KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN
DAN PEMBANGUNAN
EKOLOGI
INDUSTRI
Dikoleksi:
Irene M. Lestari dan Soemarno
PSKP-PPSUB- Mei 2012
EKOLOGI
Ekologi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari interaksi antara organisme dengan
lingkungannya. “Ekologi “ berasal dari kata Yunani oikos (berarti "habitat") dan
logos (berarti "ilmu"). Ekologi mempelajari interaksi antar makhluk hidup , dan
interaksi antara makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya.
Dalam ekologi, makhluk hidup dipelajari sebagai satu kesatuan atau sistem dengan
lingkungan hidupnya.
Ekologi merupakan cabang ilmu yang masih relatif baru, yang baru muncul pada
tahun 70-an. Akan tetapi, ekologi mempunyai pengaruh yang besar terhadap
cabang biologinya. Ekologi mempelajari bagaimana makhluk hidup dapat
mempertahankan kehidupannya dengan mengadakan hubungan antar makhluk
hidup dan dengan benda tak hidup di dalam tempat hidupnya atau lingkungannya.
Ekologi, biologi dan ilmu kehidupan lainnya saling melengkapi dengan zoologi dan
botani yang menggambarkan hal bahwa ekologi mencoba memperkirakan, dan
ekonomi energi yang menggambarkan kebanyakan rantai makanan manusia dan
tingkat tropik.
Perpindahan energi dan materi dari makhluk hidup yang satu ke makhluk
hidup yang lain ke dalam lingkungannya dan faktor-faktor yang
menyebabkannya.
Perubahan populasi atau spesies pada waktu yang berbeda dalam faktor-
faktor yang menyebabkannya.
Terjadi hubungan antarspesies (interaksi antarspesies) makhluk hidup dan
hubungan antara makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya.
Konsep Ekologi
Hubungan keterkaitan dan ketergantungan antara seluruh komponen ekosistem
harus dipertahankan dalam kondisi yang stabil dan seimbang (homeostatis) .
Perubahan terhadap salah satu komponen akan memengaruhi komponen lainnya.
Homeostatis adalah kecenderungan sistem biologi untuk menahan perubahan dan
selalu berada dalam keseimbangan.
Ekosistem mampu memelihara dan mengatur diri sendiri seperti halnya komponen
penyusunnya yaitu organisme dan populasi. Dengan demikian, ekosistem dapat
dianggap suatu cibernetik di alam. Namun manusia cenderung mengganggu sistem
pengendalian alamiah ini.
ekosistem merupakan kumpulan dari bermacam-macam dari alam tersebut,
contoh hewan, tumbuhan, lingkungan, dan yang terakhir manusia
a. Netral
Hubungan tidak saling mengganggu antarorganisme dalam habitat yang sama yang
bersifat tidak menguntungkan dan tidak merugikan kedua belah pihak, disebut netral.
Contohnya : antara capung dan sapi.
b. Predasi
Predasi adalah hubungan antara mangsa dan pemangsa (predator). Hubungan ini
sangat erat sebab tanpa mangsa, predator tak dapat hidup. Sebaliknya, predator juga
berfungsi sebagai pengontrol populasi mangsa. Contoh : Singa dengan mangsanya,
yaitu kijang, rusa,dan burung hantu dengan tikus.
c. Parasitisme
Parasitisme adalah hubungan antarorganisme yang berbeda spesies, bilasalah satu
organisme hidup pada organisme lain dan mengambil makanan dari hospes/inangnya
sehingga bersifat merugikan inangnya.
Contoh : Plasmodium dengan manusia, Taeniasaginata dengan sapi, dan benalu
dengan pohon inang.
d. Komensalisme
Komensalisme merupakan hubunganantara dua organisme yang berbeda spesies
dalam bentuk kehidupan bersama untuk berbagi sumber makanan; salah satu spesies
diuntungkan dan spesies lainnya tidak dirugikan. Contohnya anggrek dengan pohon
yang ditumpanginya.
e. Mutualisme
Mutualisme adalah hubungan antara dua organisme yang berbeda spesies yang saling
menguntungkan kedua belah pihak. Contoh, bakteri Rhizobium yang hidup pada bintil
akar kacang-kacangan.
Sumber: . http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0028%20Bio%201-
6c.htm.... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Interaksi Antar populasi
Antara populasi yang satu dengan populasi lain selalu terjadi interaksi secara
langsung atau tidak langsung dalam komunitasnya.Contoh interaksi antarpopulasi
adalah sebagai berikut.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0028%20Bio%201-6c.htm..... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Sumber: . http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0028%20Bio%201-6c.htm.... diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI
Aliran Energi
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0031%20Bio%201-7b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Siklus Karbon dan Oksigen
Di atmosfer terdapat kandungan COZ sebanyak 0.03%. Sumber-sumber COZ di udara
berasal dari respirasi manusia dan hewan, erupsi vulkanik, pembakaran batubara, dan
asap pabrik.
Karbon dioksida di udara dimanfaatkan oleh tumbuhan untuk berfotosintesis dan
menghasilkan oksigen yang nantinya akan digunakan oleh manusia dan hewan untuk
berespirasi.
Hewan dan tumbuhan yang mati, dalam waktu yang lama akan membentuk batubara di
dalam tanah. Batubara akan dimanfaatkan lagi sebagai bahan bakar yang juga
menambah kadar C02 di udara.
Di ekosistem air, pertukaran C02 dengan atmosfer berjalan secara tidak langsung.
Karbon dioksida berikatan dengan air membentuk asam karbonat yang akan terurai
menjadi ion bikarbonat. Bikarbonat adalah sumber karbon bagi alga yang memproduksi
makanan untuk diri mereka sendiri dan organisme heterotrof lain. Sebaliknya, saat
organisme air berespirasi, COz yang mereka keluarkan menjadi bikarbonat. Jumlah
bikarbonat dalam air adalah seimbang dengan jumlah C02 di air.
