CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Research

Bahasa inggris merupakan bahasa yang penting untuk di pelajari di dunia

modern seperti saat ini. Dikarenakan, bahasa inggris merupakan bahasa
international yang dapat di pergunakan dalam semua sector kehidupan mulai
dari pekerjaan, pendidikan dan lain-lain. Di dalam bahasa inggris terdapat
beberapa skill yang harus di kuasai oleh peserta didik salah satunya adalah
skill Menulis.

Menulis adalah keterampilan bahasa yang penting dan harus dikuasai oleh
siswa dalam pembelajran bahasa kedua atau asing. Hal ini sejalan dengan
pendapat “Gebhardt dan Dawn Rodrigues” yang mengatakan bahwa menulis
adalah merupakan hal penting yang kamu pelajari di sekolah. Menulis
merupakan sarana komunikasi penting yang memungkinkan orang untuk
menyampaikan pesan yang berbeda kepada pembaca, baik yang dikenal atau
tidak dikenal, yang dekat ataupun jauh. Keterampilan ini juga memerukan
kemampuan seseorang untuk mengungkapkan ide, pemikiran, dan informasi
secara tertulis dengan cara yang jelas, teratur, dan efektif. Seperti apa yang
telah dikemukakan oleh “Celce (2001:207)”, yang mana menurutnya menulis
sebagai tindakan komunikasi menunjukkan proses interaktif yang terjadi
antara penulis dan pembaca melalui teks.
Pada kurikulum merdeka yang baru saja di terapkan di Indonesia saat ini,
bahasa Inggris sudah mulai diajarkan dari Sekolah Dasar, hingga Perguruan
tinggi. Fokus kelas bahasa Inggris adalah pada pengembangan empat
keterampilan berbahasa yaitu :Menyimak, berbicara, membaca dan menulis.
Tujuan pengajaran menulis adalah untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada
siswa untuk mengekspresikan diri mereka dalam bahasa sasaran dan untuk
mengkomunikasikan tentang perasaan, ide, dan semua pemikiran mereka.
Dari pernyataan di atas, itu dapat disimpulkan bahwa menulis merupakan
keterampilan berbahasa yang penting untuk diajarkan dalam sebuah
pengajaran bahasa asing.

Berdasarkan observasi yang sudah penulis lakukan di SMPN 6 Kota Palu, ada
beberapa tantangan dan kesulitan yang dihadapi oleh siswa dalam belajar
keterampilan menulis tersebut. Salah satunya, dalam penggunaan tata bahasa
yang benar dan untuk menempatkan anda baca. Selain itu, guru bahasa inggris
di sekolah tersebut tidak menggunakan lingkungan belajar sebagai alat
pengajaran ataupun menggunakan media lain yang bebasis teknologi.Mereka
menggunakan buku teks dan teks pelengkap lainnya. Kondisi ini
mempengaruhi kemampuan siswa untuk mencapai hasil yang memuaskan
dalam mata pelajaran Bahasa Inggris, khususnya dalam keterampilan
menulis.

Secara umum, terdapat beberapa jenis teks yang harus dikuasai dalam
keterampilan menulis antara lain, teks narasi, teks deskripsi, teks eksplanasi,
teks eksposisi, teks prosedur, teks berita, teks normatif dan teks laporan.
Dalam penulis disini berfokus pada keterampilan menulis prosedur teks.

Prosedur teks merupakan teks

In the methods section, follow the type of design with characteristics of the
population and the sampling procedure. Methodologists have written excellent
discussions about the underlying logic of sampling theory (e.g., Babbie, 2007;
Fowler, 2009). Here are essential aspects of the population and sample to
describe in a research plan:

• Identify the population in the study. Also state the size of this population, if
size can be determined, and the means of identifying individuals in the
population. Questions of access arise here, and the researcher might refer to
availability of sampling frames—mail or published lists—of potential
respondents in the population.

