CH 6APTER

Struktur Geologi
Gaya Tektonik Bekerja
Stres dan Ketegangan di Litosfer Bumi Bagaimana
Bebatuan Berperilaku Saat Tertekan?
Struktur sebagai Catatan dari Lipatan Geologi Masa Lalu
Peta Geologi dan Metode Lapangan

Geometri Lipatan
Deskripsi Lebih Lanjut tentang Lipatan

Fraktur di Rock
Sendi
Kesalahan

Ringkasan

saya Bumi dipengaruhi oleh atmosfer, hidrosfer,

dan biosfer. KamiPada bab lain,
sekarang kita membahas
mengalihkan bagaimana
fokus kami batuan
ke proses di permukaan
masuk

sistem Bumi padat, atau geosfer. Dalam bab ini, kami menjelaskan bagaimana
batuan merespons gaya tektonik yang disebabkan oleh pergerakan lempeng
litosfer dan bagaimana ahli geologi mempelajari struktur geologi yang dihasilkan.
Mempelajari geologi struktur sangat mirip dengan melihat arsitektur kerak dan
mencoba menghubungkan bagaimana batuan yang dulunya diendapkan di
bawah air dalam lapisan horizontal sekarang ditemukan bengkok (terlipat) dan
patah (patahan) beberapa kilometer di atas permukaan laut.

Bab-bab selanjutnya akan membutuhkan pemahaman dan

pengetahuan tentang geologi struktural seperti yang disajikan dalam bab ini.
Untuk memahami gempa bumi, misalnya, seseorang harus mengetahui
tentang sesar. Menghargai bagaimana sabuk gunung utama dan benua telah
berevolusi (Bab 5) membutuhkan pemahaman tentang patahan dan lipatan.
Memahami teori lempeng-tektonik secara keseluruhan (bab 4)

Batuan yang dulunya horizontal telah berubah menjadi lipatan selama pembangunan gunung,
Damaraland, Namibia, Afrika. Foto © Michael Fogden /
Hewan, Hewan / Pemandangan Bumi

135

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juga membutuhkan pengetahuan tentang geologi struktural. (Teori
lempeng-tektonik dikembangkan terutama untuk menjelaskan fitur struktural
tertentu.) Di daerah tektonik aktif, lokasi struktur geologi penting dalam pemilihan
lokasi yang aman untuk sekolah, rumah sakit, bendungan, jembatan, dan fasilitas
tenaga nuklir.
Selain itu, memahami geologi struktural dapat membantu kita lebih memahami
masalah menemukan lebih banyak sumber daya alam di Bumi yang semakin
menipis. Bab 21 membahas asosiasi struktur geologi tertentu dengan deposit
minyak bumi dan sumber daya berharga lainnya.

KEKUATAN TEKTONIK DI BEKERJA
Stres dan Ketegangan di Litosfer Bumi
Gaya tektonik merusak bagian litosfer, terutama di sepanjang tepi lempeng. Deformasi
dapat menyebabkan perubahan orientasi, lokasi, dan bentuk badan batuan. Pada
Gambar 6.1, lapisan batuan yang awalnya horizontal telah berubah bentuk menjadi
lipatan seperti gelombang yang dipatahkan oleh sesar. Lapisan-lapisan tersebut telah
berubah bentuk, mungkin oleh gaya tektonik yang mendorong atau memampatkan
lapisan-lapisan tersebut bersama-sama sampai mereka dipersingkat dengan tekuk dan
pecah.
Saat mempelajari batuan yang cacat, ahli geologi struktural biasanya mengacu menekankan,
Silly Putty ® akan diratakan dengan memperpendek ke arah yang sejajar dengan tegangan
gaya per satuan luas. Jika tegangan dapat diukur, gaya ini dinyatakan sebagai gaya
per satuan luas pada titik tertentu; namun, sulit untuk mengukur tekanan pada batuan
yang terkubur. Kita dapat mengamati efek stres masa lalu (disebabkan oleh
gaya tektonik dan tekanan pembatas dari penguburan) ketika tubuh batuan terpapar
setelah pengangkatan dan erosi. Dari pengamatan kami, kami mungkin dapat
menyimpulkan arah utama stres yang terjadi. Kita juga dapat mengamati pada batuan
yang terpapar pengaruh gaya pada batuan yang tertekan. Regangan adalah perubahan
bentuk atau ukuran (volume), atau keduanya, sebagai respons terhadap stres.
Hubungan antara tegangan dan regangan dapat diilustrasikan dengan
mendeformasi sepotong Silly Putty ® ( gambar 6.2) atau bahan lunak lainnya
seperti adonan pizza. Jika Silly Putty ® didorong bersama-sama atau diperas
dari arah yang berlawanan, kita sebut stres tekan. Hasil tegangan tekan pada
batuan
dipersingkat atau diratakan. Pada Gambar 6.2 SEBUAH, sepotong Silly Putty yang
memanjang ® dapat mempersingkat dengan menekuk, atau melipat, sedangkan bola dari
tekan dan memanjang atau meregang ke arah tegak lurus terhadapnya. Batuan yang telah
diperpendek atau diratakan biasanya ditemukan di sepanjang batas lempeng konvergen di
mana batuan didorong atau didorong bersama.

GAMBAR 6.1
Lapisan sedimen yang berubah bentuk terlihat di potongan jalan dekat Palmdale, California. Terjepit akibat pergerakan di sepanjang patahan San Andreas menyebabkan lapisan sedimen tersumbat menjadi lipatan dan pecah oleh patahan yang lebih
kecil. Foto oleh CC Plummer

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Stres yang menekan Dipersingkat Dek kartu Regangan geser

GAMBAR 6.3
Regangan geser dapat dimodelkan dengan menggeser setumpuk kartu.
SEBUAH Diratakan

Stres tensional Peregangan atau ekstensi

Elastis

B Peregangan dan pemecahan

GAMBAR 6.2
Pengaruh tekanan kompresi dan tensional pada Silly Putty ®. ( SEBUAH) Mengompresi Silly Putty ® menghasilkan pemendekan
baik dengan melipat atau meratakan. ( B) Menarik (tegangan tensional) Silly Putty ® menyebabkan peregangan atau ekstensi;
jika ditarik (tegang) terlalu cepat, atau didinginkan, Silly Putty ® akan pecah setelah peregangan pertama. Regangan

ttle
GAMBAR 6.4
Bri
Stress

Grafik menunjukkan perilaku batuan dengan meningkatnya tegangan dan regangan. Perilaku elastis terjadi di sepanjang bagian garis