Siklus Karbon
dan Oksigen
di Alam
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0032%20Bio%201-
7c.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Keseimbangan Lingkungan
Definisi lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya keadaan,
dan makhluk hidup, termasuk di dalamnya manusia dan perilakunya.
Komponen lingkungan terdiri dari faktor abiotik (tanah, air, udara, cuaca, suhu) dan
faktor biotik (tumbuhan dan hewan, termasuk manusia).
Lingkungan hidup balk faktor biotik maupun abiotik berpengaruh dan dipengaruhi
manusia. Segala yang ada pada lingkungan dapat dimanfaatkan oleh manusia untuk
mencukupi kebutuhan hidup manusia, karena lingkungan memiliki daya dukung. Daya
dukung lingkungannya adalah kemampuan lingkungan untuk mendukung perikehidupan
manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya.
Dalam kondisi alami, lingkungan dengan segala keragaman interaksi yang ada
mampu untuk menyeimbangkan keadaannya. Namun tidak tertutup kemungkinan,
kondisi demikian dapat berubah oleh campur tangan manusia dengan segala
aktivitas pemenuhan kebutuhan yang terkadang melampaui Batas.
Keseimbangan lingkungan secara alami dapat berlangsung karena beberapa hal, yaitu
komponen-komponen yang ada terlibat dalam aksi-reaksi dan berperan sesuai
kondisi keseimbangan, pemindahan energi (arus energi), dan siklus biogeokimia
dapat berlangsung.
Salah satu faktor penyebab gangguan adalah polusi di samping faktor-faktor yang
lain.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0036%20Bio%201-8a.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN
Zat atau bahan yang dapat mengakibatkan pencemaran disebut polutan. Syarat-
syarat suatu zat disebut polutan bila keberadaannya dapat menyebabkan kerugian
terhadap makhluk hidup. Contohnya, karbon dioksida dengan kadar 0,033% di udara
berfaedah bagi tumbuhan, tetapi bila lebih tinggi dari 0,033% dapat rnemberikan
efek merusak.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0037%20Bio%201-8b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: Pencemaran udara
Sumber polusi udara lain dapat berasal dari radiasi bahan radioaktif, misalnya, nuklir.
Setelah peledakan nuklir, materi radioaktif masuk ke dalam atmosfer dan jatuh di bumi.
materi radioaktif ini akan terakumulusi di tanah, air, hewan, tumbuhan, dan juga pada
manusia.
Efek pencemaran nuklir terhadap makhluk hidup, dalam taraf tertentu, dapat
menyebabkan mutasi, berbagai penyakit akibat kelainan gen, dan bahkan kematian.
Pencemaran udara dinyatakan dengan ppm (part per million) yang artinya jumlah cm3
polutan per m3 udara.
Pencemar udara dapat berupa gas dan partikel. Contohnya sebagai berikut.
1. Gas H2S. Gas ini bersifat racun, terdapat di kawasan gunung berapi,
bisa juga dihasilkan dari pembakaran minyak bumi dan batu bara.
2. Gas CO dan CO2. Karbon monoksida (CO) tidak berwarna dan tidak
berbau, bersifat racun, merupakan hash pembakaran yang tidak
sempurna dari bahan buangan mobil dan mesin letup.
Gas CO2 dalam udara murni berjumlah 0,03%. Bila melebihi toleransi dapat
mengganggu pernapasan. Selain itu, gas C02 yang terlalu berlebihan di
bumi dapat mengikat panas matahari sehingga suhu bumi panas.
Pemanasan global di bumi akibat C02 disebut juga sebagai efek rumah
kaca.
3. Partikel SO2 dan NO2. Kedua partikel ini bersama dengan partikel cair
membentuk embun, membentuk awan dekat tanah yang dapat
mengganggu pernapasan. Partikel padat, misalnya bakteri, jamur,
virus, bulu, dan tepung sari juga dapat mengganggu kesehatan.
4. Batu bara yang mengandung sulfur melalui pembakaran akan meng-
hasilkan sulfur dioksida.
Sulfur dioksida bersama dengan udara serta oksigen dan sinar matahari dapat
menghasilkan asam sulfur. Asam ini membentuk kabut dan suatu saat akan
jatuh sebagai hujan yang disebut hujan asam. Hujan asam dapat menyebabkan
gangguan pada manusia, hewan, maupun tumbuhan. Misalnya gangguan
pernapasan, perubahan morfologi pada daun, batang, dan benih.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0037%20Bio%201-
8b.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI: pengelolaan lingkungan
Sehubungan dengan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam, agar lingkungan tetap lestari,
harus diperhatikan tatanan/tata cara lingkungan itu sendiri. Dalam hal ini manusialah
yang paling tepat sebagai pengelolanya karena manusia memiliki beberapa kelebihan
dibandingkan dengan organisme lain.
Untuk mencegah dan menghindari tindakan manusia yang bersifat kontradiksi dari
hal-hal tersebut di atas, pemerintah telah menetapkan kebijakan melalui Undang-
undang Lingkungan Hidup.
Sumber: http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/
0039%20Bio%201-8d.htm diunduh 4/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Ekologi Industri (IE) adalah studi tentang aliran material dan energi melalui sistem
industri.
Ekonomi industri global dapat dimodelkan sebagai jaringan proses industri yang
mengekstraksi sumber daya dari Bumi dan mengubah sumber daya itu menjadi
komoditas yang dapat dibeli dan dijual untuk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia.
Ahli ekologi industri sering peduli dengan dampak kegiatan industri terhadap
lingkungan, dengan penggunaan pasokan sumber daya alam planet ini, dan dengan
masalah pembuangan limbah. Ekologi industri adalah bidang penelitian
multidisiplin yang muda namun terus berkembang yang menggabungkan aspek-
aspek teknik, ekonomi, sosiologi, toksikologi, dan ilmu alam.
