ekstraesofagus. Manifestasi l
D
r
p
684
-20%).7 Jenis kelamin laki-laki dan usia Zidovudine nasogastrik tube intubasi NSAID,
lanjut (laki-laki dan perempuan) nonsteroidal anti obat inflamasi; ZES, sindrom
dikaitkan dengan peningkatan
Zollinger-Ellison.
prevalensi komplikasi esofagus,
mungkin sebagai akibat dari isi asam Refluks stres akibat peningkatan
yang direfluks dan penuaan mukosa dari tekanan intra-abdomen telah dikaitkan
waktu ke waktu.7 Penderita GERD dengan makan berlebihan, batuk, dan
mungkin mengalami penurunan kualitas membungkuk atau mengejan untuk
hidup. Ketika membandingkan kualitas mengangkat benda berat, serta pakaian
hidup pasien GERD dengan penyakit yang ketat.7,13 Kondisi medis dan
kronis lainnya, kualitas hidup pasien pembedahan tertentu seperti
GERD berada diantara pasien gastroparesis, skleroderma, ZES, dan
gangguan kejiwaan dan pasien gagal pemasangan selang nasogastrik jangka
jantung ringan.164 panjang juga dapat dikaitkan dengan
GERD.7 Meskipun telah disarankan
bahwa pemberantasan infeksi H. pylori
Faktor Etiologi dan Risiko dapat meningkatkan risiko gejala GERD
Penyebab GERD berhubungan dengan dan esofagitis, informasi tambahan
S
faktor yang meningkatkan frekuensi atau diperlukan untuk mengkonfirmasi
e
c
durasi GER yang menyebabkan hubungan ini.83,167,1 68
t
i
peningkatan kontak asam lambung
o
dengan mukosa esofagus. Faktor risiko Patofisiologi
yang terkait dengan GERD termasuk
n
4
r
memperburuk gejala GERD dengan pengosongan lambung, resistensi
o
i
menurunkan tekanan LES (misalnya mukosa, dan dengan paparan mukosa
n
t
nitrat, progesteron, makanan tinggi esofagus terhadap faktor agresif (asam
lemak, mint, coklat) atau memiliki efek lambung, pepsin, dan garam empedu)
e
i
n
a
(misalnya jeruk, tomat, bifosfonat). esofagus.
l
i
RELAKSASI TRANSIEN DARI SPHINCTER
s
d
TABEL 27-7
LES, ketika dalam keadaan istirahat,
e
r Faktor Risiko yang Berhubungan dengan tetap pada tekanan tinggi (10-30 mmHg)
s
Penyakit Refluks untuk mencegah isi lambung masuk ke
masih diperlukan terapi antisekresi, dan
Gastroesofageal
54,165,166
7,13,151-1
kerongkongan.7 Tekanan paling rendah
24% menjalani antire fluks operasi162
kondisi medisseperti xerostomia atau dan GERD tidak dapat diabaikan.7 GERD. Perkembangan dan tingkat
sindrom Sjogren) ¨ mungkin juga kerusakan mukosa tergantung pada pH
berisiko tinggi mengalami GERD.7,172 RESISTENSI MUKOSAL dan isi refluks serta waktu paparan total
Kemampuan mukosa esofagus untuk refluks dengan mukosa esofagus. PH
ABNORMALITAS menahan kontak dengan dan menahan kurang dari 4 biasanya diperlukan untuk
ANATOMI Hernia hiatal (penonjolan cedera dari refluks lambung (asam dan menghasilkan luka pada mukosa
bagian atas lambung ke dalam rongga pepsin) merupakan faktor penentu yang esofagus, tetapi karena refluks menjadi
toraks karena melemahnya otot penting untuk perkembangan GERD. lebih asam, kerusakan mukosa
diafragma) sering digambarkan sebagai Ketika mempertimbangkan resistensi dipercepat.7 Penambahan pepsin (yang
penyebab GERD, tetapi hubungan mukosa di dalam esofagus diubah dari pepsinogen yang
sebab akibatnya masih belum pasti.7 dibandingkan dengan lambung dan disekresikan dalam pH asam) menjadi
Meskipun hernia hiatus dikaitkan duodenum, esofagus kurang tahan refluks asam akan secara nyata
dengan esofagitis, striktur, dan terhadap kerusakan akibat asam meningkatkan kecenderungan refluks
metaplasia Barrett yang lebih tinggi, lambung.7 Namun, resistensi mukosa di untuk mengganggu resistensi mukosa
tidak semua pasien dengan hernia esofagus terdiri dari banyak faktor dan meningkatkan potensi perdarahan
hiatus menunjukkan gejala atau pertahanan yang bekerja bersama-sama esofagus.7,173,175 Refluks
komplikasi. Ini mungkin terkait dengan untuk mencegah cedera esofagus. duodenogastrik atau refluks alkali yang
ukuran hernia hiatus dan pengaruhnya Peningkatan ketebalan sel mukosa dan mengandung asam empedu dan cairan
terhadap tekanan LES.7 Peningkatan kompleks sambungan intraseluler pankreas juga dapat menyebabkan
ukuran hernia dapat menurunkan mencegah difusi ion hidrogen dari esofagitis.7 Karena refluks lambung dan
kemampuannya untuk tetap berada di penetrasi ke dalam epitel esofagus dan duodenogastrik sering terjadi secara
bawah diafragma selama menelan dan menyebabkan kematian sel.7 Esoph bersamaan, tindakannya dapat menjadi
dengan demikian mengurangi tekanan agus juga mengeluarkan lapisan tambahan dalam menyebabkan
LES. LES hipotensi dalam kombinasi mukosa pelindung dan bikarbonat.7,174 kerusakan esofagus. Durasi total waktu
dengan hernia hiatus meningkatkan Aliran darah yang meningkat sebagai paparan esofagus terhadap refluks
kemungkinan refluks dan penyakit yang respons terhadap lingkungan asam di adalah mekanisme utama yang
rumit.7 dalam esofagus meningkatkan terlibat dalam perkembangan GERD dan
oksigenasi jaringan, menyediakan komplikasinya. Semakin lama durasi
PENGosongan GASTRIK nutrisi, dan membantu menjaga waktu paparan, semakin besar
Pengosongan lambung yang tertunda keseimbangan asam-basa normal. 7 kemungkinan penyakit parah, termasuk
meningkatkan volume cairan lambung Cedera esofagus juga terjadi ketika perkembangan menjadi metaplasia
yang tersisa di dalam lambung yang konsentrasi asam dan pepsin melebihi Barrett.
