SISTEM SARAF

Pembagian Sistem Saraf

 1. Sistem saraf pusat (central nervous system
= CNS)
 2. Sistem saraf perifer (peripheral nervous
system = PNS)
Fungsi sistem saraf

 Menerima informasi dari dalam maupun dari luar melalui

afferent sensory pathway
 Mengkomunikasikan informasi antara sistem saraf
perifer dan sistem saraf pusat.
 Mengolah informasi yang diterima baik ditingkat saraf
(refleks) maupun di otak untuk menentukan respon
yang tepat dengan situasi yang dihadapi.
 Menghantarkan informasi secara cepat melalui efferent
pathway (motorik) ke organ-organ tubuh sebagai kontrol
atau modifikasi tindakan.
 The Functions of the Nervous System

 There are three interconnected functions:

 Sensory input
 from millions of specialized receptors
 receive stimuli
 Integration
 process stimuli
 interpret stimuli
 Motor output
 cause response
 at many effector organs
Neuron
 Neuron pada umumnya tidak bermitosis dan
mempunyai karakteristik
 Excitability yaitu kemampuan menerima
impuls
 Conductivity yaitu kemampuan mentransmisi
impuls ke bagian-bagian sel.
 Kemampuan mempengaruhi neuron, sel otot
dan sel-sel kelenjar.
SEL-SEL SISTEM
PERSYARAFAN
 Sistem persarafan dibangun oleh dua jenis sel
yaitu :
 Neuron
 Neuroglia
Basic nerve cell structure
 Neurons
 The functional and structural unit of the nervous system
 Specialized to conduct information from one part of the body to
another
 There are many, many different types of neurons but most have
certain structural and functional characteristics in common:

- Cell body (soma)

- One or more specialized,
slender processes
(axons/dendrites)
- An input region
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting component
(axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon terminal)
3 main types of nerve cells

Neuron Neuron Neuron

sensorik relay motorik
 Neuron sensorik

Membawa impuls dari reseptor ( misal reseptor

rasa sakit di kulit ) ke sistem saraf pusat SSP—
CNS ( brain or spinal cord)
 Relay neuron

Membawa impuls dari saraf sensorik ke saraf

motorik .
 Motor neuron

Membawa impuls dari CNS ke efektor (misal:

otot untuk bergerak)
Neuroglia
 Disebut juga sel glia yang memberikan
dukungan, nutrisi dan melindungi neuron.
 Jenis sel-sel glia yaitu oligodendroglia,
astrosit, sel ependymal dan mikroglia yang
masing-masing mempunyai fungsi spesifik.
Neuroglia in CNS
 Perbandingan jumlah neuroglia : neuron
 10 to 1
 6 types of supporting cells
 4 are found in the CNS:
 2 types of glia in the PNS

1. Astrocytes
 Bentuk seperti bintang
 Act as K+ and NT buffers
 Involved in the formation of the blood
brain barrier
 Function in nutrient transfer
Neuroglia

2. Microglia
 Specialized immune cells that act as
the macrophages of the CNS
3. Ependymal Cells
 Low columnar epithelial-esque cells
that line the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal
cord
 Some are ciliated which facilitates
the movement of cerebrospinal fluid
Neuroglia

 4. Oligodendrocytes
 Produce the myelin
sheath which
provides the
electrical insulation
for certain neurons
in the CNS
Neuroglia in PNS