Ekologi industri berkaitan dengan pergeseran proses industri dari sistem linear (loop
terbuka), di mana investasi sumber daya dan modal bergerak melalui sistem menjadi
limbah, ke sistem loop tertutup di mana limbah dapat menjadi input untuk proses baru.
Sebagian besar penelitian berfokus pada bidang-bidang berikut:
studi aliran material dan energi ("metabolisme industri")
dematerialisasi dan dekarbonisasi
perubahan teknologi dan lingkungan
perencanaan, desain dan penilaian siklus hidup
desain untuk lingkungan ("eco-design")
tanggung jawab produsen yang diperluas ("pengawasan produk")
taman lingkungan industri ("simbiosis industri")
kebijakan lingkungan yang berorientasi produk
efisiensi lingkungan
Ekologi industri berupaya memahami cara sistem industri (misalnya pabrik, ekoregion,
atau ekonomi nasional atau global) berinteraksi dengan biosfer. Ekosistem alami
memberikan metafora untuk memahami bagaimana bagian-bagian berbeda dari sistem
industri berinteraksi satu sama lain, dalam "ekosistem" yang didasarkan pada sumber
daya dan modal infrastruktur daripada pada modal alam. Ia berupaya mengeksploitasi
gagasan bahwa sistem alami tidak memiliki limbah di dalamnya untuk menginspirasi
desain berkelanjutan.
Salah satu prinsip utama Ekologi Industri adalah pandangan bahwa sistem sosial
dan teknologi dibatasi dalam biosfer, dan tidak ada di luarnya. Ekologi digunakan
sebagai metafora karena pengamatan bahwa sistem alami menggunakan kembali
bahan dan memiliki siklus perputaran nutrisi yang tertutup. Ekologi Industri
mendekati masalah dengan hipotesis bahwa dengan menggunakan prinsip yang
sama seperti sistem alami, sistem industri dapat ditingkatkan untuk mengurangi
dampaknya terhadap lingkungan alam juga. Tabel menunjukkan metafora umum.
Biosphere Technosphere
• Environment • Market
• Organism • Company
• Natural Product • Industrial Product
• Natural Selection • Competition
• Ecosystem • Eco-Industrial Park
• Ecological Niche • Market Niche
• Anabolism / Catabolism • Manufacturing / Waste Management
• Mutation and Selection • Design for Environment
• Succession • Economic Growth
• Adaptation • Innovation
• Food Web • Product Life Cycle
IE meneliti masalah sosial dan hubungannya dengan sistem teknis dan lingkungan.
Melalui pandangan holistik ini, IE mengakui bahwa penyelesaian masalah harus
melibatkan pemahaman koneksi yang ada di antara sistem-sistem ini, berbagai aspek
tidak dapat dilihat secara terpisah. Seringkali perubahan di satu bagian dari keseluruhan
sistem dapat menyebar dan menyebabkan perubahan di bagian lain. Dengan demikian,
Anda hanya dapat memahami masalah jika Anda melihat bagian-bagiannya dalam
hubungannya dengan keseluruhan. Berdasarkan kerangka ini, IE melihat masalah
lingkungan dengan pendekatan sistem berpikir.
Sebuah kota dapat dibagi menjadi area komersial, area perumahan, kantor, layanan,
infrastruktur, dll. Ini semua adalah sub-sistem dari sistem 'kota besar'. Masalah dapat
muncul dalam satu sub-sistem, tetapi solusinya harus bersifat global. Katakanlah harga
perumahan naik secara dramatis karena permintaan perumahan terlalu tinggi. Salah
satu solusinya adalah membangun rumah baru, tetapi ini akan menyebabkan lebih
banyak orang yang tinggal di kota, yang mengarah pada kebutuhan lebih banyak
infrastruktur seperti jalan, sekolah, lebih banyak supermarket, dll. Sistem ini adalah
interpretasi yang disederhanakan dari kenyataan yang perilakunya dapat 'diprediksi'.
Dalam banyak kasus, sistem yang ditangani IE adalah sistem yang kompleks.
Kompleksitas membuatnya sulit untuk memahami perilaku sistem dan dapat
menyebabkan efek rebound. Karena perubahan perilaku pengguna atau konsumen yang
tidak terduga, tindakan yang diambil untuk meningkatkan kinerja lingkungan tidak
mengarah pada perbaikan atau bahkan dapat memperburuk situasi. Misalnya, di kota-
kota besar, lalu lintas dapat menjadi masalah. Mari kita bayangkan pemerintah ingin
mengurangi polusi udara dan membuat kebijakan yang menyatakan bahwa hanya mobil
dengan nomor plat yang dapat mengemudi pada hari Selasa dan Kamis. Nomor plat
nomor ganjil dapat dikendarai pada hari Rabu dan Jumat.
Akhirnya, beberapa hari yang lalu, kedua mobil diizinkan di jalan. Efek pertama bisa jadi
orang membeli mobil kedua, dengan permintaan khusus untuk nomor plat, sehingga
mereka bisa mengemudi setiap hari. Efek pantulannya adalah, pada hari-hari ketika
semua mobil diizinkan mengemudi, beberapa penduduk sekarang menggunakan kedua
mobil (sedangkan mereka hanya punya satu mobil untuk digunakan sebelum kebijakan).
Kebijakan itu jelas tidak mengarah pada perbaikan lingkungan tetapi malah
memperburuk polusi udara.
Selain itu, pemikiran siklus hidup juga merupakan prinsip yang sangat penting dalam
ekologi industri. Ini menyiratkan bahwa semua dampak lingkungan yang disebabkan
oleh produk, sistem, atau proyek selama siklus hidupnya diperhitungkan. Dalam
konteks ini siklus hidup meliputi:
Ekstraksi bahan baku
Pengolahan bahan
Pembuatan
Penggunaan Material
Pemeliharaan
Pembuangan limbah.