tersedia untuk refluks dan berhubungan perlindungan yang diberikan oleh
dengan distensi lambung.7 Meskipun mekanisme resistensi mukosa. PEMBERANTASAN H elicobacter pylori
pengosongan lambung tertunda terjadi Hubungan antara
H . pylori i nfeksidan
167
pada hingga 15% pasien dengan GERD,FAKTOR AGRESIF YANG TERKAIT GERD masih kontroversial. Studi awal
hubungan sebab akibat belum DENGAN KERUSAKAN ESOPHAGEAL menunjukkan bahwa H. pylori
ditetapkan.7,173 Karena beberapa pasien Refluks pemberantasandikaitkan dengan
seperti penderita gastroparesis diabetik lambung, yang terutama terdiri dari peningkatan keasaman lambung dan
juga menderita GERD, hubungan antara asam lambung dan pepsin, adalah faktor perkembangan selanjutnya dari
pengosongan lambung yang tertunda agresif utama yang terkait dengan esofagitis erosif.83,167 Dalam konteks ini,
tampak bahwaH. pylorisebenarnya GERD termasuk mulas, pirosis (rasa korelasi antara gejala dan
dapat melindungi terhadap gejala GERD terbakar retrosternal yang terjadi di 685
dan komplikasi terkait.83,167 Hal ini esofagus bagian atas dan berjalan
diduga disebabkan oleh kemampuan melalui tenggorokan), regurgi tasi isi
mikroorganisme untuk menurunkan lambung ke tenggorokan, atau pada
keasaman refluks, karena tampaknya banyak pasien, adanya
tidak mempengaruhi mekanisme keduanya.7,6 5,153,176 Gejala-gejala ini
pertahanan fungsional esofagus.167,168 mungkin episodik atau berhubungan
Namun, berdasarkan tinjauan sistematis dengan makanan dan sering diredakan
literatur, pedoman terkini untuk dengan antasida.7,1 53 Mulas, gejala khas
pemberantasan H. pylori tidak yang paling sering, disebabkan oleh
mendukung hipotesis ini, dan meskipun kontak refluks asam dengan ujung saraf
H. pylori p engujianpada pasien dengan di dalam mukosa esofagus.7 Gejala lain
GERD bukanlah praktik standar, jika termasuk kurang air (cairan asin atau
pasien diuji dan ditemukan H. asam muncul tiba-tiba di dalam mulut),
pylori-positif, pemberantasan cepat kenyang, bersendawa, cegukan,
dianjurkan83 (lihat bagian Perawatan mual, dan muntah.7 Gejala yang
Utama Helicobacter pylori ). mengkhawatirkan (tanda atau gejala
alarm) termasuk disfagia (kesulitan
Presentasi Klinis menelan), odynophagia (nyeri saat
menelan), muntah darah, tinja berdarah 7
berusia 39 tahun, 130 kg, tinggi 170 cm yang penyakit yang rumit seperti esofagitis
a
h
yang sering dikaitkan dengan rasa asam di perawatan kesehatan. Beberapa pasien, e
bagian belakang mulutnya. Dia menunjukkan seperti orang tua, mungkin tidak
d
bahwa gejalanya dimulai beberapa bulan yang memiliki gejala GERD yang khas, tetapi o
lalu, dan hanya muncul beberapa kali dalam pada awalnya muncul dengan gejala i
a
besar atau pedas. Juga, jika dia makan terlalu
dekat dengan waktu tidurnya, rasa terbakar oleh pasien yang lebih tua mengalami
n
7
refluks. Pasien lain mungkin datang
n
mereka bekerja dengan cukup baik, tetapi dia dengan hanya gejala ekstraesofagus r
harus sering menggunakan dosis, karena atau atipikal (lihat bagian Pengobatan s
a
gejalanya kembali dengan cepat. Dia tidak Manifestasi Ekstraesofagus dari G
minum obat lain. Manakah dari gejala WJ yang Penyakit Refluks Gastroesofagus). r
o
waktu tidur
KASUS 27-3, PERTANYAAN 2: Apa tujuan terapeutik
G
bukti
untuk pengobatan GERD WJ?
