?
Optical distortion:
• Caused by inferior camera constant, lenses, atmospheric
interference etc.
• Of minor importance in modern aerial photography.
Relief displacement:
• Caused by the terrain undulations.
• The amount of displacement depends on the height of the object
and the radial distance of the object from the image nadir.
• The most important source of positional error.
Central projection (Photo) versus orthogonal projection (Map)
Perspective and Projection
• Varied Scale
• Relief Displacement
Different
1. Size,
2. Shape
3. Location of Static
Objects
Different
1. Size,
2. Shape
3. Location of Static
Objects
Orthorectifying this photo is necessary for practical use since the effects of
relief displacement must be removed.
• On a map we see a top view of
objects in their true relative
horizontal positions. On a
photograph, areas of terrain at the
higher elevations lie closer to the c
amera and therefore appear larger
than the corresponding areas lying
at lower elevations.
• The image of the tops of objects
appearing in a photograph are
displaced from the images of their
bases. This distortion is known as
relief displacement and causes any
obje ct standing above the terrain
to lean away from the principal
point of a photo radially.
(A) Perspective projection (B) Orthogonal Projection
- Radial displacement
- Scale differences
1. Optical distortion
- Disebabkan karena masalah kamera
Pergeseran (displacement) :
Suatu perubahan kedudukan suatu gambar pada suatu foto yang
tidak mengubah ciri-ciri perspektif gambar.
disebabkan oleh perubahan dalam ketinggian dari mana foto itu
diambil.
Tipe Distorsi Tipe pergeseran
1. Pengerutan film dan gambar 1. Lengkungan bumi (Curvature of
cetakan (Film and Print the Earth)
Shrinkage) 2. Kemiringan sumbu kamera (tilt)
2. Pembiasan berkas cahaya di 3. Bersifat topografis atau relief ,
dalam atmosfer (Atmospheric termasuk tinggi obyek
refraction of light rays) (Topography and relief)
3. Gerakan Gambar (Image
motion)
4. Distorsi lensa (Lens Efek dari penyusutan film, pembiasan
Distortions) atmosfer dan kelengkungan bumi
biasanya diabaikan dalam banyak kasus -
5. Malfungsi kamera: shutter pengecualian adalah proyek pemetaan
malfunction, failure of the film- yang tepat.
flattening mechanism in the
camera focal plane
Dipengaruhi :
• Kuliatas film dan kertas cetak
• Perubahan suhu (panas atau dingin)
Perubahan kecil kira-kira 0.025 mm
Efek dari penyusutan film, atmosfer refraksi biasanya diabaikan dalam banyak kasus
Koreksi :
Where:
x is the corrected photocoordinate along the x-axis for a point a,
y is the corrected photocoordinate along the y-axis for a point a,
xc is the calibrated fiducial distance along x-axis,
yc is the calibrated fiducial distance along y-axis,
xf is the measured fiducial distance along x-axis,
yf is the measured fiducial distance along y-axis,
xm is the measured photocoordinate for point a along the x-axis,
ym is the measured photocoordinate for point a along the y-axis, and
xc/xf and yc/yf are the correction factors along x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Example :
Suppose that the calibrated distances between the fiducial marks on the camera are
23.25 cm along x-axis and 23.30 cm along y-axis. The corresponding distances
measured on a photographic print from the same camera are 23.33 cm and 23.36 cm.
If the photocoordinates, x and y, of a point measured on the print are 8.15 cm and
11.04 cm, what are the corrected photocoordinates of the point.
foreknown: Solution:
xc = 23.25 cm
xf = 23.33 cm
xm = 8.15 cm
yc = 23.30 cm
yf = 23.36 cm
ym = 11.04 cm
question:
x = ……?
y = ……?
Pembiasan terbesar
dekat “ground surface”
karena kepadatan
atmosfer
Where :
Z0 = Flying height above geoid (sea level), in km
ZP = Mean terrain height above geoid (sea level), in km
c = camera constant (mm)
r = radius for a point (x’,y’) in the image (mm)
Akibat pergerakan kamera (atau wahana) ketika exposure, yang
mengakibatkan noda (smearing) dan kekaburan (blurring) pada FU.