• 2 types of glia in the PNS

1. Satellite cells
• Surround clusters of neuronal
cell bodies in the PNS
• Unknown function
2. Schwann cells
• Form myelin sheaths around
the larger nerve fibers in the
PNS.
• Vital to neuronal regeneration
Repair nerve fibers
 PNS  adanya neurilemma yang dibentuk
oleh schwann cell
 kerusakan dapat diperbaiki sepanjang schwan
cells tetap ada
 CNS  saraf pusat tidak memiliki
neurilemma
 astrosit dengan cepat mengisi kerusakan sehingga
memblok pertumbuhan axon.
Sinaps And Junctional
Transmission
 Sinaps adalah struktur yang terdapat diantara
neuron. Impuls ditransmisi dari neuron ke
neuron lain dan pada organ tubuh yang
berhubungan. Sinaps adalah titik pertautan
antara dua neuron.
 Neurotransmitter adalah agen kimiawi yang
berperan dalam mentransmisi impuls melalui
sinaps.
Structure of Synapses
 Synapses are intercellular junctions.
 the presynaptic cell : The neuron transmitting an
action potential to the synapse
 the postsynaptic cell : the receiving cell on the
other side of the synapse
 synaptic cleft - narrow space separating two cells
 End of presynaptic axon contains synaptic
vesicles, each packed with neurotransmitters.
Structure of Synapses
 NEUROTRANSMITER

 Acetylcholine
 binds to its receptor proteins in the postsynaptic
membrane and thereby causes ion channels within
the proteins to open
 produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)
 acetycholine eliminated from the synaptic
cleft by acetylcholinesterase
 Glutamate, glycine, and GABA
 Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the
vertebrate CNS.
 Glycine and GABA are inhibitory neurotransmitters.
 produces inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
 Neurotransmitter yang bersifat eksitasi adalah
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine,
glutamate dan histamine.
 Sedangkan neurotransmitter yang umumnya
menginhibisi adalah
- gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) pada
jaringan otak
- glycine pada medula spinalis. Serotonin
menghambat dan mengontrol tidur, lapar dan
mempengaruhi kesadaran.
Neurotransmitters and Their
Functions
 Neurotransmitters and drug addiction
 If receptor proteins within synapses are
exposed to high levels of neurotransmitter
molecules for prolonged periods, that nerve cell
often responds by inserting fewer receptor
proteins into the membrane.
 may lose ability to respond to stimulus - habituation
 cocaine
 nicotine
Drug Addiction
 ORGANISASI SISTEM SARAF

Nervous system

Central Peripheral
nervous nervous
system system

Spinal Sensory Motor

Brain cord pathways pathways

Somatic Autonomic
(voluntary) (involuntary)
nervous system nervous system

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division division
Organization of the
Nervous System

 2 big initial divisions:

1. Central Nervous System
 The brain + the spinal cord
 The center of integration and control
2. Peripheral Nervous System
 The nervous system outside of the brain
and spinal cord
 Consists of:
 31 Spinal nerves
 Carry info to and from the spinal
cord
 12 Cranial nerves
 Carry info to and from the brain
 Central Nervous System: Overview

 Brain
 Spinal cord

Figure 9-4a: ANATOMY SUMMARY: The Central Nervous System

SSP
 Komponen utama
struktur CNS adalah
otak (brain) dan
medula spinalis
(spinal cord).
 Brain
Overview
 Trillion interneurons fill the brain
 Up to 200,000 synapses each
 Brain divisions
 Cerebrum
 Diencephalons
 Midbrain
 Cerebellum
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
 Major parts of the brain - cerebrum, cerebellum,
brainstem
 brain weighs about 3 pounds
Brain Stem Overview: Midbrain, Pons &
Medulla

Figure 9-9d: ANATOMY SUMMARY: The Brain

 Brain stem (batang otak)
 Brain stem (batang otak) terdiri dari : midbrain (otak tengah), pons
dan medulla oblongata.
 Midbrain
 berlokasi antara diencephalon dan pons.
 Merupakan pusat pendengaran dan refleks penglihatan. Juga jalur
 persarafan antara hemispher otak dengan bagain bawah otak.
 Pons
 berlokasi dibawah mid brain, mengandung banyak jalur serabut
saraf, juga berfungsi mengontrol pernafasan.
 Medulla oblongata
 berlokasi didasar batang otak yang merupakan lanjutan dari bagian
atas spinal cord. Ia mengandung banyak jalur serabut saraf.
 Nuklei dari medulla oblongata memainkan peran penting
mengontrol frekuensi jantung, tekanan darah, respirasi dan menelan.
Formasio Retikularis dan
Sistem Pengaktivan Retikular