yang cukup ada untuk modifikasi dukungan gaya hidup. a
Tinggikan kepala tempat tidur 6–8 inci atau gunakan ganjalan untuk meringankan gejala, mempromosikan
busaa Tidur dalam posisi dekubitus lateral kiria s
penyembuhan esofagus, Mencegah
t
setelah makan makanan pedas atau besar, dan jangka panjang komplikasi.7 konsekuensi jangka
asosiasi gejala dengan makan di dekat waktu D
panjang-One adalah Bar
tidur semuanya konsisten dengan GERD. Fakta i
s
bahwa gejalanya berkurang dengan penggunaan Rett esophagus, atau Barrett metaplasia, yang
antasida juga menunjukkan GERD. diidentifikasi dalam 10%
o
S
r
e d
e
15% dari pasien GERD evaluasi endoskopi.7,1 78 ini pre
r
s WJ harus dinasihati untuk menurunkan berat
kondisi ganas dapat mempengaruhi pasien badan, memakai pakaian yang longgar, dan
untuk adenokarsinoma esofagus. Pasien dengan menghindari makan makanan pedas yang dia
Barrett esophagus memiliki resiko terkena tahu akan memperburuk gejalanya.
kanker esophagus 30 sampai 40 kali lebih tinggi Merekomendasikan agar dia menghindari makan
dibandingkan pasien tanpa gangguan ini.178 setidaknya 3 jam sebelum waktu tidur dan dia
GERD adalah penyakit kronis yang berpotensi mempertimbangkan untuk mengangkat kepala
menimbulkan komplikasi serius. tempat tidurnya 6 hingga 8 inci dengan balok
kayu. WJ harus diminta untuk membuat jurnal
untuk melacak gejala yang berhubungan dengan
TINDAKAN NONFARMAKOLOGI DAN
PENGOBATAN diet dan gaya hidup dan untuk mencatat efek dari
gaya hidup dan modifikasi diet. Praktisi perawatan
LANGSUNG KASUS 27-3, PERTANYAAN 3: Perubahan kesehatan harus meninjau jurnal dan
gaya hidup dan pola makan apa yang berpotensi mendiskusikan dengan WJ faktor diet dan gaya
mengurangi gejala GERD WJ? hidup mana yang memicu gejala dan tindakan
mana yang paling efektif dalam meredakan
Modifikasi gaya hidup dan pola makan gejalanya.
merupakan langkah awal dalam menangani
pasien dengan GERD13,65,153,166,1 76,1 79 (Tabel KASUS 27-3, PERTANYAAN 4: Opsi pengobatan OTC
27-8). Strategi harus didiskusikan dengan pasien mana (jika ada) yang akan Anda rekomendasikan untuk
dan disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan spesifiknya. WJ?
Kurangnya bukti sampai saat ini menunjukkan
bahwa meskipun banyak pasien mungkin Banyak pasien dengan gejala yang ringan dan
mendapat manfaat dari modifikasi ini, mereka jarang dapat berusia lanjut dengan pengobatan
tidak mungkin sepenuhnya meringankan gejala OTC7,1 3,1 80–182 (Gbr. 27-5). Pertama, penentuan
pada kebanyakan pasien.65,153,1 76,1 79 Modifikasi harus dibuat untuk kesesuaian pasien untuk
gaya hidup ditujukan untuk mengurangi paparan pengobatan sendiri. Jika pasien tidak memenuhi
asam di dalam esofagus dengan meningkatkan kriteria untuk pengobatan sendiri seperti yang
tekanan LES, menurunkan tekanan intragastrik, dijelaskan kemudian, dia harus dirujuk untuk
meningkatkan pembersihan asam esofagus, dan evaluasi medis lebih lanjut.7,1 3,1 81,182 Penting untuk
menghindari agen spesifik yang mengiritasi memastikan bahwa hal-hal berikut tidak ada:
mukosa esofagus. Ada bukti yang mendukung tanda atau gejala alarm, nyeri ulu hati yang parah
beberapa modifikasi yang mengurangi paparan atau sering (2 hari atau lebih dalam seminggu)
dan gejala asam lambung esofagus.65,153,1 79 Ini yang berlangsung lebih dari 3 bulan, adanya
termasuk menaikkan kepala tempat tidur 6 manifestasi ekstraesofagus (lihat Pertanyaan
hingga 8 inci dengan menggunakan balok di 27-5), atau gejala yang menetap meskipun terapi
bawah kaki tempat tidur atau menggunakan obat tepat. Antasida OTC danH2RAadalah obat
bantalan busa sebagai pengganti bantal pilihan untuk pasien dengan heartburn yang
tradisional; tidur dalam posisi decubi tus lateral ringan dan jarang. PPI non resep (omeprazole,
kiri; dan penurunan berat badan, yang juga omeprazole lepas langsung dengan natrium
menurunkan tekanan intra-lambung.65,1 53,179 bikarbonat, dan lansoprazole) harus disediakan
Menghindari makan besar dalam 3 jam sebelum untuk pasien yang sering mengalami mulas.13
tidur atau berbaring dalam posisi terlentang juga Antasida tetap menjadi pilihan yang efektif
dapat mengurangi gejala. untuk mengobati mulas yang ringan dan jarang
Pasien dengan gejala GERD harus terjadi, karena antasida dengan cepat (dalam
menghindari makanan dan minuman yang beberapa menit) meredakan gejala, tetapi durasi
diketahui dapat memicu gejala (Tabel 27-7). pereda gejala hanya berlangsung sekitar 30 menit
Namun, bukti yang menunjukkan manfaat masih jika diminum dengan perut kosong.7,13,1 81 Durasi
belum pasti.65,153,176,1 79 Kemungkinan sebagian dapat diperpanjang untuk beberapa jam jika
besar pasien GERD telah mencoba banyak diminum dalam 1 jam setelah makan.13 Antasida
modifikasi pola makan dan gaya hidup tanpa tersedia dalam bentuk tablet dan cairan dan
memperoleh bantuan yang memuaskan dari biasanya dapat dipertukarkan bila digunakan
gejala mereka dan bahwa orang lain tidak akan
dalam dosis yang dianjurkan.13 Dosis dapat
setuju untuk membuat perubahan ini dalam hidup
diulang setiap 1 sampai 2 jam sesuai kebutuhan,
mereka. Namun, gaya hidup individual dan
tetapi dosis harian maksimum yang
modifikasi pola makan harus direkomendasikan
direkomendasikan tidak boleh dilampaui.