3.2.
Where:
M = the image motion (movement) on the photograph (in millimeters in
equation (3.1.) and in inches in equation (3.2.)
0.2778 = a constant, with units: meter hours per kilometer second (in equation (3.1.)
17.6 = a constant, with units: inch hours per mile second (in equation (3.2.))
V = the ground speed of the plane in kilometers per hour in equation (3.1.) and
in miles per hour in equation (3.2.)
t = the shutter speed in seconds
f = the focal length of the camera lens (in mm in equation (3.1.) and in feet in
equation (3.2.))
HD = the flying height of the aircraft above the datum (in meters in equation (3.1.)
and in feet in equation (3.2.).
In both equations the term f/HD corresponds to the photo scale.
Therefore, the equations above may be rewritten as:
foreknown:
H = 3000 m
v = 500
km/hr
f = 305 mm
t = 0.025 s
question:
M = ……?
Solution:
( 0.025 s )
Berdasar rumus gerak gambar (persamaan 3.1. Atau 3.2.), ada banyak
cara untuk mengurangi gerakan gambar atau blur, yaitu dengan :
1. Menggunakan shutter speed yang lebih cepat (t)
2. Menggunakan pesawat terbang lebih lambat (v)
3. Terbang pada ketinggian yang lebih tinggi (hd) di atas tanah
4. Menggunakan panjang fokus lensa (f) yang lebih pendek (f)
Solution:
Notice that the two results are slightly different due simply to data conversion between the English and the metric systems. In
fact, 450 km = 279.6768 miles (not 280) and 0.05 mm = 0.0019685 in (not 0.002 in). If we use these two values (279.6768 miles
and 0.0019685 in instead of 180 miles and 0.02 in ), we will find the exact number (about 10,000 ft) as in the metric equation.
This is another indication that your measurements and your input data (aircraft speed, shutter speed, and focal length) must be as
accurate as possible to obtain reliable and satisfactory photographs
Koreksi sistematis terhadap distorsi lensa menurut the
Bureau of Standards USA :
< 0.01 mm (0.0004 inch) pada bagian tepi FU
Kalibrasi Kamera (Camera Calibration)
Pemotretan Calibration Pattern untuk Keperluan Kalibrasi Kamera metode In-Field Calibration
Contoh Foto Hasil Pemotretan Calibration Pattern untuk Keperluan Kalibrasi Kamera Secara In-Lab
DJI Phantom 3 Professional
• sensor dengan model FC300X
• sensor CMOS dengan dimensi 6,16 x 4,62 mm
• image : 4000 x 3000 piksel
• satu frame foto akan terdapat 12.000.000 piksel.
K3 - 0,000 E+000 0
P1 - -1,950 E-004 0
P2 - 3,300 E-004 0
Konstanta distorsi atau parameter kalibrasi kamera tersebut kemudian digunakan untuk
melakukan koreksi atau restorasi FUFK dengan harapkan geometrinya akan mendekati ideal
tanpa distorsi.
3.2. Koreksi Foto (Idealize)
(a) Salah Satu FUFK Sebelum Dikoreksi (b) FUFK Setelah Dikoreksi
H’ . r3
Dr = --------------
2.R.f
Dimana :
Dr = Kelengkungan bumi
H’ = tinggi terbang
f = fokus kamera
R = jari-jari bumi Rrata-rata = 6.371 km
r = jarak radial antara bayangan dan titik nadir
Crab distortion
- caused by deflection of aircraft due to crosswind
- corrections: on the plane or by computer
Pitch distortion
- result in local scale change
- can be ignored in most analyses
Crabbing
Drift - Crab
54
2. Basic elements
• Ground nadir
titik di permukaan bumi lurus terhadap pusat lensa kamera selama
exposure
• Photographic nadir
titik perpotongan pada FU antara garis verikal dari ground nadir dan
pusat lensa kamera
• Isocenter
focus dari tilt.
N = Nadir
P = Principal point (P)
Obliqueness in Airphotos
Relationship of the vertical aerial
photograph with the ground.
Vertical photograph.
Relationship of low oblique
photograph to the ground.