SEBUAH stres tensional disebabkan oleh gaya-gaya yang menarik diri dari
satu sama lain ke arah berlawanan (gambar 6.2 B). Hasil stres tensional a peregangan
atau ekstensi bahan. Jika kita menerapkan tekanan tensional pada bola dari Silly
Putty ®, itu akan memanjang atau meregang sejajar dengan tegangan yang diberikan.
Jika tegangan tensional diterapkan dengan cepat, Silly Putty ® pertama-tama akan
meregang dan kemudian pecah (gambar 6.2 B). Pada batas lempeng divergen, litosfer
mengalami perluasan saat lempeng menjauh satu sama lain. Karena batuan sangat
lemah saat ditarik, patahan dan sesar merupakan struktur yang umum.
lurus (ditampilkan dalam warna biru) pada grafik. Pada tekanan yang lebih besar dari batas elastis (titik merah), batuan akan berubah
bentuk sebagai material ulet atau pecah, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada silinder batuan yang mengalami deformasi.
dilepas, karet gelang kembali (atau pulih) ke bentuk aslinya dan perilakunya elastis.
Silly Putty ® akan berperilaku elastis jika dibentuk menjadi bola dan dipantulkan.
Kebanyakan batuan dapat berperilaku elastis pada tegangan yang sangat rendah
(beberapa kilobar). Namun, setelah stres yang diterapkan melebihi batas elastis ( angka

Ketika tegangan bertindak sejajar dengan bidang, tegangan geser diproduksi. Ini
seperti meletakkan setumpuk kartu di tangan Anda dan menggeser dek dengan
menggerakkan tangan Anda ke arah yang berlawanan (gambar 6.3). Hasil tegangan
geser a regangan geser sejajar dengan arah tegangan. Tegangan geser terjadi di
sepanjang sesar yang bergerak aktif.
Bagaimana Bebatuan Berperilaku Saat Tertekan?
Batuan berperilaku sebagai bahan elastis, ulet, atau rapuh, tergantung pada
jumlah dan laju tegangan yang diterapkan, jenis batuan, serta suhu dan
tekanan batuan yang diregangkan.
Jika bahan yang cacat mendapatkan kembali bentuk aslinya setelah tegangan
dikurangi atau dihilangkan, perilakunya adalah elastis. Misalnya, jika tegangan tensional
diterapkan pada karet gelang, karet akan meregang selama tegangan diterapkan, tetapi
begitu tegangannya hilang
6.4), batuan akan berubah bentuk secara permanen, seperti karet gelang akan patah jika
direntangkan terlalu jauh.
Batuan yang berperilaku di a elastis atau plastik akan membengkok saat
berada di bawah tekanan dan tidak kembali ke bentuk semula setelah tegangan
dihilangkan. Silly Putty ® berperilaku sebagai bahan ulet kecuali laju regangannya
cepat. Sebagaimana dibahas dalam bab 15, batuan yang terpapar tekanan dan suhu
tinggi selama metamorfosis regional juga berperilaku ulet dan mengembangkan
tekstur planar, atau foliation, karena keselarasan mineral. Seperti yang ditunjukkan
pada gambar 6.4, material yang berperilaku ulet tidak memerlukan banyak
peningkatan tegangan untuk melanjutkan regangan (kurva yang relatif datar).
Perilaku ulet menghasilkan batuan yang mengalami deformasi permanen terutama
dengan melipat atau menekuk lapisan batuan (gambar 6.1).
Pameran batu rapuh perilaku akan retak pada tegangan yang lebih tinggi
dari batas elastisnya, atau setelah tegangan lebih besar dari kekuatan batuan.
Batuan biasanya terlihat rapuh

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perilaku di atau dekat permukaan bumi, di mana suhu dan tekanan rendah.
Dalam kondisi ini, batuan lebih menyukai patah daripada menekuk. Sesar dan
sambungan adalah contoh struktur yang terbentuk oleh perilaku kerak yang
rapuh.
Batuan sedimen yang terpapar di permukaan bumi bersifat rapuh; itu akan patah jika
Anda memukulnya dengan palu. Lalu bagaimana batuan sedimen, seperti yang
ditunjukkan pada gambar 6.1, menjadi bengkok (atau berubah bentuk menjadi ulet)?
Jawabannya adalah bahwa tekanan meningkat sangat lambat atau batuan itu berubah
bentuk di bawah tekanan yang cukup membatasi (terkubur di bawah lebih banyak batu)
dan suhu yang lebih tinggi.
Perhatikan, bagaimanapun, bahwa ada beberapa patahan (patahan) yang
mengganggu lapisan bengkok pada Gambar 6.1. Ini memberi tahu kita bahwa meskipun
batuan awalnya ulet, jumlah tekanan meningkat atau laju regangan meningkat dan batuan
tersebut retak.
masalah yang berkaitan dengan keputusan teknik dan risiko seismik, seperti
menentukan lokasi yang paling tepat untuk membangun bendungan, jembatan besar,
atau reaktor nuklir, dan bahkan rumah, sekolah, dan rumah sakit.
Peta Geologi dan Metode Lapangan
Dalam situasi yang ideal, seorang ahli geologi yang mempelajari struktur akan dapat terbang
di atas suatu daerah dan melihat pola batuan dasar lokal dan regional dari atas.
Kadang-kadang hal ini dimungkinkan, tetapi seringkali tanah dan tumbuh-tumbuhan
menutupi batuan dasar. Oleh karena itu, ahli geologi biasanya menggunakan pengamatan
dari sejumlah individu
singkapan ( eksposur batuan dasar di permukaan) dalam menentukan pola struktur
geologi (gambar 6.5). Karakteristik batuan pada setiap singkapan di suatu daerah diplot
pada peta dengan menggunakan simbol-simbol yang sesuai. Dengan data yang dapat
dikumpulkan, seorang ahli geologi dapat membuat kesimpulan tentang bagian-bagian
tersebut

STRUKTUR SEBAGAI REKAM MASA

LALU GEOLOGI
Beberapa struktur geologi yang memberi kita petunjuk ke masa lalu telah
dijelaskan di bab-bab sebelumnya. Batholiths, stock, tanggul, dan kusen,
misalnya, adalah kunci untuk aktivitas beku masa lalu (lihat bab 11 tentang
aktivitas intrusif). Dalam bab ini, kami terutama membahas jenis struktur yang
dapat memberikan catatan deformasi kerak yang tidak lagi aktif. Struktur yang
sangat tua yang sekarang terlihat di permukaan bumi pernah terkubur dan
diekspos melalui erosi.

Studi tentang struktur geologi lebih dari sekedar kepentingan akademis.

Industri perminyakan dan pertambangan, misalnya, mempekerjakan ahli geologi
untuk mencari dan memetakan struktur geologi yang terkait dengan minyak dan
deposit bijih logam. Pemahaman dan pemetaan struktur geologi juga penting untuk
evaluasi

GAMBAR 6.6
Lapisan sedimen miring di sepanjang pantai California utara dekat Point Arena. Di sini, strike adalah garis
GAMBAR 6.5 yang dibentuk oleh perpotongan lapisan sedimen yang miring dan lapisan pasir horizontal di latar depan.
Mahasiswa geologi memetakan lapisan batuan miring dari titik pandang di puncak bubungan, Gurun Mojave, California. Foto Arah penurunan mengarah ke kiri. Foto oleh Diane Carlson
oleh Diane Carlson

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area yang tidak bisa dia amati. SEBUAH peta geologi, yang menggunakan simbol
dan pola standar untuk merepresentasikan jenis batuan dan struktur geologi,
biasanya dihasilkan dari peta lapangan untuk suatu wilayah tertentu (misalnya, Garis
menyerang
lihat peta geologi Amerika Utara di dalam sampul depan). Pada peta seperti itu
diplot jenis dan distribusi satuan batuan, terjadinya fitur struktural (lipatan, patahan,
Arah
sambungan, dll.), Endapan bijih, dan sebagainya. Kadang-kadang fitur permukaan, air dari dip

seperti endapan oleh gletser sebelumnya, disertakan, tetapi ini dapat ditampilkan
secara terpisah pada jenis peta geologi yang berbeda.
Sudut kemiringan