untuk semua pasien dengan gejala GERD. Jika
Penambahan asam alginat untuk antasida dapat
sesuai, obat OTC atau resep harus
meningkatkan
direkomendasikan.13
GERD
Alarm
Khas Atypical
687
gejala esofagitis lebihevaluasi
gejala tanda-tanda/
gejala Rujuk untuk
ringan sampai evaluasi lebih
sedang Gejala berat atau Rujuk untuk lanjut
perubahan gaya hidup • Monitor 24 jam pH
• Endoskopi Endoskopi
Jarang Sering Diet dan
Modifikasi PPI terkait GERD
diet dan gayadiet dan GERDterkait
gaya hidup Tidak
Modifikasihidup
• H2RA (dosis standar)
• Antasid PPI • H2RA + antasida Terapi PPI dua kali sehari x 3 bulan
• Antasida + asam alginat pemeliharaan Maju diagnosis lain
• H2RA (dosis rendah)
r
e
t
p
gejala meredakan untuk beberapa pasien.8,13,180 secara klinis ada dengan obat yang dimetabolisme
Pasien yang membutuhkan penggunaan antasid sering oleh sistem enzim CYP450 hati. Jika digunakan untuk
atau teratur selama lebih dari 2 minggu harus dosisRA tidak boleh melebihi
pengobatan sendiri,H2
dievaluasi ulang, karena OTC H2RA atau PPI mungkin dua dosis per hari, danpengobatan
durasitidak boleh
diperlukan.13,181,182 Sekitar 20% pasien akan
melebihi 2 minggu. Penggunaan lebih dari 2 minggu
meredakan gejala dengan penggunaan antasida.7
harus di bawah perawatan penyedia layanan
Antasida tidak efektif dalam menyembuhkan esofagitis
kesehatan.7,13
erosif.7
Magnesium Omeprazole tersedia OTC dalam
RA diindikasikan untukringan hingga sedang kekuatan resep asli sebagai tablet 20,6 mg
OTC H2
yang jarang (dimetabolisme menjadi 20 mg omeprazole) dan
gejala GERDterjadi.13,1 81
Jika sebagai kapsul formulasi lepas segera yang terdiri dari
dibandingkan dengan antasida, gejala awal mereda omeprazole 20 mg dan natrium bikarbonat 1100 mg.
terjadi dalam 30 hingga 45 menit, dan memiliki durasi Lansoprazole juga tersedia OTC sebagai kapsul 15
kerja yang lebih lama (hingga 10 jam).7,13 Salah satu mg. Penghambat asam lambung yang kuat ini
RA adalah dapat diminum sebelum makan diindikasikan untuk digunakan pada pasien dengan
manfaat H2 mulas yang sering (2 hari atau lebih dalam
makanan berat atau pedas sebagai profilaksis untuk seminggu).13 Permulaan pengurangan gejala lebih
gejala GERD postprandial.7,1 3 Mereka juga memiliki lambat (2 sampai 3 jam) dibandingkan dengan H2RA,
efek menguntungkan dalam mengurangi sekresi asam dan pemulihan total mungkin membutuhkan sampai 4
nokturnal.13 Tachyphylaxis (toleransi) telah dilaporkan hari setelah memulai terapi. PPI lebih unggul dari H2RA
dengan penggunaan Hterus menerus2RA secara, dalam hal meredakan gejala dan durasi penekanan
tetapi efek ini dapat diatasi dengan penggunaan asam.13 Pasien harus meminum PPI OTC 30 hingga 60
intermiten atau sesuai kebutuhan.13 OTC H2RA menit sebelum makan (sarapan lebih disukai) dan tidak
tersedia dalam setengah dosis resep asli rendah dan mengonsumsi lebih dari satu dosis setiap hari hingga 2
sebagai dosis resep lengkap. Pasien harus minggu.lain
menggunakan dosis OTC rendah dua kali sehari untuk Kursusterapi tidak harus diambil lebih dari setiap 4
gejala ringan, intermiten dan dosis yang lebih tinggi bulan,
i n
saya
d
r
a G
CASE 27-4
penyakit yang lebih serius.7,1 3,1 81,1 82
QUESTION 1: LF is a 48-year-old woman who presents to her
s
WJ adalah kandidat yang tepat untuk pengobatan sendiri primary-care provider complaining of recurrent heart burn
karenanya occurring daily for the past 6 weeks. She states that the
r
gejalayang ringan dan jarang terjadi, dan ia memilikitidak her at night. Lately, she has been experiencing difficulty
ada alarm swallowing solid foods. LF currently smokes two packs of
cigarettes per day and likes to have two glasses of wine each
d
night with her dinner. She states that she occasionally uses
o
s.
gejala Meskipun antasida adalah pilihan yang dapat diterima OTC ranitidine 150 mg orally up to twice daily, which tem
porarily relieves her symptoms. What diagnostic modalities
untuk WJ,
are available for the evaluation of her GERD?