 Batang otak mengandung suatu jaringan yang

terdiri dari neuron-neuron kecil bercabang-
cabang yang disebut formasio retikularis.
 Protecting the Brain

 Hair, skin, cranium

 Venous sinus blood
 Meninges
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid membrane
 Pia mater
 Cerebrospinal fluid

Figure 9-4b, c: ANATOMY SUMMARY: The Central Nervous System

Meningen
 CNS dibungkus / dilindungi oleh 3 (tiga) membran
jaringan ikat yang disebut Meningen.
 Meningen ini membentuk bagian dalam tengkorak,
melindungi sinus vena dan berisi Cairan
cerebrospinal (CSF).
 Lapisan bagian luar disebut Dura mater.
 Lapisan tengah disebut Arachnoid mater.
 Lapisan bagian dalam disebut Pia mater.
Cranial Meninges
Brain Ventricles
Ventricles are Internal chambers within the CNS
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

 Adalah cairan jernih, tidak berwarna dan dihasilkan

oleh flexus choroid (kelompok kapiler yang
berlokasi dalam ventrikel otak).
 CSF bersirkulasi dari ventrikel lateral kedalam
ventrikel ke-3 pada diencephalon dan melalui
midbrain kedalam ventrikel ke-4,
 sebagian aliran ini kebagian bawah spinal cord,
bersirkulasi melalui ruang subarachnoid dan kembali
bersatu dengan darah melalui villi arachnoid.
Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Clear liquid fills ventricles and canals, it flows in

the subarachnoid space
 Functions
 -- floats brain
 protection -- cushions from hitting inside of skull
 chemical stability -- rinses away wastes
 Exchange transport
 From blood
 To brain tissue
Clinical
 If CSF cannot circulate or drain properly a
condition called hydro-cephalus (water on the
brain) develops.
 fluid buildup causes increased
pressure on the brain, either
internally or externally
 Surgically draining the ventricles and diverting
the flow of CSF by an implanted shunt reduces
the pressure
Blood-Brain Barrier
 Most materials entering CSF from the blood
cannot leak through the tight junctions
between the surrounding ependymal cells
 permeable to lipid-soluble materials (alcohol, O2,
CO2, nicotine and anesthetics)
 These constitute the Blood-Brain barrier,
which permits certain substances to enter the
fluid but excludes others thereby protecting
the brain and spinal cord from harm
 Cerebellum (otak kecil)
 Cerebelum berhubungan dengan midbrain,
pons dan medulla oblongata. Dia juga terdiri
dari dua hemispher. Berfungsi untuk
mengkoordinasi aktifitas otot rangka,
mempertahankan keseimbangan tubuh dan
mengontrol gerakan.
Cerebellum

 Connected to brainstem
 Arbor vitae (tree of life) visible in sagittal section
 Sits atop the 4th ventricle
Cerebellum
 The cerebellum functions in the coordination
of skeletal muscle contractions and in the
maintenance of normal muscle tone,
posture, and balance.
 It compares motor output of the primary motor
area to sensory data from body (proprioceptors,
vision, cochlea, etc.)
Diencephalon

 Diencephalon terdiri dari thalamus, hypothalamus dan

epithalamus.
 Thalamus berfungsi memulai memproses impuls sebelum ke
corteks serebri yaitu menseleksi, memproses dan pusat relay.
 Hypothalamus yang berlokasi dibagian bawah, mengatur
temperatur tubuh, metabolisme cairan, nafsu makan, ekspresi
emosi, siklus bangun dan tidur serta haus.
 Epithalamus merupakan bagian dorsal diencephalon
termasuk pineal body (merupakan sistem endokrin yang
mempengaruhui pertumbuhan dan perkembangan).
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Pineal Gland