Utara
30
Siapapun yang terlatih dalam penggunaan peta geologi dapat memperoleh
banyak informasi tentang struktur geologi lokal karena simbol dan istilah standar
digunakan pada peta dan laporan yang menyertainya. Misalnya simbol ⊕ pada
peta geologi menunjukkan lapisan horizontal dalam singkapan. Warna dan pola
yang berbeda pada peta geologi menunjukkan satuan batuan yang berbeda. ds
y be
n tar
di me
Se
GAMBAR 6.7
Serangan, arah kemiringan, dan sudut kemiringan. Garis pemogokan ditemukan di mana lapisan miring
Strike dan Dip memotong bidang horizontal (seperti yang ditunjukkan di sini oleh air). Arah kemiringan selalu tegak lurus
terhadap pukulan dan ke arah lereng alas (atau bola akan menggelinding ke bawah). Sudut kemiringan adalah
Menurut prinsip horizontalitas asli, batuan sedimen dan beberapa aliran lava sudut vertikal dari alas miring yang diukur dari horizontal.
dan abu diendapkan sebagai lapisan atau strata horizontal. Jika batuan yang
semula horizontal ini ditemukan miring, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kemiringan
pasti terjadi setelah pengendapan dan litifikasi (gambar 6.6). Seseorang yang
mempelajari peta geologi daerah tersebut ingin mengetahui sejauh mana dan tingkat, dan alat untuk mengukur sudut kemiringan. Selain mencatat pemogokan dan pengukuran

arah kemiringannya. Secara konvensi, ini ditentukan dengan memplot dip dalam buku catatan lapangan, seorang ahli geologi yang memetakan suatu daerah

hubungan antara permukaan alas miring dan bidang horizontal imajiner. Anda menggambar simbol pemogokan dan kemiringan pada peta lapangan, seperti atau

dapat memahami hubungan tersebut dengan melihat secara cermat pada untuk setiap singkapan dengan mencelupkan atau dimiringkan

Gambar 6.7, yang mewakili lapisan sedimen yang terpapar di sepanjang danau tempat tidur. Pada peta, perpotongan dari dua garis di tengah setiap simbol strike
(permukaan danau menyediakan bidang horizontal yang sesuai untuk dan dip merepresentasikan lokasi singkapan dimana pukulan dan penurunan
pembahasan ini). batuan dasar diukur. Garis panjang simbol tersebut sejajar dengan arah kompas
pemogokan. Tanda centang kecil, yang selalu digambar tegak lurus dengan garis
pemogokan, diletakkan di satu sisi atau sisi lainnya, tergantung dari dua arah
Menyerang adalah arah kompas dari garis yang dibentuk oleh perpotongan bidang mana alas benar-benar menukik. Sudut kemiringan diberikan
miring dengan bidang horizontal. Dalam contoh ini, bidang miring adalah bidang alas
tidur. Anda dapat melihat dari gambar 6.7 bahwa bedengan-bedengan tersebut membujur
dari utara ke selatan. Biasanya, hanya arah utara (dari garis pemogokan) yang diberikan,
jadi kita hanya mengatakan bahwa tempat tidur menghantam utara sejumlah derajat timur
atau barat (seperti N50 ° BT).

Perhatikan bahwa sudut kemiringan diukur ke bawah dari bidang

horizontal ke bidang alas tidur (bidang miring). Perhatikan bahwa sudut
kemiringan (30 ° pada gambar) diukur dalam bidang vertikal yang tegak
lurus dengan alas tidur dan bidang horizontal.

Itu arah penurunan adalah arah kompas di mana sudut kemiringan

diukur. Jika Anda bisa menggulirkan bola ke bawah permukaan alas tidur,
arah kompas di mana bola digulingkan adalah arah kemiringan.

Sudut kemiringan selalu diukur pada sudut siku-siku terhadap pemogokan — yaitu,
tegak lurus dengan garis pemogokan seperti yang ditunjukkan pada gambar 6.7. Karena
unggun dapat menukik menjauh dari garis pemogokan di salah satu dari dua arah yang
memungkinkan, arah umum kemiringan juga ditentukan — dalam contoh ini, barat.

Sebuah instrumen yang dirancang khusus disebut transit saku Brunton (setelah GAMBAR 6.8
penemu) digunakan oleh ahli geologi untuk mengukur pemogokan dan penurunan Mahasiswa Geologi mengukur pemogokan dan penurunan lapisan batu kapur di Pegunungan Putih
(gambar 6.8). Transit saku berisi kompas, California selatan. Foto oleh Diane Carlson

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Tampilan peta

Serpih

30

30 Batu pasir

30 30

Batu gamping
SEBUAH
B
N

30
0 1

Kilometer

Barat Timur
SEBUAH B

30
menukik

Persilangan

GAMBAR 6.9
Peta geologi dan penampang suatu wilayah dengan tiga formasi sedimen. (Setiap formasi mungkin mengandung
banyak lapisan sedimen individu, seperti yang dijelaskan pada bab 14.) Lapisan-lapisan membujur ke utara dan
turun 30 ° ke barat. Penampang geologi (potongan vertikal) dibangun di antara titik-titik SEBUAH dan B di peta.

GAMBAR 6.10
Lapisan batuan sedimen yang terlipat terlihat di Lulworth Cove, Dorset, Inggris. Foto © Tom Bean

sebagai angka di sebelah simbol yang sesuai di peta. Jadi,

25
indicates that the bed is dipping 25° from the horizontal toward the
northwest and the strike is northeast (assuming that the top of the page is
north). The orientation of the bed would be written N45°E, 25°NW. Figure 6.9
is a geologic map with cross section that shows all the sedimentary layers
striking north and dipping 30° to the west (N0°, 30°W).
Beds with vertical dip require a unique symbol because they dip neither
to the left nor the right of the direction of strike. The symbol used is , which
indicates that the beds are striking northeast and that they are vertical
(N30°E, 90°).
Geologic Cross Sections
A geologic cross section represents a vertical slice through a portion of
Earth. It is much like a road cut (see figure 6.1) or the wall of a quarry in that
it shows the orientation of rock units and structures in the vertical dimension.
Geologic cross sections are constructed from geologic maps by projecting
the dip of rock units into the subsurface (figure 6.9), and are quite useful in
helping visualize geology in three dimensions. They are used extensively
throughout this book as well as in professional publications.
FOLDS
Folds are bends or wavelike features in layered rock. Folded rock can be
compared to several layers of rugs or blankets that have been pushed into a
series of arches and troughs. Folds in rock often can be seen in road cuts or
other exposures (figure
6.10). When the arches and troughs of folds are concealed (or when they
exist on a grand scale), geologists can still determine the presence of folds
by noticing repeated reversals in the direction of dip taken on outcrops in the
field or shown on a geologic map.
The fact that the rock is folded or bent shows that it behaved as a
ductile material. Yet the rock exposed in outcrops is generally brittle and
shatters when struck with a hammer. The rock is not metamorphosed
(most metamorphic rock is intensely folded because it is ductile under the
high pressure and temperature environment of deep burial and tectonic
stresses). Perhaps folding took place when the rock was buried at a
moderate depth where higher temperature and confining pressure favor
ductile behavior. Alternatively, folding could have taken place close to the
surface under a very low rate of strain.