i
diperlukan untuk meringankan mulas nya. Karena WJ telah Numerous diagnostic options exist for the evaluation
meminta of the patient with presumed GERD. The medical
history should include the identification of specific
i
obat untuk secara khusus “mencegah” gejala makan-terkait, frequency, severity, and duration as well as
ia
688
TABLE 27-9
–188
Classification Systems for Endoscopically Determined Esophagitis186
Grade A One (or more) mucosal break no longer that 5 mm that does not extend between the tops of two mucosal folds Grade B
One (or more) mucosal break more that 5 mm long that does not extend between the tops of two mucosal folds Grade C One (or
5% of the
more) mucosal break that is continuous between the tops of two or more mucosal folds but that involves <7
circumference
Grade D One (or more) mucosal break that involves at least 75% of the esophageal circumference
plicated disease, or who have long-standing GERD
where the possibility of Barrett esophagus exists.
risk factors or triggers. An empiric diagnosis can be
made in the majority of patients based on the
UPPER ENDOSCOPY AND BIOPSY
symptoms of heartburn and regurgitation. However,
Upper endoscopy is the primary diagnostic method for
patients who present with severe symptoms, alarm
eval uating the esophageal mucosa for injury or
symptoms, or long-standing GERD or who
S
cellular changes. (To view a video of severe
e
esophagitis, go to http://www.
do not respond to empiric therapy warrant further
gastrointestinalatlas.com/English/Esophagus/Eso
diagnostic c
phagitis/ esophagitis.html.) This test is highly
t
o
diagnosis of GERD, because many patients present
n
with nonerosive disease. There are four primary
4
reasons why endoscopy is performed in patients
ACID SUPPRESSION EMPIRIC TEST suspected of having GERD7,1 85: (a) to rule out
A trial of a PPI is commonly used to empirically significant disease (eg, adenocarcinoma of the
diagnose typical G
esophagus) or complications (eg, stricture); (b) to
a
GERD-like symptoms in patients without alarm symptoms or screen for Barrett metaplasia; (c) to evaluate and
s
grade the severity of esophagitis; (d) to allow the
symptoms of complicated disease. Doses used in clinical provider to optimize treatment and predict the
t
trials long-term course of the disease. The endoscope can
r
n
specimens for biopsy. Endoscopic grading of the
t
e
esophagus is based on the level of inflammation and
daily for up to 4 weeks.7,1 83 If symptoms are relieved after a mucosal damage. Two endoscopic classification
systems are used for the grading of esophagitis186,1 87
s
i
n
(Table 27-9). The Savary-Miller classification
short trial of a PPI (7 to 14 days), an empiric diagnosis of categorizes patients from grade 0 to grade 4 based on
GERD
a
l
the severity of mucosal erosions of the esophagus.186
The addition of a grade 5 was added to include the
may be made and other invasive and costly diagnostic meth
D
diagnosis of Barrett esophagus.188 Although this
classification system is no longer recommended in the
i
s
ods may be avoided.7,151,153,1 80,1 83,1 84 However, this United States, it is still used in many practices, as well
o
methodol as in Europe. The Los Angeles classification is
r
d
preferred because it is more specific and categorizes
ogy is not without its limitations. The test cannot differentiate patients from grades A to D based on the number of
e
r
mucosal breaks, their size, and the amount of surface
area with esophagitis involvement.187 There is no
s
disorders.7 The procedure is relatively RAs are effective in treating patients PPIs are the drugs of choice for patients
H2
noninvasive and inexpen sive when with frequent moderate to severe GERD
with mild to moder symptoms and esophagitis because they
compared with endoscopy. ate GERD, but
response rates vary with the severity of pro vide more rapid relief of symptoms
ESOPHAGEAL MANOMETRY disease, the dose of the drug, and the and esophageal healing than do H2RAs.
Esophageal manometry is used to When used in recommended dosages,
duration of therapy. H2RAs are
evaluate the patient's LES pres sure and
considered equally effective when used all of the PPIs provide similar rates of
esophageal peristalsis.8 This procedure in equipotent doses for symptomatic symptom relief and esophageal heal ing
does not have a specific role in the relief and esophageal healing (Table (Table 27-1). Their superior efficacy,
diagnosis of GERD, as it does not detect 27-1). They are effective in reducing when compared with H2RAs, is related
the presence of acid within the nocturnal symptoms but only modestly to their ability to maintain an intragastric
esophagus. It is used primarily to effective in relieving meal-related pH less than 4 for a long duration time
evaluate patients before 24-hour symptoms, as they only block one (up to 24 hours/day vs. up to 10 hours
continuous ambulatory pH monitoring mechanism of parietal cell activation (thewith a H2RA).
13,192
Typically, PPIs are
and antireflux surgical procedures (eg, 7 taken once
H receptor). H2 RAs relieve symptoms
Nissen fun doplication) to determine the 2
in about 50% to 60% of patients treated daily 30 to 60 minutes before breakfast,
location of the LES.8,1 89 after 12 weeks of continuous therapy but if a second dose is required, it
and are superior to placebo. 153,190 should be taken before the evening
CASE 27-4, QUESTION 2: LF's frequent severe
RA dose may not meal. A large meta-analysis of 16 trials
symptoms continue despite OTC famotidine 20 Increasing the H2 confirms that PPIs are supe rior to
mg orally twice daily and the presence of improve symp H RAs for achieving rapid and complete
warning signs warranted that she undergo toms in some patients.191 2
relief of GERD symptoms. Complete
endoscopy, which revealed moderate Esophageal healing requires higher
symptom relief (within 4–12 weeks) was
esophagitis (Los Angeles grade C), the doses (eg, famotidine 40 mg BID)
presence of an esophageal stric ture, and no compared with those used for symptom achieved in 77.4% of patients taking a
evidence of Barrett metaplasia. Esophageal PPI versus 47.6% of those taking an
relief (Table 27-1). Esophageal healing
dilation was performed during the procedure H2RA (p <0.0001).190 PPIs have also
rates with H2RAs are reported to be
to widen the lumen of the esophagus. What been shown to heal esophagitis more
treatment options exist for LF?
