eg WeEg − We Eg
=N+ [4.4.29]
EoE − E \ E
\
E E\ − E\E

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4/322 PERFORMANCE OF OIL RESERVOIRS

in which the reversed primes denote derivatives with respect to Step 2. Assume several average reser voir pressure values
pressure. That is: and determine the left-hand side F of Equation 4.4.16 at
( \ ( \ each assumed pressure. That is:
∂ Eg B oi ∂ Bg B oi Bg
E \g = = ≈
∂p Bgi ∂ p Bgi p F = Np[Bo + ( Rp − Rs)Bg ] + WpBw
∂ Eo ∂ Bt Bt Step 3. Using the same assumed average reser voir pressure
E \o = = ≈ values of step 2, calculate the right-hand side (RHS) of
∂p ∂p p
Equation 4.4.16:
∂F F
F\ = ≈ RHS = N [Eo + mEg ]
∂p p
where:
∂ We We
W \e = ≈ Eo = ( Bo − Boi) + ( Rsi − Rs )Bg
∂p p
Eg = Boi[( Bg /Bgi) − 1]
A plot of the left-hand side of Equation 4.4.29 versus the sec-
ond term on the right for a selected aquifer model should, if Step 4. Plot the left- and right-hand sides of the MBE, as
the choice is correct, provide a straight line with unit calculated in steps 2 and 3, on Cartesian paper as
slope whose intercept on the ordinate gives the initial oil- a function of assumed average pressure. The point
in-place N. After having correctly determined N and We , of intersection gives the average reser voir
Equation 4.4.9 can be solved directly for m, to give: pressure that corresponds to the selected time of
F − NEo − We step 1. An illustration of the graph is shown in
m= Figure 4.30.
NEg
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 through 4 to estimate reser voir
Note that all the above derivatives can be evaluated numer-
pressure at each selected depletion time.
ically using one of the finite difference techniques; e.g., for
ward, backward, or central difference formula.
4.5 Tracy’s Form of the MBE
4.4.6 Case 6: Average reservoir pressure
To gain any understanding of the behavior of a reser voir Neglecting the formation and water compressibilities, the
with free gas, e.g., solution gas drive or gas cap drive, it is general MBE as expressed by Equation 4.3.13 can be
essential that ever y effort be made to determine reser- voir reduced to the following:
pressures with accuracy. In the absence of reliable NpBo + Gp − NpRs Bg − We − WpBw
pressure data, the MBE can be used to estimate average N= l [4.5.1]
reser voir pressure if accurate values of m and N are available Bg
Bo − Boi + Rsi − Rs Bg + mBoi −1
from volumetric calculations. The general MBE is given by B gi
Equation 4.4.16 as: Tracy (1955) suggested that the above relationship can be
F = N Eo + mEg rearranged into a more usable form as:
Solving Equation 4.4.16 for the average pressure using N = Np<Po + Gp<Pg + ( WpBw − We)<Pw [4.5.2]
the production histor y of the field involves the following
graphical procedure: Where <Po, <Pg , and <Pw are considered PVT-related proper-
ties that are functions of pressure and defined by:
Step 1. Select the time at which the average reservoir pres-
sure is to be determined and obtain the correspond- Bo − RsBg
<Po = [4.5.3]
ing production data, i.e., Np, Gp, and Rp . Den

F = N [Eo + mEg]
"F"
90 "RHS"
(MMrb)

70

F = Np [Bo+ (Rp−Rs)Bg] + WpBw

50

RHS

30
∆p (psi)

10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 4.30 Solution of the material balance for the pressure.

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 PERFORMANCE OF OIL RESERVOIRS 4/323

These pseudovalues, B ∗ ,ogiven by:

( \
Sw c w + c f
B∗o = Bo + Boi ( pi − p)
1 − Sw
These pesudovalues include the additional pressure support of
water and rock compressibilities in the material balance
PVT Function