Transportasi yang diperlukan antara tahap-tahap ini juga diperhitungkan juga, jika
relevan, tahap-tahap tambahan seperti penggunaan kembali, remanufaktur, dan daur
ulang. Mengadopsi pendekatan siklus hidup sangat penting untuk menghindari
pergeseran dampak lingkungan dari satu tahap siklus kehidupan ke tahap siklus
kehidupan lainnya. Ini biasanya disebut sebagai pengalihan masalah. Misalnya, selama
mendesain ulang suatu produk, seseorang dapat memilih untuk mengurangi beratnya,
sehingga mengurangi penggunaan sumber daya. Namun, ada kemungkinan bahwa
bahan yang lebih ringan yang digunakan dalam produk baru akan lebih sulit untuk
dibuang. Dampak lingkungan dari produk yang diperoleh selama fase ekstraksi bergeser
ke fase pembuangan. Dengan demikian perbaikan lingkungan secara keseluruhan
adalah nol.
Prinsip terakhir dan penting dari IE adalah pendekatannya yang terintegrasi atau
multidisiplin.
IE memperhitungkan tiga disiplin ilmu yang berbeda: ilmu sosial (termasuk ekonomi),
ilmu teknis dan ilmu lingkungan. Tantangannya adalah menggabungkan mereka
menjadi satu pendekatan tunggal.
METODE ANALISIS DALAM EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
• Stakeholder analysis
• Strength Weakness • Environmental
Opportunities impact assessment
Threats Analysis (EIA)
(SWOT Analysis) • Input-output • Cost benefit analysis
• Ecolabelling analysis (IOA) (CBA) • Stock and flow
• ISO 14000 • Life-cycle • Full cost accounting analysis
• Environmental assessment (LCA) (FCA) • Agent based
management system • Material flow • Life cycle costing modeling
(EMS) analysis (MFA) (LCC)
• Integrated chain • Substance flow
management (ICM) analysis (SFA)
• Technology • MET Matrix
assessment
Industrialisasi
Tipe I adalah sistem proses linier. Pada tipe ini energi dan material masuk pada
sistem kemudian menghasilkan produk, produk samping, dan limbah. Limbah yang
dihasilkan tidak dilakukan proses olah ulang sehingga membutuhkan pasokan bahan
baku dan energi yang banyak.
Tipe II adalah tipe industri yang paling banyak digunakan di Indonesia, tipe ini
sebagian limbah telah diolah ulang dalam sistem dan sebagian lagi dibuang ke
lingkungan.
Tipe III merupakan sistem produksi kesetimbangan dinamik yang energi dan
limbahnya diolah ulang secara baik dan digunakan sebagai bahan baku oleh
komponen sistem lain. Pada sistem ini merupakan sistem industri yang tertutup total
dan hanya energi matahari yang datang dari luar sistem. Hal ini merupakan sistem
ideal yang menjadi tujuan ekologi industri.
Sumber: http://malikalkarim.wordpress.com/2011/12/05/ekologi-industri-sebagai-wujud-
sistem-industri-menuju-pembangunan-berkelanjutan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
SIMBIOSIS INDUSTRI
Sumber: http://malikalkarim.wordpress.com/2011/12/05/ekologi-industri-sebagai-wujud-sistem-industri-
menuju-pembangunan-berkelanjutan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
EKOLOGI INDUSTRI
Industri yang dapat diintegrasikan di Indonesia, antara lain perkebunan tebu, industri
gula, industri bioetanol, industri pulp dan kertas, industri pupuk, industri semen, serta
industri logam alkali.
Sitem transportasi
dalam industri gula tebu
http://
reunismansa.files.wordpress.co
m/2010/04/
sepur_01_sondokoro.jpg
Oleh karena itu, perlu adanya sistem baru yang dapat meningkatkan produk
suatu industri, penghematan bahan baku sekaligus meminimalkan pencemaran
lingkungan, sistem tersebut adalah ekologi industri.
Pada ekologi industri mempertimbangkan masalah polusi dan lingkungan serta
mempertimbangkan kesinambungan industri serta aspek ekonomi tetap
diutamakan. Dengan ekologi industri akan tercipta suatu sistem yang terpadu
di antara industri-industri yang ada didalamnya dan saling bersimbiosis secara
mutualisme.
Tujuan utama ekologi industri dalam ruang lingkup industri bioetanol tidak
lain adalah untuk memajukan dan melaksanakan konsep pembangunan
berkelanjutan baik itu secara regional maupun lokal, dengan mencoba
menemukan kebutuhan generasi sekarang dengan generasi yang akan
datang.
Dampak positif :
1. Meningkatkan perekonomian daerah melalui pembukaan lapangan
kerja baru,
2. Secara sosial dengan adanya pabrik bioetanol berbahan dasar limbah
industri pangan yang merupakan komoditas terbesar di Indonesia
maka mata pencahariaan masyarakat lebih variatif sehingga akan
memajukan daerah setempat
3. Dari aspek lingkungan pemanfaatan limbah industri pangan untuk
produksi bioethanol akan sangat menguntungkan karena dapat
meminimalkan limbah organic yang terbuang ke lingkungan.
Diunduh dari:
http://repository.ipb.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/25678/prosiding_workshop_biodies
el_dan_bioethanol-8.pdf
Sumber: http://onlinebuku.com/2008/07/12/ekologi-industri-paradigma-baru-industri-
ramah-lingkungan/ ………….. diunduh 6/5/2012
PERKEMBANGAN MASA DEPAN
Baru-baru ini, telah ditunjukkan bahwa metafora ini sebagian besar didasarkan
pada model ekologi klasik, dan bahwa kemajuan dalam memahami ekologi
berdasarkan ilmu kompleksitas telah dibuat oleh para peneliti seperti C. S.
Holling, James J. Kay, dan lain-lain.
Untuk ekologi industri, ini mungkin berarti pergeseran dari pandangan sistem
yang lebih mekanistik, ke pandangan keberlanjutan yang dipandang sebagai
properti yang muncul dari sistem yang kompleks.