about 50% after 8 to 12 weeks of
treatment, but rates will vary depending quickly and effectively than H2RAs. In
the same meta-analysis, which
on the degree of esophagitis.153,176,190
evaluated 43 double-blinded or
Pharmacotherapy For example, endoscopic healing rates
single-blinded, randomized studies
in trials with high-dose H2RAs were (including patients with severe
ANTACIDS
approximately 60% to 90% in patients esophagitis), PPIs (83.6%) were more
Antacids are useful only in the relief of
with grades 1 and 2 esophagitis but
mild symptoms associated with GERD effective than H2RAs (51.9%) at healing
were only 30% to 50% in patients with
(see Nonpharmacologic Measures and erosive esophagitis at 12 weeks.190
more severe disease (grades 3 and 4
Self-Directed Treatment section). 90
7,1 Healing also occurred more quickly with
Because of their short duration of action esophagitis). Some investigators
PPI therapy in that by week 2, 63.4% of
and inability to heal erosive esophagitis, have attributed inadequate esophageal patients had healed with the PPI,
they are not an option for treating healing to the development of
whereas it took 12 weeks with the
moderate to severe GERD. 7,13 tachyphylaxis.180
H2RAs for 60.2% of patients to heal.190
Another large meta-analysis, which
HISTAMINE-2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS PROTON-PUMP INHIBITORS evaluated more than 33 randomized
trials, demonstrated similar results with rates with dexlansoprazole MR 60 mg
81.7% of patients healed at 8 weeks and lansoprazole 30 mg (92%–93% vs.
with a PPI versus 52.0% with an 86%–92%, respectively), but the results
H2RA.43 Esophageal healing among were not statistically significant.194 A
PPIs appears to be equivalent, as about higher dose of dexlansoprazole MR (90
85% to 90% of patients achieve mg daily) was superior to lansoprazole
complete healing at 8 weeks in (30 mg daily) in patients with more
numerous head-to-head trials with severe disease (Los Ange les
equivalent doses.38–41 One Classification grades C and D), but
meta-analysis, which compared these are not equipotent doses. In spite
esophageal healing rates among of the lack of supportive evidence, some
omeprazole 20 mg, lansoprazole 30 mg, clinicians prefer to use esomeprazole 40
pantoprazole 40 mg, and rabeprazole 20 mg/day or dexlansoprazole MR 60
mg (each given once daily), reported no mg/day for patients with severe erosive
statistical difference.37 However, all of esophagitis. The ability of a high-dose
the PPIs were superior to ranitidine 300 PPI to reverse Barrett 7metapla ,195
sia
to 600 mg/day. Esomeprazole 40 mg remains controversial. Although
once daily has been reported to be studies have demon strated islands of
superior to omeprazole 20 mg once normal squamous epithelium returning, 7
daily, both at 4 and 8 weeks, when used no data have determined that this is 2
to heal erosive esophagitis.193 How ever, associated with a risk reduc tion in
r
equipotent, and this study has been normal mucosa may actually mask h
equipotent doses of esomeprazole (40 quality of life has also been evaluated in
r
mg) and lansoprazole (30 mg), also sug patients receiving PPI therapy in the d
significant greater heal ing rates (92.6% comparing esomeprazole with ranitidine i
0.0001).40 In during a period of 6 months showed a
D
lansoprazole 30 mg with esomepra zole functioning and sleep with the PPI
i
197
s
mg once daily has been compared with Two prokinetic agents, metoclopramide
r
assess heal ing of erosive increase LES pressure and stimulate the e
194
esophagitis. The results using p
689 U
i
s
this case, LF, who presents with severe
o
r
esophagitis (Los Angeles grade C), will
d
e
require a PPI taken once daily in order
r
s
to relieve her symp toms and heal the
7 esophagus (Table 27-1). A reasonable
without altering gastric acid secretion.
Although these drugs may provide relief option for LF would be lansoprazole 30
of symptoms, they are ineffective in mg daily to be taken 30 to 60 minutes
healing erosive esophagitis unless they before breakfast each morning for the
next 8 weeks; however, if the cost of
are combined with an H2RA or PPI.
therapy is an issue, generic omeprazole
Prokinetics are not widely used to treat
40 mg daily would also be an acceptable
GERD because they are not as effective
alternative. LF should also be counseled
as other treatments and are associated
regarding lifestyle and dietary
with numerous side effects (sedation,
modifications, including smoking
anxiety, extrapyramidal symptoms,
cessation and abstinence from alcohol.
etc.).7,153 Prokinetics are reserved for She should avoid eating large meals
patients who are refractory to other before bedtime and may wish to elevate
available treatment options or who have the head of her bed by 6 to 8 inches with
delayed gastric emptying. wooden blocks.