What was the angle of tilt of the camera at the time of exposure if a 6 inch CFL lens
was used?
Menentukan nadir yang menggunakan perpanjangan-perpanjangan
sisi-sisi gedung vertikal yang tinggi
3-Axis Handheld Gimbals
The 3 axis Gimbal is considered the better option as it will eliminate the jittery filming
when moving horizontally (in the Yaw axis).
With that being said, sometimes people will opt for the 2 axis Gimbal especially if they are
looking to connect it up to a Drone, as the 2 axis Gimbal has one less motor than the 3
axis, therefore, is much lighter for the drone to carry, hence ensuring a longer battery life.
DISTORSI FOTO UDARA
Akibat Pergerakan Pesawat
z
y Variasi skala
x
z
x kappa
z
Rotasi terhadap
y sumbu X
Rotasi terhadap
sumbu X,Y& Z
x omega
z
Rotasi terhadap
y sumbu Y Rotasi terhadap
sumbu X& Y
x phi
3.3. Stereoplotting
Data FUFK Terkoreksi
Data GCPs
INTERIOR ORIENTATION
Pengukuran GCPs
ABSOLUT ORIENTATION pada FUFK
FC300X merupakan kamera non-metrik yang tidak dilengkapi dengan fiducial mark, sehingga
fiducial mark digantikan dengan sudut-sudut foto yang dalam hal ini dapat dikaitkan dengan dimensi
sensor (format size). Posisi principal point dan konstanta distorsi lensa dalam hal ini tidak diperlukan lagi
karena FUFK yang akan digunakan telah dikoreksi (idealized), sehingga nilai distorsi lensa dan nilai
pergeseran principal point-nya mendekati 0.
3.3.2. Orientasi Luar (Exterior Orientaion)
3.3.2.1. Relative Orientation
Relative Orientation pada dasarnya bertujuan untuk menyesuaikan sepasang foto udara yang bertampalan
dalam ruang sembarang hingga menghasilkan suatu bayangan stereoskopis tiga dimensional namun masih
dalam sistem sembarang. Dengan demikian model tiga dimensi yang dihasilkan pada proses Relative
Orientation ini belum terikat pada sistem koordinat tanah. Proses Relative Orientation ini dapat dilakukan
dengan mengumpulkan tie points atau titik-titik yang bersesuaian pada daerah pertampalan
(a) (b)
Foto DJI_0032_ideal sebelum (a) dan sesudah (b) diorientasikan berdasarkan EOPs.
Dapat dilihat DJI_0032_ideal mengalami rotasi phi cukup besar yang ditunjukkan dengan
bentuk trapesium pada foto hasil orientasi
3.3.3. Stereoplotting
Setelah FUFK di-restitusi melalui Interior Orientation dan Exterior Orientation tersebut, maka
FUFK telah siap digunakan untuk melakukan stereoplotting. Proses stereoplotting pada Summit
Evolution versi 7 dapat dilakukan secara interaktif yang dibantu dengan sensor dan kacamata
3D bersistem polarisasi, sehingga model 3D yang terbentuk dari bayangan stereoskopis dapat
terlihat cukup realistis. Hal ini cukup membantu dalam memposisikan floating mark agar benar-
benar tepat pada permukaan obyek yang akan didigitisasi.
Radial Displacement
: Relief Displacement
Relief displacement from Nadir (Center )
Efek height displacement
pada gedung yang lebih
tinggi
Relief Displacement increases with the radial distance.
Occluded Area
The primary geometric distortion in vertical aerial photographs
is due to relief displacement. Objects directly below the centre
of the camera lens (i.e. at the nadir) will have only their tops
visible, while all other objects will appear to lean away from the
centre of the photo such that their tops and sides are visible. If
the objects are tall or are far away from the centre of the photo,
the distortion and positional error will be larger.
Perhatikan AA’A” LOA”
D R
-------- = --------
h H
d r
-------- = --------
h H
r.h
d = ----------
H
Dimana :
d : Pergeseran letak oleh relief pada foto /
Relief displacement (mm)
r : Jarak radial dari titik nadir ke obyek (mm)
h : Tinggi obyek di atas (+) atau di bawah (-)
bidang rujukan (m)
H : Tinggi terbang
Dari rumus ini harga pergeseraan relief akan bertambah besar bila :
a. jarak radial ( r ) dari titik nadir ( pusat foto vertikal ) bertambah besar.
b. ketinggian suatu titik terhadap datum (h) bertambah besar.
c. tinggi terbang makin rendah
• Relief Displacement is directly proportional to:
– Radial distance.