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Geometry of Folds exposed bedrock, as shown in figure 6.12. (In the field, of course, the cross
sections are not exposed to view as they are in the diagram.)
Determining the geometry or shape of folds may have important economic
implications because many oil and gas deposits (see box 6.1) and some Figure 6.12 also illustrates how determining the relative ages of the rock
metallic mineral deposits are localized in folded rocks. The geometry of folds layers, or beds, can tell us whether a structure is an anticline or a syncline.
is also important in unraveling how a rock was strained and how it might be Observe that the oldest exposed rocks are along the hinge line of the
related to the movement of tectonic plates. Folds are usually associated with anticline. This is because lower layers in the originally flat-lying sedimentary
shortening of rock layers along convergent plate boundaries but are also or volcanic rock were moved upward and are now in the core of the anticline.
commonly formed where rock has been sheared along a fault. The youngest rocks, on the other hand, which were originally in the upper
layers, were folded downward and are now exposed along the synclinal hinge
line.
Because folds are wavelike forms, two basic fold geometries are
common—anticlines and synclines (figure 6.11).
An anticline is a fold shaped like an arch with the oldest rocks in the Plunging Fold
center of the fold. Usually the rock layers dip away from the hinge line ( or axis)
The examples shown so far have been of folds with horizontal hinge lines.
of the fold. The counterpart of an anticline is a syncline, a fold shaped like a
These are the easiest to visualize. In nature, however, anticlines and synclines
trough with the youngest rocks in the center of the fold. The layered rock
are apt to be plunging folds —that is, folds in which the hinge lines are not
usually dips toward the syncline’s hinge line. In the series of folds shown in
horizontal. On a surface leveled by erosion, the patterns of exposed strata
figure 6.11, two anticlines are separated by a syncline. Each anticline and
(beds) resemble V s or horseshoes (figures 6.13 and 6.14) rather than the
adjacent syncline share a limb. Note the hinge lines on the crests of the two
parallel, striped patterns of layers in nonplunging folds. However, plunging
anticlines and bottom of the syncline. Similar hinge lines could be located in
anticlines and synclines are distinguished from one another in the same way
the hinge areas at the contacts between any two adjacent folded layers. For
as are nonplunging folds—by directions of dip or by relative ages of beds.
each anticline and the syncline, the hinge lines are contained within the
shaded vertical planes. Each of these planes is an

A plunging syncline contains the youngest rocks in its center or core, and
the V or horseshoe points in the direction opposite of the plunge. Conversely, a
axial plane, an imaginary plane containing all of the hinge lines of a fold. The
plunging anticline contains the oldest rocks in its core, and the V points in the
axial plane divides the fold into its two limbs.
same direction as the plunge of the fold.
It is important to remember that anticlines are not necessarily related to
ridges nor synclines to valleys, because valleys and ridges are nearly always
erosional features. In an area that has been eroded to a plain, the presence of
underlying anticlines and synclines is determined by the direction of dipping Hinge line of syncline Hinge line of anticline
beds in
Youngest rock
exposed on Oldest rock
surface unit exposed
on surface

25
Axial planes

Hinge line
25 25
25
10

Hinge 25
30
line
Hinge lines
10

Sy 25
ncl
in e
Lim

Lim
b

b
b

An
Lim

ticl
ine
b
m
Li

b
Anticline Syncline m Anticline
Li Oldest rock unit
FIGURE 6.12
FIGURE 6.11 By measuring the strike and dip of exposed sedimentary beds in the field and plotting them on a geologic
Diagrammatic sketch of two anticlines and a syncline illustrating the axial planes, hinge lines, and fold map (top surface) geologists can interpret the geometry of the geologic structure below the ground surface.
limbs.

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 Hinge line Hinge line
Hinge line
of plunging anticline of plunging
syncline
Axial
plane
Youngest
formation

FIGURE 6.13
( A) Plunging fold that is cut by a horizontal plane has a V-shaped pattern. ( B) Plung- ing anticline on left
and right and plunging syncline in center. The hinge lines plunge toward front of block diagram and lie Oldest
formation Axial planes
within the axial planes of the folds. B

Older rocks

Younger rocks

Geologist’s View

FIGURE 6.14
Rock layers dip away from center of a
plunging anticline exposed at Sheep
Mountain in Wyoming. Anticline plunges
toward the bot- tom of the photo. Photo
© Michael Collier

142

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 Structural Domes and Structural Basins
A structural dome is a structure in which the beds dip away from a central
point, and the oldest rocks are found in the center or core of the structure. In
cross section, a dome resembles an anticline and is sometimes called a
doubly plunging anticline. In a structural basin, the beds dip toward a central
point, and the youngest rocks are exposed in the center of the structure
(figure 6.15); in cross section, it is comparable to a syncline (doubly plunging
syncline). A structural basin is like a set of nested bowls. If the set of bowls is
turned upside down, it is analogous to a structural dome.

Domes and basins tend to be features on a grand scale (some are more
than a hundred kilometers across), formed by uplift somewhat greater (for
domes) or less (for basins) than that of the rest of a region. Michigan’s lower
peninsula and parts of adjoining states and Ontario are on a large structural
basin (see map on the inside front cover). Domes of similar size are found in
FIGURE 6.16
other parts of the Middle West. Smaller domes are found in the Rocky Mountains
Dome near Casper, Wyoming. The ridges are sedimentary layers that are resistant to erosion. Beds dip
(figure 6.16). away from the center of the dome where the oldest rock layers are exposed. Photo by D. A. Rahm,
courtesy of Rahm Memorial Collection, Western Washington University

Domes and anticlines (as well as some other structures) are important to
the world’s petroleum resources, as described in chapter 21.

Further Description of Folds

Folds occur in many varieties and sizes. Some are studied under the
microscope, while others can have adjacent hinge lines tens of kilometers
Oldest layer exposed at the surface
Youngest layer apart. Some folds are a kilometer or more in height. Figure 6.17 shows
several of the more common types of folds. Open folds ( figure 6.17 A) have
limbs that dip gently, and the angle between the limbs is large. All other
factors being equal, the more open the fold, the less it has been strained by
shortening. By contrast, if the angle between the limbs of the fold is small,
then the fold is a tight fold. An isoclinal fold, one in which limbs are nearly
parallel to one another, implies even larger shortening strain or shear strain
(figure 6.17 B).

A fold that has a vertical axial plane is referred to as an

upright fold. However, where the axial plane of a fold is not vertical but is
A
inclined or tipped over, the fold may be classified as asymmetric. If the axial
Oldest layer exposed
Youngest layer plane is inclined to such a degree that the fold limbs dip in the same
at the surface
direction, the fold is classified as an overturned fold ( figure 6.17 C). Looking
at an outcrop where only the overturned limb of a fold is exposed, you would
probably conclude that the youngest bed is at the top. The principles of superposition
( see chapter 8), however, cannot be applied to determine top and bottom for
overturned beds. You must either see the rest of the fold or find primary
sedimentary structures within the beds such as mud cracks that indicate the
original top or upward direction.