computations.
dp
ggas < < goil
dz
Φw with:
ρg
g gas=
144
Φg ρo
goil = 144
Φo
0
pb where:
Pressure
goil = oil gradient, psi/ft
Figure 4.31 Tracy’s PVT functions. ρo = oil density; lb/ft3 ggas
= gas gradient, psi/ft ρg =
gas density; lb/ft3
dp/dz = reservoir pressure gradient, psi/ft
The following example is given by Tracy (1955) to illus-
Bg
<Pg = [4.5.4] trate his proposed approach.
Den
Example 4.10 The production histor y of a saturated oil
1 reservoir is as follows:
<Pw = [4.5.5]
Den
with: p Np Gp
l (psia) (MSTB) (MMscf)
( ) ( ) Bg
Den = Bo − Boi + Rsi − Rs Bg + mBoi
Bgi − 1 1690 0 0
[4.5.6] 1600 398 38.6
1500 1570 155.8
where: 1100 4470 803
<Po = oil PVT function The calculated values of the PVT functions are given below:
<Pg = gas PVT function
<Pw = water PVT function
p <Po <Pg
Figure 4.31 shows a graphical presentation of the behavior
of Tracy’s PVT functions with changing pressure. 1600 36.60 0.4000
Note that <Po is negative at low pressures and all <P 1500 14.30 0.1790
functions are approaching infinity at bubble point pressure 1100 2.10 0.0508
because the value of the denominator “Den” in Equations
4.5.3 through 4.5.5 approaches zero. Tracy’s form is valid Calculate the oil-in-place N .
only for initial pressures equal to the bubble point pressure,
and cannot be used at pressures above the bubble point. Solution The calculations can be conveniently performed in
Furthermore, shapes of the <P function cur ves illustrate that following tabulated form using:
small errors in pressure and/or production can cause large N = Np<Po + Gp<Pg + 0
errors in calculated oil-in-place at pressures near the bubble
point. However, Steffensen (1987) pointed out that Tracy’s
equation uses the oil formation volume factor at the bubble p Np Gp ( Np <Po) ( Gp <Pg ) N
point pressure Bob for the initial Boi which causes all the (psia) (MSTB) (MMscf) (STB)
PVT functions <P to become infinity at the bubble point pres-
sure. Steffensen suggested that Tracy’s equation could be 1600 398 38.6 14. 52 × 106 15. 42 × 106 29. 74
extended for applications above the bubble point pressure, ×106
i.e., for undersaturated oil reser voirs, by simply using the 1500 155.8 155.8 22. 45 × 106 27. 85 × 106 50.30
value of Bo at the initial reser voir pressure. He concluded ×106
that Tracy’s methodology could predict reser voir perfor- 1100 803.0 803.0 9. 39 × 106 40. 79 × 106 50.18
mance for the entire pressure range from any initial pressure ×106
down to abandonment.
It should be pointed out that because the rock and water The above results show that the original oil in place in this
compressibility are relatively unimportant below the bub- reser voir is approximately 50 MMSTB of oil. The calculation at
blepoint pressure; they were not included in Tracy’s mate- 1600 psia is a good example of the sensitivity of such a
rial balance formulation. They can be included indirectly, calculation near the bubble point pressure. Since the last
however, by the use of pseudovalues of the oil forma- two values of the original oil-in-place agree so well, the first
tion volume factor at pressures below the initial pressure. calculation is probably wrong.

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Problems
Pressure Bo Rs Bg µo µg GOR
1. You have the following data on an oil reservoir: (psi) (bbl/ (scf/ (bbl/scf) (cp) (cp) (scf/
STB) STB) STB)
Oil Aquifer 2496 1.325 650 0.000796 0.906 0.016 650
Geometr y circular semicircular 1498 1.250 486 0.001335 1.373 0.015 1360
Encroachment angle – 180◦ 1302 1.233 450 0.001616 1.437 0.014 2080
Radius, ft 4000 80 000
Flow regime semisteady state unsteady state The cumulative gas–oil ratio at 1302 psi is recorded at 953
Porosity – 0.20 scf/STB. Calculate:
Thickness, ft – 30 (a) the oil saturation at 1302 psia;
Permeability, md 200 50 (b) the volume of the free gas in the reser voir at 1302
Viscosity, cp 1.2 0.36 psia;
Original pressure 3800 3800 (c) the relative permeability ratio ( kg /ko) at 1302 psia.
Current pressure 3600 –
Original volume factor 1.300 1.04 4. The Nameless field is an undersaturated oil reser voir. The
Current volume factor 1.303 1.04 crude oil system and rock type indicate-that the reser-
Bubble point pressure 3000 – voir is highly compressible. The available reser voir and
production data is given below:
The field has been on production for 1120 days, and has
produced 800 000 STB of oil and 60 000 STB of water. Swi = 0. 25, φ = 20%,
Water and formation compressibilities are estimated to area = 1000 acres, h = 70 ft,
be 3 × 10−6 and 3 × 10−6 psi−1, respectively. T = 150◦ F, Bubble point pressure = 3500 psia
Calculate the original oil-in-place.
2. The following rock and fluid properties data is available
on the Nameless Field: Original conditions Current conditions
Reser voir area = 1000 acres, porosity = 10% Pressure, psi 5000 4500
thickness = 20 ft, T = 140◦ F Bo, bbl/STB 1.905 1.920
swi = 20%, pi = 4000 psi Rs, scf/STB 700 700
pb = 4000 psi Np, MSTB 0 610.9
The gas compressibility factor and relative permeability Calculate the cumulative oil production at 3900 psi. The
ratio are given by the following expressions: PVT data shows that the oil formation volume factor is
equal to 1.938 bbl/STB at 3900 psia.
5. The following datab is available on a gas cap drive
Z = 0. 8 − 0. 00002( p − 4000) reservoir:
krg
= 0. 00127 exp (17. 269Sg ) Pressure Np Rp Bo Rs Bg
kro
(psi) (MMSTB) (scf/ (RB/ (scf/ (RB/scf)
STB) STB) STB)
The production histor y of the field is given below: 3330 1.2511 510 0.00087
3150 3.295 1050 1.2353 477 0.00092
3000 5.903 1060 1.2222 450 0.00096
4000 psi 3500 psi 3000 psi
2850 8.852 1160 1.2122 425 0.00101
µo , cp 1.3 1.25 1.2 2700 11.503 1235 1.2022 401 0.00107
µg , cp – 0.0125 0.0120 2550 14.513 1265 1.1922 375 0.00113
Bo, bbl/STB 1.4 1.35 1.30 2400 17.730 1300 1.1822 352 0.00120
Rs, scf/STB – – 450
GOR, scf/STB 600 – 1573 Calculate the initial oil and free gas volumes.
6. If 1 million STB of oil have been produced from the Cal-
gar y Reser voir at a cumulative produced GOR of 2700
Subsurface information indicates that there is no aquifer scf/STB, causing the reservoir pressure to drop from the
and there has been no water production. initial reservoir pressure of 400 psia to 2400 psia, what is
Calculate: the initial stock-tank oil-in-place?
7. The following data is taken from an oil field that had no
(a) the remaining oil-in-place at 3000 psi;
original gas cap and no water drive:
(b) the cumulative gas produced at 3000 psi.
Oil pore volume of reservoir = 75 MM ft3
3. The following PVT and production histor y data is available
Solubility of gas in crude = 0.42 scf/STB/psi
on an oil reser voir in West Texas.
Initial bottom-hole pressure = 3500 psia
Bottom-hole temperature = 140◦ F
Bubble point pressure of the reservoir = 3000 psia
Original oil-in-place = 10 MMSTB Formation volume factor at 3500 psia = 1.333 bbl/STB
Initial water saturation = 22%
Initial reservoir pressure = 2496 psia
bFundamental of Reservoir Engineering, Elsevier Publishing Co.,
Bubble point pressure = 2496 psi Amsterdam, 1978.