Untuk mengeksplorasi ini lebih lanjut, beberapa peneliti bekerja dengan teknik
pemodelan berbasis agen.
MANAJEMEN ENERGI
Energy accounting is a system used in energy management systems
where measuring and analyzing energy consumption is done to improve
energy efficiency within an organization.
An accounting system keeps track of energy in, energy out, and non-
useful energy versus work done, and transformations within a system.
Sometimes, non-useful work is what is often responsible for
environmental problems.
Exceptions for perfect conversion efficiency (even for isolated systems) occur when
energy has already been partly distributed among many available quantum states for
a collection of particles, which are freely allowed to explore any state of momentum
and position (phase space).
For instance, a coal-fired power plant makes lots of energy and involves these energy
transformations:
Chemical energy in the coal converted to thermal energy
Thermal energy converted to kinetic energy in steam
Kinetic energy converted to mechanical energy in the turbine
Mechanical energy of the turbine converted to electrical energy, which is the ultimate
output
In such a system, the last step is almost perfectly efficient, the first and second steps are
fairly efficient, but the third step is relatively inefficient. The most efficient gas-fired
electrical power stations can achieve 50% conversion efficiency. Oil- and coal-fired stations
achieve less.
There are many different machines and transducers that convert one energy form into
another. A short list of examples follows:
MotivaSI MFA
Human needs such as shelter, food, transport, or communication require
materials such as wood, starch, sugar, iron and steel, copper, or semiconductors.
As society develops and economic activity grows, production, use, and disposal of
the materials employed increases to a scale where unwanted impacts on
environment and society cannot be neglected anymore, neither locally nor
globally:
Material flows represent the core of local environmental problems such as
leaching from landfills or oil spills.
Rising concern about global climate change put a previously unimportant waste
flow, carbon dioxide, on the top of the political and scientific agenda. In addition
the gradual shift from traditional to urban mining in developed countries requires
a detailed assessment of in-use and obsolete stocks of materials within the
human environment.
Industries, government bodies, and other organisations therefore need a tool to
complement economic accounting with systematic book-keeping of materials
entering, staying, and leaving the anthroposphere. Material flow analysis is such a
tool.
Prinsip Dasar
MFA is based on two fundamental and well-established scientific principles, system
approach and mass balance. While these principles are applied wide across science and
technology, it is the way they are applied to the socioeconomic metabolism that makes
MFA a special method.
Definisi SIstem:
An MFA system is a model of a process, industry sector or region of concern. Its level of
detail is chosen according to the purpose of the study. An MFA system consists of the
system boundary, processes, flows, and stocks. Contrary to e.g. chemical engineering
where such a system would represent a specific physical setup, systems and processes in
MFA can represent much larger and more abstract things as long as they are well-
defined. The concept of the system is central as it allows to allocate quantitative
information either as stocks within certain processes or as flows between processes. In
other words an MFA system allows to graphically allocate the meaning of measurements
or statistical data in form of stocks or flows that are related to certain processes in a
given system.
A system can represent a snapshot of stocks and flows at a certain point in time
or it can contain time series which describe the temporal evolution of the system
variables.
The material (scope) of the system is the actual physical entity that shall be
quantified. This can be a certain chemical element such as cadmium or a
substance such as CO2. More general things can be quantified as well as long as
some kind of balance can be established. Examples are goods such as passenger
cars or other physical quantities such as energy.
One of the main purposes of MFA is to obtain a complete picture of the metabolism of
certain elements or substances within the scope of the system. Such an analysis must also
cover the stocks and flows that are not covered by financial accounting such as some waste
flows, exhausts, or stocks of obsolete products. Mass balance or more general process
balance is a first order physical principle that turns MFA into a powerful tool. The
requirement for a balance to hold for each process facilitates a complete picture of the
materials used, produced, and discarded within the various processes. Which balances hold
for a given system depends on the specific processes that are considered: While for a
process ‘oil refinery’ one can establish a mass balance for each chemical element, this is not
possible for a nuclear power station. A car factory respects the balance for steel, but a steel
mill doesn’t. Mass balance is a powerful and surprisingly versatile concept for the
quantification of MFA systems.
When quantifying MFA systems either by measurements or from statistical data, mass
balance and other process balances have to be checked to ensure the correctness of the
quantification and to reveal possible data inconsistencies or even misconceptions in the
system such as the omission of a flow or a process.
Material flow analyses are conducted on various spatial and temporal scales, for a
variety of elements, substances, and goods, and cover a wide range of process
chains and material cycles. Examples are MFA on a national or regional scale (also
referred to as Material Flow Accounting): In this type of studies the material
exchanges between an economy and the natural environment are analyzed.
Several indicators are calculated in order to assess the level of resource intensity of
the system.
Corporate material flow analysis, or MFA along an industrial supply chain involving
a number of companies: The goal of material flow analysis within a company is to
optimize the production processes in such a way that materials and energy are
used in the most efficient manner (e.g. by recycling and reduction of waste).
Companies that implement material flow analysis can use the results to improve
their operations costs and environmental performance.
DEFINISI
The goal of material flow accounting is to ensure national planning, especially for scarce
resources, and to allow forecasting. It also allows to assess environmental burdens through
economic activities of a nation or to determine how material intensive an economy is.
The principle concept underlying MFA is a simple model of this interrelation between the
economy and the environment, in which the economy is an embedded subsystem of the
environment. Similar to living beings, this subsystem is dependent on a constant throughput
of materials and energy.
Raw materials, water and air are extracted from the natural system as inputs, transformed
into products and finally re-transferred to the natural system as outputs (waste and
emissions). In order to highlight the similarity to natural metabolic processes, the terms
“industrial” or “societal” metabolism have been introduced.