Thalamus, Hypothalamus and Epithalamus (houses pineal gland

The pineal secretes melatonin to influence diurnal cycles.
THALAMUS

 Thalamus is located superior to the midbrain

and serves as relay station for all sensory
impulses, except smell, to the cerebral cortex
 1) medial geniculate (hearing),
 2) lateral geniculate (vision)
Hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus is found inferior to the thalamus

 Is a relay station for smell.
 Major regulators of homeostasis
 It controls and integrates the autonomic nervous system,
which regulates contraction of smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and secretions of many glands.
 Seat of rage & aggression, body temperature. hunger
and the satiety, thirst,
 Maintains the waking state and sleep patterns
 Cerebrum (otak besar)
 struktur cerebrum terbagi menjadi corteks cerebri dan
diensephalon (sub cortikal).
 cerebrum terdiri dari 2 (dua) belahan yang disebut hemispher
(kiri dan kanan).
 Cortex cerebri
 dibentuk oleh badan sel neuron, serabut saraf yang tidak
bermyelin, neuroglia dan pembuluh darah.
 bertanggung jawab terhadap memori, bicara, persepsi,
gerakan voluntary, kesadaran logistik dan emosi.
Functions of Cerebrum Lobes
 Frontal contains voluntary
motor for
planning, mood, smell and
social judgement
 Parietal integrates

 Occipital is optical
 Temporal contains areas for
hearing, emotional behavior,
learning, memory, smell
Cerebral Lateralization
 Left hemisphere is categorical hemisphere
 specialized for spoken & written language, math &
science
 Right hemisphere is representational hemisphere
 perceives information more holistically, music and
artistic skill
 Highly correlated with handedness
 91% of people right-handed with left side is categorical
 Lateralization develops with age
 trauma more problems in males since females have
more communication between hemisphere (corpus
callosum is thicker posteriorly)
Peripheral Nervous System
 Responsible for communication btwn the CNS and
the rest of the body.
 Can be divided into:
 Sensory Division
 Afferent division
 Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS
 Informs the CNS of the state of the body interior and exterior
 Sensory nerve fibers can be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles or
joints) or visceral (from organs w/i the ventral body cavity)
 Motor Division
 Efferent division
 Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands)
 Motor nerve fibers
Motor Efferent Division

 Can be divided further:

 Somatic nervous system
 VOLUNTARY (generally)
 Somatic nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the
CNS to skeletal muscles
 Autonomic nervous system
 INVOLUNTARY (generally)
 Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands.
Autonomic Nervous System
 Can be divided into:
 Sympathetic Nervous
System
 “Fight or Flight”
 Parasympathetic
Nervous System
 “Rest and Digest”
PNS: Cranial nerves (12 pairs)
Cranial nerve Nerve type (Sensory,
Motor, Both)
I Olfactory S
II Optic S
III Oculomotor M
IV Trochlear M

V Trigeminal B
VI Abducens M

VI Facial B
I
VI Vestibulococh S
II lear
IX Glossopharyn B
geal
X Vagus B
XI Spinal M
Cranial Nerves

Table 9-1: The Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves: origin
PNS: Spinal nerves
(31 pairs; don’t need to identify them all)

 Anatomy:
 Emerges from dorsal and ventral roots
 Emerges through intervertebral foramen (except
1st spinal nerve)
 Somatic and autonomic systems
The Spinal Cord
 Each segment of the spinal cord is defined by
a pair of spinal nerves that lie just superior to
their corresponding vertebra
 8 cervical
 12 thoracic
 5 lumbar
 5 sacral
 1 coccygeal
Somatic nervous system (skeletal
muscles)
Autonomic nervous system:
organization
Autonomic nervous system:
organization
Differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic
(autonomic nervous system)
Autonomic nervous system: targets

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Eye Dilates pupil Constricts pupil

Salivary glands Dry mouth (thick Lots of dilute saliva
saliva)
Heart rate Increases Decreases
Lungs (bronchi) Dilates Constricts
GI activity Decreases Increases
Liver Increases blood sugar None
Adrenal medulla Stim.secretion none
Penis Ejaculation Erection
Refleks