Recumbent folds ( figure 6.17 D) are overturned to such an extent that

the limbs are essentially horizontal. Recumbent folds are found in the cores
of mountain ranges such as the Canadian Rockies, Alps, and Himalayas and
B
record extreme shortening and shearing of the crust typically associated with
FIGURE 6.15 plate convergence.
( A) Structural dome. ( B) Structural basin.

143

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 A Open folds

B Isoclinal folds

C Overturned folds

FIGURE 6.17
Various types of folds. The length of the arrows in A through D is proportional to the amount and direction of
shortening and shearing that caused folding. ( A) Open folds in Spain (they are plunging away from the
people). ( B) Tight to isoclinal folds from the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming. ( C) Overturned anticline from
northern California. ( D) Recumbent folds in the Alps. Photo A by C. C. Plummer; photos B and C by Diane
Carlson; photo D courtesy of Professor John Ramsay, from J. G. Ramsay & M. J. Huber, The
Techniques of Modern Structural Geology, v. 2., © 1987 Academic Press
D Recumbent folds

144

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 www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 145

FRACTURES IN ROCK
If a rock is brittle, it will fracture. Commonly, there is some movement or
displacement. If essentially no shear displacement occurs, a fracture or
crack in bedrock is called a joint.
If the rock on either side of a fracture moves parallel to the fracture plane,
the fracture is a fault. Most rock at or near the surface is brittle, so nearly all
exposed bedrock is jointed to some extent.

Joints
In discussing volcanoes, we described columnar jointing, in which hexagonal
columns form as the result of contraction of a cooling, solidified lava flow. Sheet
jointing, a type of jointing due to expansion (discussed along with weathering
in chapter 12), is caused by the pressure release due to removal of overlying
rock and has the effect of creating tensional stress perpendicular to the land
surface.

Columnar and sheet joints are examples of fractures that form from
nontectonic stresses and are therefore referred to as primary joints. In this
chapter, we are concerned with joints that form not from cooling or unloading
but from tectonic stresses.
Joints are one of the most commonly observed structures in rocks
(figure 6.18). A joint is a fracture or crack in a rock body along which
essentially no displacement has occurred. Joints form at shallow depths in
the crust where rock breaks in a brittle way and is pulled apart slightly by
tensional stresses caused by bending or regional uplift. Where joints are
oriented approximately parallel to one another, a
FIGURE 6.18
Vertical joints in sedimentary rock at Moab, Utah, formed in response to tectonic uplift of the region. Photo ©
Michael Collier joint set can be defined.
Geologists sometimes find valuable ore deposits by studying the
orientation of joints. For example, hydrothermal
solutions may migrate upward through a set of joints and deposit
quartz and economically important minerals such as gold, silver,
copper, and zinc in the cracks (figure 6.19). Accurate information
about joints also is important in the planning and construction of
large engineering projects, particularly dams and reservoirs. If the
bedrock at a proposed location is intensely jointed, the possibility of
dam failure or reservoir leakage may make that site too hazardous.
The movement of contaminated ground water from unlined landfills
and abandoned mines may also be controlled by joints, which results
in difficult and costly cleanups.

FIGURE 6.19
Fractures in altered granitic rock are filled with quartz, copper, and
iron sulfides (chalcopyrite and pyrite). Sil- ver Bell mine, Arizona. Photo
by Diane Carlson

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 146 CHAPTER 6 Geologic Structures

IN GREATER DEPTH 6.1

Is There Oil Beneath My Property? First

Check the Geologic Structure

A does
n “oil notcan
pool” fill caves underground,
exist only as the
under certain term pool
conditions. mayoil
Crude sug-
gest; rather, it Impermeable
cap rock
simply occupies the pore spaces of certain sedimen- tary rocks, such as poorly Oil well
cemented sandstone, in which void space exists between grains. Natural gas (less
dense) often occupies the pore spaces above the crude oil, while water (more
dense) is gener- ally found saturating the rock below the oil pool (box figure 1).

A source rock, which is always a sedimentary rock, must be present for oil to Gas
form. The sediment of the source rock has to include remains of organisms buried
Oil
during sedimentation. This organic matter partially decomposes into petroleum and
natural gas. Once formed, the droplets of petroleum tend to migrate, following frac-
Water
tures and interconnecting pore spaces. Being less dense than the rock, the
Permeable
petroleum usually migrates upward, although horizontal migration does occur.
reservoir
rocks

If it is not blocked by impermeable rock, the oil may migrate all the way to the A
surface, where it is dissipated and permanently lost. Natural oil seeps, where
leakage of petroleum is taking place, exist both on land and offshore. Where
impermeable rock blocks the oil droplets’ path of migration, an oil pool may accu-
mulate below the rock, much like helium-filled balloons might col- lect under a
domed ceiling. For any significant amount of oil to collect, the rock below the
impermeable rock must be porous as well as permeable. Such a rock, when it
contains oil, is called a

reservoir rock.
Another necessary condition is that the geologic struc- ture must be
one that favors the accumulation and retention of petroleum. An “anticlinal
trap” is one of the best structures for holding oil. As oil became a major
energy source and the demand for it increased, most of the newly
discovered wells penetrated anticlinal traps. Geologists discovered these
by looking for indication of anticlines exposed at the surface. As time went
by, other types of structures were also found to be oil traps. Many of these
were difficult to find because of the lack of telltale surface patterns
indicating favorable underground structures. Box figure 2 illustrates some
struc- tures other than anticlinal traps that might have a potential for oil
production.

At present, oil companies rely on detailed and sophisti- cated

geologic studies of an area they hope may have the potential for an “oil
strike.” The petroleum industry also depends heavily on geophysical
techniques (see chapter 2) for determining, by indirect means, the
subsurface structural geology.

Even when everything indicates that conditions are excellent for oil
to be present underground, there is no guar- antee that oil will be found.
Eventually, an oil company must commit a million dollars or more to drill a
deep test well, or “wildcat” well. Statistics indicate that the chance of a test
well yielding commercial quantities of oil is much less than 1 in 10. As B
more and more of the world’s supply of petro- leum is used up, what is left
BOX 6.1 ■ FIGURE 1
becomes increasingly harder— and costlier—to find.
( A) Oil and gas are concentrated or trapped in hinge of anticline. Gas and oil float on water in porous and permeable reservoir
rock (sandstone). ( B) Eroded anticline forms trap in Lander oil field, Wyoming.
Photos by Diane Carlson

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 www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 147

Impermeable rock

Gas
Oil

A Fault Fault zone

FIGURE 6.20
Unconformity
Fault in Big Horn Mountains, Wyoming,
Impermeable rock is marked by a 2-meter wide zone of
broken, red-stained rocks that offset rock
layers. Photo by Diane Carlson

Gas
Oil

Geologist’s View

B Unconformity
Faults
Faults are fractures in bedrock along which sliding has taken place. The
Im
Imp ee rmr m
e aabb lel rerooc c k k
displacement may be only several centimeters or may involve hundreds of
kilometers. For many geologists, an active fault is regarded as one along which
movement has taken place during the last 11,000 years. Most faults, however,

Gas
are no longer active.
Oil
The nature of past movement ordinarily can be determined where a fault
is exposed in an outcrop. The geologist looks for dislocated beds or other
features of the rock that might show how much displacement has occurred
and the relative direction of movement. In some faults, the contact between
the two displaced sides is very narrow. In others, the rock has been broken or
Permeable rock ground to a fractured or pulverized mass sandwiched between the displaced
C Sedimentary facies change
sides (figure 6.20).