Analisa Kuantitatif:
1. Bagan Perjalanan
2. Keseimbangam Lini
3. Teknik Antrian
Sumber: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34446986/Metode-Perancangan-Dan-Aliran-Bhn-2
diunduh 5/5/2012
AKUNTING ALIRAN BAHAN
Indikator
Statistics related to material flows are usually combined in different indicators. Some of these
indicators are listed below. More information on how the statistics are collected, under what legal
framework and how they are defined is available on Economy-wide material flow accounts
The following indicators are commonly used in material flow accounting to measure the resource
efficiency of a country or region:
Total Material Requirement (TMR) includes the domestic extraction of reources (minerals, fossil
fuels, biomass), the indirect flows caused by and associated with the domestic extraction (called
"Hidden Flows") and the imports.
Domestic Material Input (DMI) summarizes the domestic extraction of reources and the imports,
but excludes the indirect flows associated with the domestic extraction, since they are sometimes
difficult to quantify.
Direct Material Consumption (DMC): this indicator accounts all materials that are consumed within
or remain in the domestic environment. The quantity is the domestic material input minus the
exports out of the economy.
Domestic Processed Output (DPO) is defined by the OECD as "the total mass of materials which
have been used in the national economy, before flowing into the environment. These flows occur at
the processing, manufacturing, use, and final disposal stages of the economic production-
consumption chain.“
Total Domestic Output (TDO) includes the domestic processed output (DPO) plus the hidden flows
associated with the domestic production.
Net Addition to Stocks (NAS), the materials that are neither released to the domestic environment
nor exported, but contribute to a physical increase of the economic processing system itself, e.g.
infrastructure, buildings, machinery or other durable goods.
Hidden Flows are materials that are extracted or moved, but do not enter the economy. According
to OECD, the "displacement of environmental assets without absorption into the economic sphere",
such as overburden from mining operations.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last
compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above
mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and
weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In
normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually
compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example.
Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During
weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so
that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental
impact.
In the former category, the principal tools are GaBi Software, developed by PE International,
SimaPro, developed by PRé Consultants, Quantis SUITE 2.0, developed by Quantis
International and umberto, developed by ifu Hamburg GmbH, and web-based solutions
include Earthster and LinkCycle. In the second category, different tools operate at different
levels. At the product level, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
makes its BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) tool freely
available, Solidworks CAD software (Dassault Systèmes) presents LCA-based environmental
information to the user through an add-on called SustainabilityXpress, and PTC’s Windchill
Product Analytics makes LCA results an integral part of product development systems. At
the whole building design level, different tools are available in different parts of the world.
For example, the ATHENA® Impact Estimator for Buildings is capable of modeling 95% of the
building stock in North America, Envest has been developed by the Building Research
Establishment to meet UK needs, and EcoQuantum is available in the Netherlands. For the
Netherlands, extensive databases (open access) are available on the so called eco-costs and
carbon footprint of buildings and its components. The European Council of Construction
Economists is planning to develop such open source databases for other European countries
as well. At a building assembly level (e.g., exterior walls) the free ATHENA® EcoCalculator for
Assemblies is an example of a tool that serves North America and the Whole Building Design
Guide is an example of a tool applicable to the UK.
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 LCA is mostly used to support
business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in
education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%).
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning
studies, while governments support the development of national databases to support LCA.
Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental
Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with pre-set
categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding
additional environmental information". These third-party certified LCA-based labels provide
an increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing
products.
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste
management and pollution studies.
A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for
the completion of a life cycle analysis are accurate and current. When comparing
different life cycle analyses with one another, it is crucial that equivalent data are
available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a much higher
availability of data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less
detailed data.
There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-
output data (EIO), where the latter is based on national economic input-output data.
Unit process data are derived from direct surveys of companies or plants producing the
product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the system boundaries
for the study.
Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the
rapid pace of research and development, new materials and manufacturing mthods are
continually being introduced to the market. This makes it both very important and very
difficult to use up-to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCA’s conclusions
are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process takes
time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone significant revisions
since the last LCA data was collected, data validity is not a problem. However, consumer
electronics such as cell phones can be redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,
creating a need for ongoing data collection.
The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials
extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the
most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the
environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that
particular phase. For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car
is during use due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel
efficiency is to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can
decrease environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter
materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase
should be more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.
Cradle-to-grave
Cradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle') to use
phase and disposal phase ('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled
into low-energy production cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation, then used as an energy-
saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000 times the fossil-fuel energy
used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers are replaced and the old fibers are
disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of
the life cycle.
Cradle-to-gate
Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction
(cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase
and disposal phase of the product are omitted in this case. Cradle-to-gate assessments are
sometimes the basis for environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-
business EDPs.
Well-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is often
broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel"
or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel". The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or
fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the
"upstream" stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called
the "downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total
energy consumption, or energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine
vessels, aircrafts and motor vehicle emissions, including their carbon footprint, and the fuels
used in each of these transport modes.
The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the Argonne
National Laboratory. The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in
Transportation (GREET) model was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and
vehicle technologies. The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel
evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts
from the vehicle itself. The model reports energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and six
additional pollutants: volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxide (NOx), particulate matter with size smaller than 10 micrometre (PM10), particulate
matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometre (PM2.5), and sulfur oxides (SOx)
Gate-to-gate
Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-
added process in the entire production chain. Gate-to-
gate modules may also later be linked in their
appropriate production chain to form a complete
cradle-to-gate evaluation.
Ecologically-based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and
strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range
of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise
management of human activities by understanding the direct and
indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding
ecosystems.
Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities
themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum
products. Net energy content is the energy content of the product minus energy input
used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result
of LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be
recovered in using the solar cell. The result was refuted. Another new concept that
flows from life cycle assessments is Energy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an
effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a need for
energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapid
growth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel
the embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to
determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable
technologies.
Energy recovery
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy
released during burning can be harnessed and used for electricity
production. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially when
compared with coal and natural gas While incineration produces more
greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste plants are well-fitted
with filters to minimize this negative impact.