• Identify whether the sampling design for this population is single stage or
multistage (called clustering). Cluster sampling is ideal when it is impossible
or impractical to compile a list of the elements composing the population
(Babbie, 2007). A single-stage sampling procedure is one in which the
researcher has access to names in the population and can sample the people
(or other elements) directly. In a multistage or clustering procedure, the
researcher first identifies clusters (groups or organizations), obtains names of
individuals within those clusters, and then samples within them.
• Identify the selection process for individuals. I recommend selecting a
random sample, in which each individual in the population has an equal
probability of being selected (a systematic or probabilistic sample). With
randomization, a representative sample from a population provides the ability
to generalize to a population. If the list of individuals is long, drawing a
random sample may be difficult. Alternatively, a systematic sample can have
precision equivalent random sampling (Fowler, 2009). In this approach, the
researcher chooses a random start on a list and selects every A numbered
people on the list. The X number is based on a fraction determined by the
number of people on a list and the number that are to be selected on the list
(e.g., 1 out of every 80th person). Finally, less desirable is a nonprobability
sample (or convenience sample ), in which respondents are chosen based on
their convenience and availability.

• Identify whether the study will involve stratification of the population before
selecting the sample. This requires that characteristics of the population
members be known so that the population can be stratified first before
selecting the sample (Fowler, 2009). Stratification means that specific
characteristics of individuals (e.g., gender—females and males) are
represented in the sample and the sample reflects the true proportion in the
population of individuals with certain characteristics. When randomly
selecting people from a population, these characteristics may or may not be
present in the sample in the same proportions as in the population;
stratification ensures their representation. Also identify the characteristics
used in stratifying the population (e.g., gender, income levels, education).
Within each stratum, identify whether the sample contains individuals with
the characteristic in the same proportion as the characteristic appears in the
entire population.

• Discuss the procedures for selecting the sample from available lists. The
most rigorous method for selecting the sample is to choose individuals using a
random sampling, a topic discussed in many introductory statistics texts (e.g.,
Gravetter & Wallnau, 2009).

• Indicate the number of people in the sample and the procedures used to
compute this number. In

Variables in Quantitative Research (creswell

Before discussing quantitative theories, it is important to understand variables

and the types that are used in forming theories. A variable refers to a
characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be
measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being
studied. This variance means that scores in a given situation fall into at least
two mutually exclusive categories (Thompson, 2006). Psychologists prefer to
use the term construct (rather than variable), which carries the connotation
more of an abstract idea than a specifically defined term. However, social
scientists typically use the term variable , and it will be employed in this
discussion. Variables often measured in studies include gender; age;
socioeconomic status (SES); and attitudes or behaviors such as racism, social
control, political power, or leadership. Several texts provide detailed
discussions about the types of variables one can use and their scales of
measurement (e.g., Isaac & Michael, 1981; Keppel, 1991; Kerlinger, 1979;
Thompson, 2006; Thorndike, 1997). Variables are distinguished by two
characteristics: (a) temporal order and (b) their measurement (or
observation).Temporal order means that one variable precedes another in
time. Because of this time ordering, it is said that one variable affects or
causes another variable; though a more accurate statement would be that one
variable probably causes another. When dealing with studies in the natural
setting and with humans, researchers cannot absolutely prove cause and effect
(Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991), and social scientists now say that there is
“probable causation.” Temporal order means that quantitative researchers
think about variables in an order from “left to right” (Punch, 2005) and order
the variables in purpose statements, research questions, and visual models into
left-to-right, cause-andeffect type presentations. Thus, see the following:

• Independent variables are those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect

outcomes. They are also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent , or
predictor variables.

• Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent variables;

they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables.
Other names for dependent variables are criterion, outcome, effect , and
response variables.
• Intervening or mediating variables stand between the independent and
dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the independent variable
on the dependent variable. For example, if students do well on a research
methods test (dependent variable), results may be due to (a) their study
preparation (independent variable) and/or (b) their organization of study ideas
into a framework (intervening variable) that influenced their performance on
the test. The mediating variable, the organization of study, stands between the
independent and dependent variables in the probable causal link.

• Moderating variables are independent variables that affect the direction

and/or the strength of the relationship between independent and dependent
variables (Thompson, 2006). These moderating variables are new variables
constructed by a researcher by taking one variable and multiplying it by
another to determine the joint impact of both on the dependent variable (e.g.,
age X attitudes toward quality of life impacting self-esteem). These variables
are typically found in experiments