BOX 6.1 ■ FIGURE 2

Structures other than anticlines that trap oil.
Geologists describe fault movement in terms of direction of slippage:
dip-slip, strike-slip, or oblique-slip (figure 6.21). In a dip-slip fault, movement
is parallel to the dip of the fault surface. A strike-slip fault indicates horizontal
motion parallel to the strike of the fault surface. An oblique-slip fault has both
strike-slip and dip-slip components.

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 148 CHAPTER 6 Geologic Structures

Dip-slip Faults These terms came from miners who tunneled along the fault looking for veins

In a dip-slip fault, the movement is up or down parallel to the dip of the of mineralized rock (ore). As they tunneled, their feet were on the lower footwall

inclined fault surface. The side of the fault above the inclined fault surface is block and they could hang their lanterns on the upper surface, or hanging-wall
called the hanging wall, whereas the side below the fault is called the footwall block.
( figure 6.22). Normal and reverse faults, the most common types of dipslip faults, are
distinguished from each other on the basis of the relative movement of the
footwall block and the hanging-wall block. In a normal fault ( figures 6.23 and
6.24), the hangingwall block has moved down relative to the footwall block.
Fault plane The relative movement is represented on a geological cross section by a pair
of arrows, because geodetic measurement of normal faults indicate that both
blocks move during slip. As shown in figure 6.23, a normal fault results in
extension or lengthening of the crust. When there is extension of the crust,
the hangingwall block moves downward along the fault to compensate for the
pulling apart of the rocks. Sometimes a block bounded by normal faults will
drop down, creating a graben, as shown in figure 6.23 C. (Graben is the
German word for “ditch.”) Rifts
Reverse fault

are grabens associated with divergent plate boundaries, either along

mid-oceanic ridges or on continents (see chapters 3 and
4). The Rhine Valley in Germany and Red Sea are examples of grabens.

If a block bounded by normal faults is uplifted sufficiently, it becomes a

fault-block mountain range. (This is also called a
horst, the opposite of a graben.) The Teton mountains and Sierra Nevada
Fault plane mountains are spectacular examples of fault-block mountain ranges. The Basin

Normal fault
and Range province of Nevada and portions of adjoining states are also

A Dip-slip faults
characterized by numerous mountain ranges (horsts) separated from adjoining
valleys by normal faults (see chapter 5). Normal fault planes typically dip at
steep angles (60°) at shallow depths but may become curved or even horizontal
at depth (see figure 5.9).

B Strike-slip fault

Hanging-wall
Footwall
block
block

Ore body

C Oblique-slip fault

FIGURE 6.21
Three types of faults illustrated by displaced blocks. Although both blocks probably move when the fault
FIGURE 6.22
slips, the heavier arrows show only the direction of movement on the left. ( A) Dip-slip movement. ( B) Strike-slip Relationship between the hanging-wall block and footwall block of a fault. The upper surface where a miner
movement. ( C) Oblique-slip movement. Black arrows show dip-slip and strike-slip components of can hang a lantern is the hanging wall. The lower surface below the fault is the footwall.
movement.

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 Shaded part eroded
away after faulting

D DU

Hanging- Hanging-
wall wall
block Footwall block Footwall
block block

A Normal fault B Eroded normal fault

Graben

C Graben

Horst

D Horst

FIGURE 6.23
Normal faults. ( A) Diagram shows the fault before erosion and the geometric relationships of the fault. ( B) The same area after erosion. ( C) A graben. ( D) A horst. Arrows in C and D
indicate horizontal extension of the crust.

Horst

FIGURE 6.24
Normal faults with prominent horst block offset volcanic ash layers in
southern Oregon. Photo by Diane Carlson
Normal faults

Geologist’s View 149

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 U

In a reverse fault, the hanging-wall block has moved up relative to the

footwall block (figures 6.25 and 6.26). As shown in figure 6.25, horizontal
compressive stresses cause reverse faults. Reverse faults tend to shorten the
wall crust.
block
A thrust fault is a reverse fault in which the dip of the fault plane is at
a low angle ( 30°) or even horizontal (figures 6.25 C and 6.27). In some
mountain regions, it is not uncommon for the upper plate (or hanging-wall
block) of a thrust fault to have overridden the lower plate (footwall block) for
U
several tens of kilometers. Thrust faults typically move or thrust older rocks
D on top of younger rocks (figure 6.27) and result in an extreme shortening of
the crust. Thrust faults commonly form at convergent plate boundaries to
accommodate the pushing together and shortening during convergence.
wall
block

Surface trace of fault Strike-slip Faults

A fault where the movement (or slip) is predominantly horizontal and
UD therefore parallel to the strike of the fault is called a
strike-slip fault. The displacement along a strike-slip fault is either left-lateral
or right-lateral and can be determined by looking across the fault. For
instance, if a recent fault displaced a stream (figure 6.28 A), a person walking
along the stream would stop where it is truncated by the fault. If the person
looks across the fault and sees the stream displaced to the right, it is a

right-lateral fault. In a left-lateral fault, a stream or other dis-

FIGURE 6.25
( A) A reverse fault. The fault is unaffected by erosion. Arrows indicate shortening direction. ( B) Diagram
shows area after erosion. ( C) Thrust fault has a lower angle of dip and accommodates more shortening by
stacking rock layers on top of one another.
placed feature would appear to the left across the fault. Again, we cannot tell
which side actually moved, so pairs of arrows are used to indicate relative
movement.
Large strike-slip faults, such as the SanAndreas fault in
California, typically define a zone of faulting that may be several
kilometers wide and hundreds of kilometers long (see box 6.2).
The surface trace of an active strike-slip fault is usually defined
by a prominent linear valley that has been more easily eroded
where the rock has been ground up along the fault during
movement. The linear valley may contain lakes or sag ponds
where the impermeable fault rock causes ground water to pond
at the surface. The trace of the fault may also be marked by
offset surface features such as streams, fences, and roads or
by distinctive rock units.

Strike-slip faults that have experienced a large amount of

offset typically do not remain straight for
long distances. They may either bend or
step over to another fault that is parallel.
Depending on the direction of the bend or
stepover, the lithosphere is either pulled
Hanging wall
apart ( releasing bend) or pushed together ( restraining
bend) ( figure 6.28 B).