A problem the energy analysis method cannot resolve is that different energy forms
(heat, electricity, chemical energy etc.) have different quality and value even in natural
sciences, as a consequence of the two main laws of thermodynamics. A thermodynamic
measure of the quality of energy is exergy. According to the first law of
thermodynamics, all energy inputs should be accounted with equal weight, whereas by
the second law diverse energy forms should be accounted by different values.
Related terms
Eco-innovation is closely linked to a variety of related terms. It is often used interchangeably
with 'environmental innovation', and is also often linked with 'environmental technology',
'eco-efficiency', 'eco-design', 'environmental design', 'sustainable design', or 'sustainable
innovation'. While 'environmental innovation' is used in similar contexts to 'eco-innovation',
the other terms are mostly used when referring to product or process design, and therefore
focus more on the technological aspects of eco-innovation rather than the societal or
political aspects.
Resource productivity and resource intensity are key concepts used in sustainability measurement as
they measure attempts to decouple the connection between resource use and environmental
degradation.
Their strength is that they can be used as a metric for both economic and environmental cost.
Although these concepts are two sides of the same coin, in practice they involve very different
approaches and can be viewed as reflecting, on the one hand, the efficiency of resource production
as outcome per unit of resource use (resource productivity) and, on the other hand, the efficiency of
resource consumption as resource use per unit outcome (resource intensity). The sustainability
objective is to maximize resource productivity while minimizing resource intensity.
Many factors influence an economy's overall energy intensity. It may reflect requirements
for general standards of living and weather conditions in an economy. It is not atypical for
particularly cold or hot climates to require greater energy consumption in homes and
workplaces for heating (furnaces, or electric heaters) or cooling (air conditioning, fans,
refrigeration). A country with an advanced standard of living is more likely to have a wider
prevalence of such consumer goods and thereby be impacted in its energy intensity than
one with a lower standard of living.
Energy efficiency of appliances and buildings (through use of building materials and
methods, such as insulation), fuel economy of vehicles, vehicular distances travelled
(frequency of travel or larger geographical distances), better methods and patterns of
transportation, capacities and utility of mass transit, energy rationing or conservation
efforts, 'off-grid' energy sources, and stochastic economic shocks such as disruptions of
energy due to natural disasters, wars, massive power outages, unexpected new sources,
efficient uses of energy or energy subsidies may all impact overall energy intensity of a
nation.
Thus, a nation that is highly economically productive, with mild and temperate weather,
demographic patterns of work places close to home, and uses fuel efficient vehicles,
supports carpools, mass transportation or walks or rides bicycles, will have a far lower
energy intensity than a nation that is economically unproductive, with extreme weather
conditions requiring heating and cooling, long commutes, and extensive use of generally
poor fuel economy vehicles. Paradoxically, some activities that may seem to promote high
energy intensities, such as long commutes, could in fact result in lower energy intensities by
causing a disproportionate increase in GDP output.
Figures of energy consumption used in statistics are energy sources marketed through major
energy industries. Therefore some small scale but frequent consumption of energy source
like firewood, charcoal peat, water wheel, wind mill are not in its count. In countries, which
does not have such developed energy industries or people with highly self energy efficient
life style, report smaller energy consumption figures.
Graph of UK figures for the carbon intensity of biodiesels and fossil fuels. This
graph assumes that all biodiesels are burnt in their country of origin. It also
assumes that the diesel is produced from pre-existing croplands rather than by
changing land use
Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the
IPCC assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and
energy technologies.
The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called Kaya identity.
The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source
category and the pollutant. Some examples:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the combustion of fuel can be estimated with a high
degree of certainty regardless of how the fuel is used as these emissions depend almost
exclusively on the carbon content of the fuel, which is generally known with a high degree of
precision. The same is true for sulphur dioxide (SO2), since also sulphur contents of fuels are
generally well known. Both carbon and sulphur are almost completey oxidized during
combustion and all carbon and sulphur atoms in the fuel will be present in the flue gases as
CO2 and SO2 respectively.
In contrast, the levels of other air pollutants and non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions from
combustion depend on the precise technology applied when fuel is combusted. These
emissions are basically caused by either incomplete combustion of a small fraction of the
fuel (carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane volatile organic compounds) or by
complicated chemical and physical processes during the combustion and in the smoke stack
or tailpipe. Examples of these are particulates, NOx, a mixture of nitric oxide, NO, and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2).
Geothermal
Power
In the US, the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production.
Examples for cleaner production options are:
Some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. However, health studies have
demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigue and worker error all generally
increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail settings.
It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers, while
reducing energy consumption.
Dalam rangka menjamin kelestarian serta memanfaatkan sumber daya alam secara efisien,
dipandang perlu untuk menggunakan sumber energi secara bijaksana, berdaya guna dan
berhasil guna agar tercapai keseimbangan antara pembangunan, pemerataan dan
pelestarian lingkungan Hidup.
1. Energi adalah daya yang dapat digunakan untuk melakukan berbagai proses kegiatan,
termasuk bahan bakar, listrik, energi mekanik dan panas;
2. Sumber energi adalah sebagian sumber daya alam antara lain berupa minyak dan gas
bumi, batubara air, panas bumi, gambut, biomasa dan sebagainya, baik secara langsung
maupun tidak langsung dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai energi;
3. Konservasi energi adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara evisien dan rasional
tanpa mengurangi pengunaan energi yang memang benar-benar diperlukan untuk
menunjang pembangunan;
4. Optimasi adalah upaya terpadu untuk mencapai hasil yang besar dan seekonomis
mungkin dalam meningkatkan efisiensi penggunaan energi;
5. Perancangan adalah upaya rancang bangun atau disain yang dilakukan sebelum
membangun suatu sistem, sarana atau membuat peralatan;
6. Audit energi adalah kegiatan untuk mengidentifikasikan potensi penghematan energi
dan menentukan jumlah energi dan biaya yang dapat dihemat dengan usaha konservasi
energi dari suatu sistem, sarana maupun peralatan yang telah ada.
