Birokrasi & Pembangunan

 Larson (Hariandja, 1999:49)

 Secara konseptual, Negara berbeda dengan
birokrasi
 Negara: “semua aspek pembuatan kebijakan &
pelaksanaan sanksi hukum”
 Birokrasi (pemerintah): “agen yg melaksanakan
kebijakan negara dlm sebuah masy. Politik”
 Birokrasi sbg pantulan negara
 Posisi birokrasi dominan dlm struktur kelembagaan
 Peran Birokrasi dapat menyetir arah kebijakan
negara (lihat kasus kebijakan BBM yg selalu terjadi
pada setiap rej im)
 Analisis Marx ttg Birokrasi
 Mazhab Weberian  pendekatan teori sistem
otoritas, pemerintahan yg luas & peranan
pengoraganisasian pengetahuan teknis dlm
masy industri
 Marx  Birokrasi sbg Kelas Penguasa
- Birokrasi melayani kelas borjuasi
- Suatu lapisan sosial yg jelas & terpisah dgn
kepentingan yg spesifik, mengatur sekumpulan
sumber khusus, pola hub birokratis, dan bukan
merangkul keptg warga tetapi kepentingan
birokrasi yg dirangkulkan kepada warga (sumber
Hariandja, hal. 50-53)
 Perkembangan Birokrasi
Masalah Administratif
makin kompleks
Perkembangan Perkembangan
Modernisasi Birokrasi

Tuntutan Pembagian Kerja

-Monetisasi Ekonomi
-Ekonomi kapitalistis
-Rasionalitas & Demistifikasi
-Demokratisasi
-Modernisasi sosial-ekonomi Perspektif Birokrasi
Weberian (Masoed, 1984)
Etzioni-Halevy (Masoed, 1984):
“Birokrasi berkembang karena
rasionalitas dan penguasaan
teknisnya yang membuat Birokrasi
menjadi alat yg paling layak untuk
mengatasi berbagai tugas dan
permasalahan masyarakat modern
yg kompleks”
Birokrasi & Reproduksi Kapitalisme
(Kritik atas Birokrasi Weberian)

Kapitalisme Birokrasi Reproduksi

Kapitalisme

Mendorong Masy.
Utk menciptakan Investasi Pengendali
Surplus Stabilitas

Fungsi Koordinasi (Weber)

Vs Fungsi Pengendalian
(Kritik atas Weber)
 Fenomena Birokrasi di
Indonesia, bagaimana?
“Masyarakat seringkali mengeluhkan atas
sikap birokrasi yg ingin dilayani, bukan
melayani masyarakat”

“Mengapa Harus dipermudah, bila bisa

dipersulit”
Jumlah Prosedur, Waktu & Biaya yg
Dibutuhkan untuk memulai Bisnis
1200
Jml Prosd
1000
Waktu
800 Biaya ($)
Indonesia: 12
600 prosedur, 151
hari, & $
400 1.163 US

200 Biaya Pungli:

Rp 3 triliun
0 per tahun
Thailand
Indonesia

M alaysia

Australia
Vietnam

Philipina
China

India
Mengapa Birokrasi di Dunia Ketiga
berperan dominan? (Masoed, hal. 72-78)
 Peran Negara & Kapitalisme
Intervensi negara dlm berbagai bidang (adm,
arbitrasi, regulasi, kontrol finansial, moneter,
fiskal & tindakan langsung [militer])
 Otonomi Birokrasi (Hamza Alavi)
Konsep “negara pasca kolonial” bhw negara dlm
masy.yg baru lepas dari kolonialisme memiliki
ruang kendali & manuver yg luas.
(1) Sifat Overdeveloped  setelah ditinggal
penguasa kolonial tdk lagi melayani tuannya.
(2) Ketiadaan kelas sosial tandingan (kelas
menengah yg terorganisir)
DNA Perubahan Birokrat
(Rosyadi, 2007)
level pimpinan * kadar perubahan DNA keterbukaan pikiran Crosstabulation

kadar perubahan DNA keterbukaan

pikiran
rendah sedang tinggi Total
level top manager Count 3 2 2 7
pimpinan % of Total 11,5% 7,7% 7,7% 26,9%
midle manager Count 5 2 4 11
% of Total 19,2% 7,7% 15,4% 42,3%
lower manager Count 2 2 2 6
% of Total 7,7% 7,7% 7,7% 23,1%
staf Count 2 2
% of Total 7,7% 7,7%
Total Count 10 8 8 26
% of Total 38,5% 30,8% 30,8% 100,0%
RAGAM PENGARUH TEKANAN GLOBAL
THD BIROKRASI PUBLIK
Modeling a New Theoretical Framework
ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY, Vol. 33 No. 4, September 2001 371-402

Pengembangan kerangka teoritik untuk

analisis comparative melalui dua studi kasus

Global Pressures
Sistem-sistem sosial, Filter public sector
ekonomi dan politik efficiency and global
(Konteks Domestik institutions.