 Refleks merupakan reaksi organisme terhadap

perubahan lingkungan baik didalam maupun
diluar organisme yang melibatkan sistem
saraf pusat dalam memberikan jawaban
(respon) terhadap rangsang reseptor
 Unit dasar untuk kegiatan saraf terpadu
adalah lengkung refleks. Lengkung refleks
terdiri atas alat indera, saraf aferen, satu
sinaps atau lebih yang terdapat di pusat
integrasi atau diganglion simpatis, saraf
eferen, dan efektor.
 Kegiatan dilengkung refleks dimulai di
reseptor sensorik, berupa potensial reseptor
yang besarnya sebanding dengan kuat
rangsang. Potensial reseptor membangkitkan
potensial aksi yang bersifat “gagal atau
tuntas” di saraf aferen.
Proses Refleks
 Proses yang terjadi pada refleks tersebut melalui
plan yang disebut lengkung refleks, jalan yang
dilalui refleks adalah :

 Reseptor Aferen


 Saraf Pusat
 Efektor Eferen
 CLINICAL
 CVAs
(Brain heart attack)
 1. CVAs (Cerebral Vascular Accidents) are classified
into two principal types:
 a. ischemic (the most common type), due to a decreased blood
supply, or
 b. hemorrhagic, due to a blood vessel in the brain that bursts.
 2. Common causes of CVAs are;
 a. intracerebral hemorrhage,
 b. emboli, and
 c. atherosclerosis.
 3. CVAs are characterized by abrupt onset of persisting
neurological symptoms that arise from destruction of
brain tissue (infarction).
Headache
 Causes: Vertebral subluxation and:
 Brain tumors, blood vessel abnormalities,
inflammation of the brain or meninges, decrease in
oxygen supply to the brain, damage to brain cells,
and infections of the eyes, ears, nose, or sinuses,
 Tension headaches are associated with stress,
fatigue, and anxiety and usually occur in the
occipital and temporal muscles
 Migraine headaches sometimes respond to drugs
that constrict the blood vessels
Brain tumor
 Any benign or malignant growth within the
cranium.
 Symptoms from the increased intracranial
pressure from the growing tumor or accompanying
edema, and can include;
 headaches, altered consciousness, vomiting, seizures,
 visual problems, cranial nerve abnormalities,
 hormonal syndromes,
 personality changes, dementia, and sensory or motor
deficits.
Cerebral palsy (CP)
 Refers to a group of motor disorders resulting
in muscular in coordination and loss of muscle
control.
 Caused by damage to the motor areas of the brain
during fetal life, birth, or infancy.
 This damage may result from;
 a. German measles infection of the mother during the first
trimester,
 b. radiation during gestation,
 c. temporary lack of oxygen during birth, or
 d. hydrocephalus during infancy.
Dyslexia
 Impairment of the brain's ability to
translate images received from the eyes
into understandable language.
 Reads IUD as DUI
 Causes seem related to lack of proper development
i.e. crawling
 Treatment: cross crawl exercise
Cerebellar Impairment
 ATAXIA: uncoordinated and jerky
movements, slurred speech
 INTENTION TREMOR- shaking during
voluntary movement
 TEST: Finger to nose, finger to finger, tandem
walk
 _______
Parkinson’s Disease
 A progressive disorder of the CNS (usually in
individuals over 60 years of age, but can
occur in younger patients).
 Parkinson’s is thought to result from too little
dopamine being produced.
 Symptoms include muscle tremors, muscle
rigidity, and slow, difficult movements. Walking
and speech are often affected.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
 A progressive destruction of the myelin
sheaths of the nerves of the CNS. This causes
“short circuits” in nerve transmissions.
 There is no known cause or treatment.
 MS most commonly strikes young women in
their 20’s, but can affect men as well.
 Progressive loss of muscle function is the
main symptom.