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 PERFORMANCE OF OIL RESERVOIRS 4/325

Compressibility factor of the gas at 1000 psia and The following expressions for Bo and Rso as functions of
140◦ F = 0. 95 pressure were determined from laborator y data:
Oil produced when pressure is 2000 psia = 1.0 MMSTB Bo = 1. 00 + 0. 00015p, bbl/STB
Net cumulative produced GOR = 2800 scf/STB
Rso = 50 + 0. 42p, scf/STB
(a) Calculate the initial STB of oil in the reservoir. (b)
Calculate the initial scf of gas in the reservoir.
(c) Calculate the initial dissolved GOR of the reservoir. (d) Pressure Cumulative oil Cumulative gas Instantaneous
Calculate the scf of gas remaining in the reservoir at (psia) produced produced GOR
2000 psia. (MMSTB) (MMscf) (scf/STB)
(e) Calculate the scf of free gas in the reservoir at 2000
psia. 2819 0 0 1000
(f) Calculate the gas volume factor of the escaped gas at 2742 4.38 4.380 1280
2000 psia at standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60◦ F. 2639 10.16 10.360 1480
(g) Calculate the reser voir volume of the free gas at 2000 2506 20.09 21.295 2000
psia. 2403 27.02 30.260 2500
(h) Calculate the total reservoir GOR at 2000 psia. 2258 34.29 41.150 3300
(i) Calculate the dissolved GOR at 2000 psia.
(j) Calculate the liquid volume factor of the oil at 2000 9. The Wildcat Reser voir was discovered in 1970. The reser-
psia. voir had an initial pressure of 3000 psia and laboratory
the oil and its initial complement of dissolved gas at connate water saturation was 22%. Calculate the fractional
2000 psia. recover y, Np /N , from initial conditions down to a pres-
8. Production data, along with reser voir and fluid data, sure of 2300 psia. State any assumptions which you make
for an undersaturated reser voir follows. There was no relative to the calculations.
measureable water produced, and it can be assumed that Porosity = 0.165
there was no free gas flow in the reser voir. Determine the
following: Formation compressibility = 2. 5 × 10−6 psia−1
Reser voir temperature = 150◦ F
(a) The saturations of oil, gas, and water at a reser voir
pressure of 2258.
(b) Has water encroachment occurred and, if so, what is the Pressure Bo Rso Z Bg Viscosity
volume? (psia) (bbl/STB) (scf/STB) (bbl/scf) ratio
Gas gravity = 0.78 µo /µg
Reser voir temperature = 160◦ F 3000 1.315 650 0.745 0.000726 53.91
Initial water saturation = 25% 2500 1.325 650 0.680 0.000796 56.60
Original oil-in-place = 180 MMSTB 2300 1.311 618 0.663 0.000843 61.46
Bubble point pressure = 2819 psia

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