FIGURE 6.26 Normal faults and grabens form in response

Footwall
Reverse fault offsets volcanic ash beds, southern Oregon. Hang- ing wall has to the pulling apart at the releasing bends
moved up relative to the footwall. Fault has been eroded and covered by
and folds and thrust faults form at the
younger sediments. Photo by Diane Carlson
restraining bends to accommodate the
pushing or pinching together of the
Geologist’s View lithosphere.
150

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 A A

Chief
Mountain

Lewis thrust fault

Precambrian

Cretaceous shale

FIGURE 6.27
( A) Chief Mountain in Glacier National Park, Montana, is an erosional remnant of a major thrust fault. ( B) Cross section of the area. Older (Precambrian) rocks have been thrust over younger (Cretaceous) rocks. Dashed lines show
where the Lewis thrust fault has been eroded away. Photo by Frank M. Hanna

Restraining
A
bend

Releasing
bend

FIGURE 6.28
( A) Right-lateral strike-slip fault offsets a stream channel. Looking across the fault, you would need to walk to the right to find the continuation of the stream. ( B) Strike-slip
movement along curved faults produces gaps or basins at releasing bends where the lithosphere is pulled apart or shortening and hills where it is pushed together at restraining
bends.

151

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 152 CHAPTER 6 Geologic Structures

IN GREATER DEPTH 6.2

California’s Greatest Fault—The San Andreas

T he San Andreas
structure fault in States.
in the United California is the best-known
Actually, geologic
the San Andreas longest of several,
is the Su
Suurace rac
rfce fefa
subparallel faults that transect western California (box figure 1). Collectively, these tt tarrc
cree
a oooff f

right-lateral faults are known as the San Andreas fault system. The system is in a Saa nnAA n d ddrr erea
ass
faaauul u
F ll t tt
belt approximately 100 kilometers wide and 1,300 kilometers long that extends into
Mexico, ending at the Gulf of California. The San Andreas fault forms the transform

19
plate boundary between the North American and Pacific plates (see figures 1.8 and

006
6,, M
, MM
4.23). Pilot hole

77..7
.88
Los Angeles, located on the Pacific plate, is slowly moving toward the San
Francisco Bay area because of San Andreas fault motion. At an average rate of
Pacific plate
movement of 48 millimeters per year, Los Angeles could be a western suburb of San
Francisco
San Francisco (or San Francisco an eastern suburb of Los Angeles) in some 25 SAFOD North
mil- lion years. Earthquakes are produced by sudden movement within the fault 1 9906,,
86
0 9M ,M
M 6..
66 .999 American
system, as explained in chapter 7. Bedrock along the San Andreas fault shifted as 0 2 km plate
much as 4.5 meters in association with the 1906 quake that destroyed much of San
Francisco. Most geologists think strike-slip movement began about 30 million years
ago, and that the total offset on the fault has been at least 560 kilometers. 1 900
666,,,, ,M, ,66
,6 M9
6,.... 0. . . . . 9
18
5 7 ,,
SAFOD (Parkfield) M
, M7
7 .9.
S ann AA. n9nddr reare
ass f fafa
uul l lt t t
48 mm/yr
The San Andreas fault is not a simple crack but a belt of broken and
ground-up rock, usually a hundred meters or more wide. Its presence is easy to
determine throughout most of its length. Along the fault trace are long, straight Los Angeles
valleys (box figures 1 and 2) that show quite different rocks on either side. Stream
channels follow much of the fault zone because the weak, ground-up material Pacific plate
along the fault is easily eroded. Locally, elongate lakes (called sag ponds) are
found where the ground-up material has settled more than the surface of adjacent
BOX 6.2 ■ FIGURE 1
parts of the fault zone. The fault was named after one of these ponds, San Andreas
Map showing the trace of the San Andreas fault and the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD)
Lake, just south of San Francisco. located at Parkfield, California. The San Andreas fault separates the Pacific plate on the west from the North
American plate on the east. The SAFOD inset diagram shows the locations of the pilot hole drilled in 2002 and the
main borehole that directly samples and monitors the active San Andreas fault. The small purple dots represent
recurring small earthquakes that signal slip of the fault. The colors below the ground surface represent electrical
One can visually follow the trace of the San Andreas fault through the Carizzo
resistivity of the rocks. Red represents low resistivity and is interpreted to represent fluid along the fault. Diagram
Plain in central California (box figure 2). Long linear valleys and fault scarps are courtesy of Earthscope/USGS
common surface expressions of the fault. Some of the most obvious features
produced by the fault motion are displaced ridges, valleys, and streams. Box figure
3 shows how the channel of Wallace Creek has been offset and diverted by the
right-lateral slip along the San Andreas fault. an active fault to reveal the processes that control the generation of earthquakes.

The San Andreas fault continues to be the most extensively instrumented and
carefully studied fault in the world. Just north of the Carrizo Plain at Parkfield,
California, the San Andreas fault generates moderate-size earthquakes about
every 22 years. Because of the occurrence of earthquakes at fairly regular intervals
here, geologists have been closely monitoring the fault for the past two decades to
learn about its behavior before, during, and after an earthquake—as part of the
Parkfield Earthquake Experiment. More recently, the San Andreas Fault
Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) was funded to drill a 4-kilometer-long borehole
from the Pacific plate, through the fault zone, to the North American plate at Park-
field (box figure 1). This is the first time scientists have drilled into
Rock cores retrieved from within the fault contain pieces of serpentine and
talc. The presence of these soft, hydrated minerals suggests that high water
pressure and soft “slippery” rocks facilitate the gradual slip, or creep, along the
central segment of the San Andreas fault.
Sensitive seismic instruments have also been installed in the SAFOD
borehole and will enable geologists to test hypotheses about how earthquakes are
generated, and to evaluate the roles of fluid pressure, rock friction, and chemical
reactions in controlling fault strength. These instruments are designed to remain in
operation for the next 10 to 20 years, providing valuable insights into the work- ings
of California’s greatest fault.

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Additional Resources
U. S. Geological Survey web page The San Andreas Fault by San- dra S. Schulz
and Robert E. Wallace gives details about the fault.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3

An interactive map of the San Andreas fault.

http://thulescientific.com/san-andreas-fault-map.html
Video describing the southern San Andreas fault system produced by the Earthquake
Country Alliance.
http://www.earthquakecountry.info/video/sanandreas.html
Web pages of the International Continental Scientific Drilling Pro- gram, Earthscope,
and the U. S. Geological Survey that give details about the San Andreas Fault
Observatory at Depth project.
http://www.icdp-online.org/contenido/icdp/front_content.php?idcat=889
http://www.earthscope.org/observatories/safod

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/parkfield/safod_pbo.php

Video describing core samples retrieved from the San Andreas Fault Observatory
at Depth.
http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2007/october10/videos/258_
flash.html

BOX 6.2 ■ FIGURE 3

BOX 6.2 ■ FIGURE 2 Stream channel (Wallace Creek) offset by the San Andreas fault in the Carrizo Plain. The arrows on either
Trace of San Andreas fault in the Carrizo Plain, central California. Photo by Robert E. Wallace/U.S. side of the fault trace indicate the right-lateral motion. Photo by
Geological Survey C. C. Plummer

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 154 CHAPTER 6 Geologic Structures