Perubahan Birokrasi
(Struktur, cakupan, ukuran, otonomi &
Akuntabilitas
 TUJUAN STUDI

To develop a useful model that accounts

for the interaction between the forces
pushing for and against convergence. It
aims to develop the existing theoretical
framework (Welch & Wong, 1998) into
a testable model for research leading
toward a better understanding of
administrative theory in a globalized
world.
A GLOBAL FRAMEWORK OF
BUREAUCRATIC CHANGE
Pandangan PA
Kontemporer

Pandangan
Old PA

Bureaucracies are open organizations that affect and

are affected by their environments (Aldrich, 1979;
Rainey, 1998; W. R. Scott, 1998).
GLOBAL PRESSURES: GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS
AND PUBLIC SECTOR EFFICIENCY
 Global institution pressure : “the pressure exerted by an influential
institution (law, regulation, standard operating procedures, norms
of behavior) with a global jurisdiction that has authority and power
over or attraction to individual countries and that causes
commitment of resources or effort in the related area”.
 Global institution pressure :
- large, formal organizations, treaties, or multilateral agreements
(Contoh: IMF, WTO, Worldbank)
- formalized ideas, concepts, or movements (Ct. Good Governance,
New Public Services)
 Significant effects on national, regional, and local bureaucracies 
they represent extranational influences over domestic policy
arenas. As these institutions increase in power and significance,
domestic policy makers and public managers will increasingly be
forced to incorporate them into decision making.
 Proses Pengaruh Tekanan Global thd
Kekuasaan Pemerintahan Nasional
Under the global institution pressure, power leaks
from the top of national government into
international arrangements, agreements,
commitments, and agencies (Cleveland, 1993).
This type of leakage results in reduction of
national government discretion and control.
There is a decline in the power of nation-states
in maintaining their sovereignty in its original
sense. The power of national bureaucracies also
shifts into an international and borderless
domain (Farazmand, 1994)
Tekanan Efisiensi di Sektor
Publik
 “the pressure exerted by economic and political
forces that induce public agencies to improve cost-
effectiveness as a means of enhancing global
competitiveness and citizen satisfaction”.
 In response to increasingly mobile resources and
demanding citizens, public agencies are seeking to
implement market-based reforms under the
perception that failure to do so will result in a lower
national economic standard of living and increased
public dissatisfaction with government (Ingraham,
1996; Kettl, 1997; Pollitt, 1990; Savoie, 1994).
Reformasi Berbasis Pasar: Kebijakan
Kenaikan Harga BBM (dlm sen euro per
liter per 2 juni 2004)
120
Bensin
100
80
60
40
20
0
AS

Jepang
Brasil

Inggris
Jerman
Mesir

Rusia
Indonesia
Nigeria
Cina

India
New Public Management  bentuk
tekanan
 Kettl (1997) has noted that these NPM reforms have
started a “global revolution in public management.”
Under this global revolution, there are some variations
in the focus and locus of actual reforms in different
countries (OECD, 1993, 1995).
 Hood (1991) identified seven key elements of NPM
reforms: a “free to manage” ethos for managers,
performance standards and measures, emphasis on
output controls, breaking up of public sector entities and
systems into “corporatized” units, introduction of
competition and contracting out, adoption of private
sector management, and greater discipline and
parsimony in resource use.
Konteks Domestik
Mengapa berperan sbg variabel
intervening?
 Menghindari kesimpulan yg menyesatkan mgn
efek berbagai tekanan global. Ct: negara yg
ekonominya tertutup bukan mrp sasaran tekanan
efisiensi yg didorong oleh kompetisi lalu lintas
sumberdaya di pasar internasional.
 Ketiadaan reformasi dlm birokrasi publik tidak
menunjukkan ketiadaan tekanan global. Bisa
saja merefleksikan kontek domestik yg
mengimbangi efek tekanan global.
Konteks ekonomi, politik &
sosial
 Bozeman, 1987; Perry & Rainey, 1988:
konteks ekonomi mrp faktor utama yg
membentuk birokrasi publik.
Ct: Negara Kaya lebih aktif reformasi iklim
investasi
Negara Maju  hanya perlu 6 tahapan, 8
persen dari pendapatan per kapita, & 27 hari utk
memulai investasi
Negara miskin  lebih dari 11 prosedur, lebih
dari 122 persen dari pendapatan per kapita, dan
butuh waktu 100 hari.
 Konteks Politik
 Hallerberg and Basinger (1998) : sistem politik yg lebih
tersentralistik (sedikit pengambil keputusan) merespon lebih
cepat, melalui policy adjustment, terhadap ekonomi global.
Ct. China
 Kontek politik: stability, regional position, and issue
position.
 Stability can refer to the system of leader replacement, level
of civil unrest, or existence of extraborder conflict.
 Regional position is a variable that describes the regional
importance of the locality.
 Issue position reflects a desire to incorporate some measure
of distance (or relevance) between the origination of the
global pressure and the destination. (Dimensi Geopolitik:
daya saing jarak)
Konteks Sosial
 Subdimensions of religion, culture, class,
stratification, inequalities, social mobility,
ethnicity, family system, and other social
variables.
 Among all the available measures of social
context, culture is a well-known and influential
variable that has strong effects on the
developments of a country.
Lihat: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism, Max Weber (1930/1998) showed the
close linkage between culture and economic
development.
Attributes Of Bureaucratic Change:
Dependent Variables And Hypotheses

 Structure : derajat sentralisasi atau desentralisasi dari

birokrasi.
 Size : derajat pemanfaatan sumberdaya (manusia,
kueangan atau sumberdaya alam) oleh birokrasi.
 Scope : sejumlah layanan yg menjadi tanggung jawab
Birokrasi
 Autonomy : kemampuan atau kekuasaan birokrasi
untuk membuat keputusan yg independen.
 Accountability : mekanisme yg membuat pemerintah
tetap bertanggung jawab kepada warga negara dan
stakeholder atas berbagai tindakan pemerintah.
Hipotesis
 Structure: Increased influence of a global
institution in a policy area will tend to
decentralize the national administrative
structure. (lihat Kasus Indonesia)
 Scope: Increased influence of global
institutions in a policy area will increase the
scope of domestic government regardless of
the level of government (local, regional, or
national) (Lihat Kerjasama Jateng dengan
China)