S
e
c
SUCRALFATE
t
4
possibly mild esophagitis but is not
resolved in about 2 weeks after starting PPI
effective in the manage ment of severe
therapy, and she remained asymp tomatic after
G
disease.198 Given more effective options 8 weeks. She then underwent endoscopy
a at this time, sucralfate is rarely used in again, which revealed that the esophagus had
the management of GERD.
s
t
healed com pletely. Her primary-care physician
PPIs are considered the drugs of choice
r
o
then stopped the PPI. Now, 2 weeks later, she
for patients with frequent or severe
i
e
candidate for long-term maintenance therapy?
s
aspirin 81 mg daily, hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg daily, and White blood cell (WBC) count, 7,700/μL
atorvastatin 40 mg at bedtime. He also takes OTC famo Hgb,14.2 g/dL
tidine 20 mg daily as needed for dyspepsia. On examina tion, Hct, 45%
he complains of substernal crushing chest pain that has Platelets, 270,000/μL
lasted more than 1 hour. He is diaphoretic and extremely SCr, 1.1 mg/dL
anxious. He denies any shortness of breath, pain radiating to BUN, 11 mg/dL
upper extremities or jaw, or cough. His vital signs include a Total cholesterol, 161 mg/dL
temperature of 99.1◦F, blood pressure of 155/95 mm Hg, and Low-density lipoprotein, 96 mg/dL
heart rate of 115 beats/minute. Pertinent laboratory results at High-density lipoprotein, 30 mg/dL
this time are: Triglycerides, 190 mg/dL
Sodium, 141 mEq/L
Potassium, 4.1 mEq/L (twice-daily) PPI is used, is an effective diagnostic
Troponin I, 0.3 ng/mL tool and is associated with a reduction in costs com
Electrocardiogram reveals sinus tachycardia with no evi
pared with other diagnostic methods of
dence of ST-segment elevation, depression, or T-wave inver GERD.65,2 09,2 10 An appro priate workup for coronary
sion or new left bundle branch block. Because of SP's artery disease must be performed in all patients
cardiovascular risk factors and indeterminate troponin, he presenting with chest pain before considering a GI
underwent immediate diagnostic cardiac catheterization, cause or trial of antireflux therapy.65,2 08 This is
which showed normal coronary angiography and an ejection
especially impor tant in women, the elderly, and
fraction of 65%. SP was diagnosed with noncardiac chest
diabetic patients, as their initial presentation may be
pain (NCCP). Could SP's chest pain be associated with an
similar to GI complaints when in fact an acute
extraesophageal manifestation of GERD?
coronary syndrome is present. 7
are those signs and symptoms that occur outside of the ASTHMA AND GASTROESOPHAGEAL r
p
Noncardiac Chest Pain Pulmonary theory proposes that symptoms result from the direct
Ear, Nose, and Throat C hronic cough
irritation
Laryngitis/Pharyngitis Nonallergic, nonseasonal asthma r
Hoarseness Aspiration o
Globus sensation Bronchiectasis/bronchitis Laryngeal of the vagus nerve when refluxate comes into contact with
cancer Sleep apnea
the
Sinusitis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Otitis Pneumonia i
Other
Hypersalivation esophageal mucosa, resulting in reflex bronchospasm.212,2 13
Dental erosions In l
is usually described as crushing, squeezing, or acid into the lungs causes caustic injury of tissue within the
burning; retrosternal in location; and with or without t
or jaw. The pain is often temporary related to a meal bronchial tree, resulting in asthmatic symptoms.213,2 14 Signifi o
and continuing for hours. The onset of pain may cant controversy exists regarding the benefit of antireflux
coincide with a reflux episode, and symptoms are phar
often relieved by oral antacid therapy.7,208 Numerous
s
means to treat NCCP once cardiac etiology has been macotherapy in patients with asthma, especially in those
patients
ruled out through appropriate evaluation.208–210 r
p
patients in the GERD group were also able reduce
meta-analysis of trials that evaluated the effects of antireflux
their dose of inhaled corticosteroid and remained
t stable.216 Current National Insti tutes of Health
h guidelines for the management of asthma sug gest
that GERD and antireflux therapy be considered in
e patients with poorly controlled asthma, even if they do
217
r not have typi cal symptoms of GERD. These data
U
have led to the empiric use of PPIs in
apy on patients with asthma indicates that asthma difficult-to-manage asthmatic patients.65 However, a
symptoms improved in 69% of patients, that the use large randomized, double-blind trial evaluated
of asthma medica tions was reduced by 62%, and esomeprazole 40 mg twice daily versus placebo for 6
that only 26% of the subjects showed improvement in months in patients with poorly controlled asthma
evening peak expiratory flow rate. All other managed with inhaled corticosteroids, who lacked
pulmonary function tests showed little or no change typical GERD symptoms. Results revealed no benefit
with antireflux therapy.215 However, this in asthma control with the addition of a PPI, despite
meta-analysis only evaluated studies of up to 8 40% of the subjects demonstrating GERD by
weeks in duration. A more recent trial with ambulatory pH monitoring.218 The American
esomeprazole 40 mg daily for 3 months Gastroenterological Association position state ment
demonstrated improve ments in pulmonary function accepts the use of an empiric trial of twice-daily PPI
tests and a decreased use of short acting rescue for two months in asthmatic patients with a
bronchodilators in asthmatics with GERD com pared concomitant GERD
with asthmatics without GERD. One-third of the
d
pharyngeal mucosa to the refluxate as
e
r
well as the pH. Patients with
s
GERD-related hoarseness usually do
diagnosis, with the caveat that, if the
not have any other GERD-related
treatments fails, other causes be
symptoms.207 The diagnostic procedure
explored.65
of choice is laryngoscopy and should be
considered in all patients pre senting
OTOLARYNGOLOGY SYMPTOMS AND with GERD-related hoarseness. Once
GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE the diagnosis of GERD-related
GERD is the most common etiologic hoarseness or laryngitis is established,
factor in 60% of patients with chronic the patient will likely require extended
laryngitis219 and in 25% to 50% of high-dose PPI therapy with the under
patients with a globus sensation (the standing that the majority of patients will
feeling that something is caught in the relapse within 6 weeks once therapy is
throat).219 Symptoms relating to GERD discontinued.222
are responsible for up to 10% of the
patients seen by otolaryngologists.219 TREATMENT OF THE
The most likely mechanism for the EXTRAESOPHAGEAL MANIFESTATIONS
S pathophysiology of GERD-related OF GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX
e
laryngi tis is that damage and DISEASE
inflammation occurs at night while the Experts suggest that treatment should
c
t
i
o patient is sleeping. It is during this time be initiated with a high dose (twice-daily)
n
when upper esophageal sphincter PPI for at least 3 months before
4
pressures are especially low and the considering drug therapy to be
protective or neu tralizing mechanisms ineffective; however, data are lacking to
G of cough and salivation are sup port this recommendation with the
65
a
s
suppressed.220 This damage may be in exception of noncardiac chest pain.