Two other types of variables are control variables and confounding variables.
Control variables play an active role in quantitative studies. These are a
special type of independent variable that researchers measure because they
potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical
procedures (e.g., analysis of covariance [ANCOVA]) to control for these
variables. They may be demographic or personal variables (e.g., age or
gender) that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the
independent variable on the dependent can be determined. Another type of
variable, a confounding (or spurious) variable , is not actually measured or
observed in a study. It exists, but its influence cannot be directly detected.
Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the
study has been completed, because these variables may have operated to
explain the relationship between the independent variable and dependent
variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed (e.g., a confounding
variable such as discriminatory attitudes).In a quantitative research study,
variables are related to answer a research question (e.g., “How does self-
esteem influence the formation of friendships among adolescents?”) or to
make predictions about what the researcher expects the results to show. These
predictions are called hypotheses (e.g., “Individual positive self-esteem
expands the number of friends of adolescents.”) (Pages 84)

survey research, investigators often choose a sample size based on selecting a

fraction of the population (say, 10%), select the size that is unusual or typical
based on past studies, or base the sample size simply on the margin of error
they are willing to tolerate. Instead, Fowler (2009) suggested that these
approaches are all misguided. Instead, he recommended that sample size
determination relates to the analysis plan for a study. One needs to first
determine the subgroups to be analyzed in study. Then, he suggested going to
a table found in many survey books (see Fowler, 2009) to look up the
appropriate sample size. These tables require three elements. First, determine
the margin of error you are willing to tolerate (say +/^1% confidence
interval). This is a + or - figure that represents how accurate the answers given
by your sample correlate to answers given by the entire population. Second,
determine the confidence level for this margin of error (say 95 out of 100
times, or a 5% chance). Third, estimate the percentage of your sample that
will respond in a given way (50% with 50/50 being the most conservative
because people could respond either way). From here, you can then determine
the sample size needed for each group. Using Fowler’s (2009) table, for
example, with a margin of error of +/-4%, a confidence error of 95%, and a
50/50 chance that the sample contains our characteristic, we arrive at a sample
size of 500. (Pages 204)

Although readers of a proposal learn about the variables in purpose statements

and research questions/hypotheses sections, it is useful in the method section
to relate the variables to the specific questions or hypotheses on the
instrument. One technique is to relate the variables, the research questions or
hypotheses, and sample items on the survey instrument so that a reader can
easily determine how the data collection connects to the variables and
questions/hypotheses. Plan to include a table and a discussion that cross-
reference the variables, the questions or hypotheses, and specific survey items.
This procedure is especially helpful in dissertations in which investigators test
largescale models. Table 8.2 illustrates such a table using hypothetical data.
(208)

Purposive sampling adalah metode pengambilan sampel dalam penelitian di

mana peneliti memilih partisipan atau unit sampel berdasarkan tujuan tertentu
atau karakteristik khusus yang ingin dipelajari. Dalam purposive sampling,
tidak ada usaha untuk memilih sampel secara acak, melainkan peneliti
memilih sampel yang dianggap memiliki informasi atau pengalaman yang
relevan dengan topik penelitian.
Ada beberapa jenis purposive sampling yang dapat digunakan tergantung pada
fokus penelitian dan karakteristik yang dicari. Beberapa contoh jenis
purposive sampling meliputi:

1. **Purposive Sampling dengan Kriteria:** Peneliti menetapkan kriteria

tertentu yang relevan dengan topik penelitian dan memilih partisipan yang
memenuhi kriteria tersebut.

2. **Purposive Sampling oleh Ahli (Expert Sampling):** Peneliti memilih

partisipan yang dianggap ahli atau berpengalaman dalam bidang tertentu yang
menjadi fokus penelitian.

3. **Purposive Sampling oleh Kasus Ekstrem:** Peneliti memilih kasus yang

dianggap ekstrem atau tidak umum untuk mendapatkan wawasan mendalam
tentang karakteristik atau situasi tertentu.
4. **Purposive Sampling Berdasarkan Keterwakilan (Quota Sampling):**
Peneliti mencoba mencocokkan karakteristik sampel dengan karakteristik
populasi secara keseluruhan, seperti jenis kelamin, usia, atau latar belakang
pendidikan.

5. **Purposive Sampling oleh Pengalaman (Criterion-Based Sampling):**

Peneliti memilih partisipan berdasarkan pengalaman mereka dalam situasi
atau fenomena tertentu.

Kelebihan dari purposive sampling adalah peneliti dapat memilih partisipan

yang dianggap paling relevan dengan tujuan penelitian, sehingga dapat
memperoleh pemahaman mendalam tentang fenomena yang diteliti. Namun,
penting untuk diingat bahwa hasil dari purposive sampling mungkin tidak
dapat diterapkan secara umum ke populasi secara keseluruhan karena tidak
melibatkan pemilihan sampel secara acak. Oleh karena itu, validitas eksternal
penelitian dapat menjadi lebih terbatas.