Death Valley (see figure 18.10) is a good example of a deep graben formed
along a releasing bend or stepover in the newly forming plate boundary along
the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. Where the San
Andreas fault bends to the left, north of Los Angeles, the Transverse
mountains have been pushed up by folding and thrust faults.
Strike-slip faults accommodate shearing strain in the brittle, uppermost
lithosphere, and may also represent transform plate boundaries where plates
slide past one another. One of the most famous examples of a transform fault is
the SanAndreas fault. The San Andreas fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault that
forms part of the boundary between the North American and Pacific plates.

elastic 137 plunging fold 141

Summary elastic limit 137

fault 147
recumbent fold 143
reservoir rock 146
fold 140 reverse fault 150
Tectonic forces result in deformation of the Earth’s crust. Stress
footwall 148 right-lateral fault 150
(force per unit area) is a measure of the tectonic force and confining pressure
geologic cross section 140 shear stress 137
acting on bedrock. Stress can be compressive, tensional, or shearing. Strained ( changed
geologic map 139 source rock 146
in shape or size) rock records past stresses, usually as joints, faults, or folds.
hanging wall 148 strain 136
hinge line 141 stress 136
A geologic map shows the structural characteristics of a region. Strike and isoclinal fold 143 strike 139
dip symbols on geologic maps indicate the orientations of inclined surfaces joint 145 strike-slip fault 147 and 150
such as bedding planes. The strike and dip of a bedding surface indicate the joint set 145 structural basin 143
relationship between the inclined plane and a horizontal plane. left-lateral fault 150 structural dome 143
limb 141 syncline 141
If rock layers bend (ductile behavior) rather than break, they become
normal fault 148 tensional stress 137
folded. Rock layers are folded into anticlines and synclines and recumbent folds.
oblique-slip fault 147 thrust fault 150
If the hinge line of a fold is not horizontal, the fold is plunging. Older beds
open fold 143 tight fold 143
exposed in the core of a fold indicate an anticline, whereas younger beds in the
overturned fold 143 upright fold 143
center of the structure indicate a syncline. In places where folded rock has been
eroded to a plain, an anticline can usually be distinguished from a syncline by
whether the beds dip toward the center (syncline) or away from the center
(anticline). Also, the oldest rocks are found in the center of an eroded anticline
whereas the youngest rocks are found in the center or core of a syncline.
Testing Your Knowledge
Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter.

Fractures in rock are either joints or faults. A joint indicates that 1. Most anticlines have both limbs dipping away from their hinge lines. For which kind of
movement has not occurred on either side of the fracture; displaced rock fold is this not the case?
along a fracture indicates a fault. Dip-slip faults are either normal or reverse, depending2. What is the difference between a joint and a fault?
on the motion of the hanging-wall block relative to the footwall block. The 3. On a geologic map, if no cross sections were available, how could you distinguish
relative motion of the hanging wall is upward in a reverse fault and downward an anticline from a syncline?
in a normal fault. A reverse fault with a low angle of dip for the fault plane is a thrust
4. If you locate a dip-slip fault while doing field work, what kind of evidence would
fault. Reverse faults accommodate horizontal shortening of the crust, whereas you look for to determine whether the fault is normal or reverse?
normal faults accommodate horizontal stretching or extension.

5. What factors control whether a rock behaves as a brittle material or a ductile

material?
In a strike-slip fault, which can be either left-lateral or right-lateral,
6. What is the difference between strike, direction of dip, and angle of dip?
horizontal movement parallel to the strike has occurred.

7. Draw a simple geologic map using strike and dip symbols for a syncline plunging
to the west.

8. How does a structural dome differ from a plunging anticline? Which of the

Terms to Remember 9. statements is true?

a. when forces are applied to an object, the object is under stress

b. strain is the change in shape or size (volume), or both, while an object is

angle of dip 139 compressive stress 136
undergoing stress
anticline 141 dip-slip fault 147
axial plane 141 direction of dip 139 c. stresses can be compressive, tensional, or shear

brittle 137 ductile 137 d. all of the preceding

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 www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 155

10. The compass direction of a line formed by the intersection of an inclined plane
with a horizontal plane is called
Expanding Your Knowledge
a. strike b. direction of dip

c. angle of dip d. axis 1. Why do some rocks fold while others are faulted?
11. Folds in a rock show that the rock behaved in a _____ way. 2. In what parts of North America would you expect to find the most intensely folded

a. ductile b. elastic rock?

3. A subduction zone can be regarded as a very large example of what type of fault?
c. brittle d. all of the preceding

12. An anticline is
4. Looking at the San Andreas fault, shown in box 6.2, figure 1, where might
a. a fold shaped like an arch with the youngest rocks exposed in the center of restraining bends form? What kind of structures might form there?
the fold

b. a trough-shaped fold with the oldest rocks exposed in the center of the fold 5. What features in sedimentary or volcanic rock layers would you look for to tell you
that the rock was part of the overturned limb of a fold?
c. a fold shaped like an arch with the oldest rocks exposed in the center of the
fold

d. a trough-shaped fold with the youngest rocks exposed in the center of the
Exploring Web Resources
fold

13. A syncline is
www.mhhe.com/carlson9e
a. a fold shaped like an arch with the youngest rocks exposed in the center of
McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety
the fold
of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice
b. a trough-shaped fold with the oldest rocks exposed in the center of the fold questions, additional readings andGoogle Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more.
The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a

c. a fold shaped like an arch with the oldest rocks exposed in the center of the website without typing in its URL.

fold

d. a trough-shaped fold with the youngest rocks exposed in the center of the http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/structure/learnstructure/
fold School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds website is a dynamic collection of
14. A structure in which the beds dip away from a central point and the oldest rocks are in-depth information and photos and diagrams of geologic structures and virtual field
exposed in the center is called a trips throughout the world.

a. basin b. anticline www.science.smith.edu/departments/Geology/Structure_Resources/

c. structural dome d. syncline The structural geology page developed by Steven Schimmrich contains many links to
online courses, computer software, bibliographies, and many other structural geology
15. Which is not a type of fold?
resources.
a. open b. isoclinal
www.geology.sdsu.edu/visualgeology/geology101/geo100/strucDIR.htm
c. overturned d. recumbent
Structural Geology website by Gary Girty at San Diego State University contains animations
e. thrust
of folds, faults, and interactive exercises dealing with the interpretation and description of
16. Fractures in bedrock along which movement has taken place are called geologic structures.

www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/geol326/326.html
a. joints b. faults
Website for structural geology course taught by the Department of Geological Sciences at
c. cracks d. folds
Cornell University contains images showing structural features and models of thrust-fault
17. In a normal fault, the hanging-wall block has moved _____ relative to the footwall movement.
block.
http://craton.geol.brocku.ca/ctg.html
a. upward b. downward
Canadian Tectonics Group website contains structural geology images, computer software,
c. sideways and a newsletter outlining research projects.
18. Normal faults occur where

a. there is horizontal shortening

b. there is horizontal extension Animations

c. the hanging wall moves up

d. where the footwall moves down This chapter includes the following animations on the book’s website at
www.mhhe.com/carlson9e .
19. Faults that typically move older rock on top of younger rock are
6.17 Styles of folding
a. normal faults b. thrust faults
6.21 Styles of faulting
c. strike-slip faults
6.23 Normal faulting
6.25 Reverse and thrust faults

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