addition to injury or laryngeal inflamma Recent guidelines suggest this empiric
t
tion sustained from other causes such strategy is accept able if concurrent
o
s
chronic throat clearing or cough, Alter natively, it is possible that GERD
t
i
vomiting, or injury from endotracheal may not be the cause of the patient's
tubes.207,221 The extent of injury in symptoms.
n
GERD related hoarseness is directly SP's chest pain is not of cardiac origin
l
i
based on angiographic findings. worry about risks with long-term therapy, Disease). Nonvariceal bleeding
Therefore, it is reasonable to presume patients with extraesophageal symptomsdescribes bleeding associ ated with
that he is hav ing an extraesophageal who have responded well to antireflux PUD or stress-related mucosal bleeding
manifestation of GERD. SP's symptoms therapy, or patients experiencing volume (SRMB). Other causes include erosive
were meal-related, and he has a history regurgita tion and aspiration of gastric esophagitis, Mallory-Weiss tear (a tear
of dyspepsia for which he takes an OTC contents who have not responded to PPI near the gastroesophageal junction
H2RA. The H2RA should be therapy.7,65,1 53,1 89 Despite the availability associated with retching or coughing),
discontinued, and SP should be given a of these surgical options, the and malignancy.5 Although PUD and
trial of empiric twice-daily PPI therapy consideration of antireflux surgery is one SRMB are both acid-related disorders,
for a period of 2 to 4 weeks. If symptoms in which the benefits should be heavily their presentation and pathophysiology
are severe, the use of endoscopy (to weighed against the risks of such an differ.
determine if esophageal damage is invasive approach, as these procedures
present) or 24-hour esophageal pH are not without potential complications.
monitoring (to correlate reflux events The effectiveness of these procedures Peptic Ulcer Bleeding
with symptomatic chest pain) is has been questioned, as many patients EPIDEMIOLOGY
appropriate. will still require drug therapy.7,65 SP has The majority of upper, nonvariceal GI
responded well to high-dose PPI therapy bleeding is caused by PUD.4,5,223,2 24
Antireflux Surgery for his NCCP, but he describes some Bleeding ulcers account for more than
financial difficulties with affording his 400,000 hospitalizations in the United
CASE 27-5, QUESTION 2: SP responded well med ications. Alternatively, he is 64 States each year.224 As men tioned, the
to the trial of omeprazole 40 mg orally twice years of age, which may increase the mortality rate for peptic ulcer bleeding
daily and has not had chest pain in 2 months. risk associated with surgery. SP should can be as high as 15%. It has been
He has heard that surgical options exist that be referred for fur ther medical suggested that an older presenting
may eliminate his need for medications, as they evaluation to determine whether he is a patient population (>60 years of age)
are very expensive for him. Is SP a candidate candidate for antireflux surgery. with a greater number of comorbidities
for antireflux surgery?
may account for this continued high
Numerous surgical and endoscopic mortal ity rate.3,2 23–225 Fortunately, the
UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL vast majority (80%) of upper GI bleeding
procedures exist for patients with GERD.
These include, but are not limited to, Nis BLEEDING events are self-limited and require only
sen fundoplication, Toupet partial minimal intervention.3 Length of stay has
Upper GI bleeding is a common medical been dramatically reduced in the
fundoplication, Belsey Mark IV repair,
emergency that occurs in up to 160 majority of patients who receive early
and the Hill posterior gastropexy repair,
cases per 100,000 adults annually and endoscopy (within 24 hours of
as well as newer endoscopic
is associated with increased morbidity
techniques.7 The primary goal of these admission).223,2 24 However, in the 20%
and mortality as well as substantial costs
pro to 25% of patients who continue to bleed
to the health care system.223,224 Despite or rebleed after appropriate intervention,
cedures is to restore LES pressure by
advances in endo scopic hemostatic
repairing a hiatal hernia or mortality increases to nearly 40%.5,226
therapy and pharmacotherapy, the
diaphragmatic hiatus. Appropriate
mortality rate associated with upper GI
candidates include patients who are in a
bleeding remains at 5% to 15%, which is PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
good health and request another
the same as it has been for the last 20 toThe most common causes of upper GI
treatment option as a result of poor 3,4, 223,2
24 bleeding in patients with PUD are
medication adherence, patients who are 40 years. Upper GI bleeding can
81
unable to afford their medication, be categorized as either variceal or non NSAID use and H. pylori infection.
Bleeding occurs when an ulcer extends
patients who suffer from side effects or variceal bleeding (see Chapter 29,
Complications of End-Stage Liver deeper into the mucosa and erodes the