– Object height above the datum.
Jarak obyek yang tergambar pada foto ketitik nadir = 45 mm, tinggi terbang di atas bidang
datum = 3.000 m, tinggi obyek di atas bidang datum = 30 m. Berapakah pergeseran letak oleh
relief dan ke arah mana ?
Diketahui :
r = 45 mm
h = 30 m
H = 3000 m
Ditanya :
∆r = ……?
Jawab :
Soal
Pada sebuah foto udara tegak dengan format baku terdapat gambar sebuah
gedung bertingkat. Jarak antara titik tengah foto udara dengan dasar gedung
76 mm, sedangkan jarak antara gambar puncak gedung ke titik tengah foto
udara tersebut adalah 81,46 mm. Tinggi terbang pesawat pemotret adalah
1475 m, dan elevasi dataran tempat gedung berdiri adalah 427 meter.
Tentukan berapa tinggi gedung tersebut.
Soal Ujian
Assume that the relief displacement for the summit of the tower is 5.3 mm
(measured from the bottom, b, to the summit, s, of the tower on the
photograph) and the radial distance measured from the photo center (assuming a
true vertical photograph) to the base (b) of the tower is 59 mm. If the scale of the
photograph is 1:10,000, as printed on the photograph, and the focal length used
to take this photograph is 152.4 mm, how tall is the tower?
Solution:
From equation 7.14, we notice that in order to solve for ho, we first need to
determine the; flying height (HD) of the aircraft above the datum. The formula for
the photo scale is f/HD.; Therefore, 1:10,000 = f/HD , thus: HD = 10,000 x f =
10,000 x 152.4 mm = 1524 m
Diketahui :
H = 2500 m
r1 = 8,35 cm
r2 = 8,35 cm
h1 = 120 m
h2 = 85 m
Ditanya :
d1 = ……?
d2 = ……?
Jawab :
r.h
d = ----------
H
8,35 cm . 120 m
d1 = ------------------------
2500 m
Negative Image
H-ho
HD
Contoh :
Menara pertama dan menara kedua mempunyai ketinggian yang sama 100 m di atas bidang
datum. Jarak puncak menara pertama ke titik nadir 6,55 cm, sedangkan jarak puncak menara
dua ketitik nadir 9,21 cm. Ketinggian terbang adalah 2500 m. Hitunglah relief displacement
masing-masing menara tersebut. Berikan kesimpulan yang Anda peroleh.
Diketahui :
r1 = 6,55 cm
r2 = 9,21 cm
h1 = 100 m
h2 = 100 m
H = 2500 m
Ditanya :
d1 = ……?
d2 = ……?
Jawab :
r.h
d = ----------
H
6,55 cm . 100 m
d1 = -------------------------
2500 m
Diketahui : Jawab :
r1 = 5 cm r.h
r2 = 5 cm d = ----------
h1 = 50 m H
h2 = 50 m
H1 = 500 m 5 cm . 50 m
H2 = 750 km = 750000 m d1 = -------------------------
500 m
Ditanya :
d1 = ……? d1 = 0,5 cm
d2 = ……?
5 cm . 50 m
d2 = --------------------------
750000 m
d2 = 0,0003 cm = 0,003 mm
H1 < H2 → d1 > d2
Kesimpulan :
Semakin tinggi, tinggi terbang semakin kecil relief
displacement yang terjadi
Contoh :
(H>>>705 km (Landsat))
On an island, with a height h = 20 m above sea level, there is a
lighthouse on the highest point. An image is taken from an
altitude of 800 m above sea level. In the image we measure the
radius r’B = 54 mm to the base B’ of the lighthouse, and the length
of the radial displacement (along the vertical edge of the
lighthouse) Δr’= 2.4 mm. How high above the sea level is the top
of the lighthouse?
h = ....?