7. Intensitas energi adalah jumlah energi yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan satu satuan
produksi atau jasa.
Sumber:
http://energyefficiencyindonesia.info/application/assets/files/2/Kep_Pres_43_1991_tentang_Konservasi_E
nergi.pdf ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
SASARAN KONSERVASI ENERGI
Untuk mencapai tujuan konservasi energi sebagaiomana dimaksud dalam pasal 2
dilakukan kegiatan:
1. Pemanfaatan sumber daya energi secara lebih bijaksana;
2. Peningkatan efisiensi energi nasional yang antara lain melalui penurunan intensitas
energi di seluruh sektor;
3. Peningkatan nilai tambah secara nasional untuk setiap satuan energi yang digunakan.
Sumber:
http://energyefficiencyindonesia.info/application/assets/files/2/Kep_Pres_43_1991_tentang_Konservasi_E
nergi.pdf ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
LANGKAH-LANGKAH KONSERVASI ENERGI
Sumber:
http://energyefficiencyindonesia.info/application/assets/files/2/Kep_Pres_43_1991_tentang_Konservasi_E
nergi.pdf ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
untuk kesejahteraan manusia
Perlu sebuah kebijakan untuk mengatasi kelangkaan energi yang semakin parah dan
pertumbuhan energi yang sangat tinggi. Lantas bagaimana dalam jangka panjang,
bangsa ini bisa memenuhi kebutuhan energinya yang setiap tahun terus meningkat.
Penghematan memang mutlak harus dilakukan namun, pengembangan sumber sumber
energi alternatif yang tentunya bersifat renewable dan ramah lingkungan juga mutlak
dikerjakan.
Ada banyak kebijakan yang biasa telah diambil oleh pemerintah dalam rangka
memperpanjang penggunaan cadangan energi nasional. Kebijakan yang dapat diambil
atau yang telah berjalan pada bidang energi adalah :
1. Intensifikasi Energi: adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara besar-besaran.
2. Diversifikasi Energi: adalah kegiatan penganekaragaman jenis jenis energi
3. Harga Energi: pengaturan harga energi agar jumlah energi yang dipakai terbatas
4. Konservasi energi: konservasi energi adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan energi secara
efisien dan rasional tanpa mengurangi penggunaan energi yang memang benar
benar diperlukan untuk menunjang pembangunan nasional.
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
untuk kesejahteraan manusia
Penghematan energi adalah unsur yang penting dari sebuah kebijakan energi.
Penghematan energi menurunkan konsumsi energi dan permintaan energi per kapita,
sehingga dapat menutup meningkatnya kebutuhan energi akibat pertumbuhan
populasi. Hal ini mengurangi naiknya biaya energi, dan dapat mengurangi kebutuhan
pembangkit energi atau impor energi. Berkurangnya permintaan energi dapat
memberikan fleksibilitas dalam memilih metode produksi energi.
Selain itu, dengan mengurangi emisi, penghematan energi merupakan bagian penting
dari mencegah atau mengurangi perubahan iklim.
Penghematan energi juga memudahkan digantinya sumber-sumber tak dapat
diperbaharui dengan sumber-sumber yang dapat diperbaharui. Penghematan energi
sering merupakan cara paling ekonomis dalam menghadapi kekurangan energi, dan
merupakan cara yang lebih ramah lingkungan dibandingkan dengan meningkatkan
produksi energi.
Teknologi Konservasi Energi dikembangkan melalui pemanfaatan energi secara efisien
dan rasional, serta memanfaatkan sumber daya alam yang berupa sumber energi
alternatif.
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
Efisiensi energi dapat dilakukan melalui :
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012
KONSERVASI ENERGI
PEMANFAATAN ENERGI ALTERNATIF.
ENERGI AIR.
1. Mikrohidro. Diaplikasikan dalam bentuk Pembangkit listrik tenaga mikrohidro,
dgn syarat:
a. Merupakan sumber daya yang dapat menunjang pembangunan
pedesaan.
b. Dapat ditanggulangi oleh usaha swadaya masyarakat.
c. Usaha kelistrikan dari PLTMH secara ekonomi dapat dipertanggung
jawabkan.
ENERGI ANGIN
2. Turbin Angin. Merupakan kincir angin yang digunakan untuk membangkitkan
tenaga listrik dengan menggunakan prinsip konversi energi kinetik menjadi listrik.
Angin yang bergerak memiliki energi kinetik. Energi tersebut bisa diubah menjadi
energi mekanik, misalnya untuk menjalankan pompa air, untuk selanjutnya
diubah menjadi listrik.
3. Kincir angin. Kincir angin yang digunakan untuk membangkitkan tenaga listrik
pada awalnya dibuat untuk mengakomodasi kebutuhan para petani dalam
melakukan penggilingan padi, keperluan irigasi, dll. Kincir angin mengkonversikan
tenaga putar baling-baling ke tenaga mekanik yang kemudian digunakan untuk
mengungkit pompa air sederhana yang sudah lazim digunakan oleh para petani
untuk melakukan penggilingan padi, keperluan irigasi, dll.
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
kesejahteraan-manusia/ ….. diunduh 2/5/2012.
KONSERVASI ENERGI
PEMANFAATAN ENERGI ALTERNATIF.
ENERGI SURYA.
ENERGI GELOMBANG
Sumber: http://vantheyologi.wordpress.com/2010/05/05/konservasi-energi-untuk-
KONSERVASI DAN EFISIENSI ENERGI
Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah No. 70 Tahun 2009 tentang Konservasi Energi, definisi
konservasi energi adalah upaya sistematis, terencana, dan terpadu guna melestarikan
sumber daya energi dalam negeri serta meningkatkan efisiensi pemanfaatannya.
Pelaksanaan konservasi energi mencakup seluruh aspek dalam pengelolaan energi yaitu:
Penyediaan Energi
Pengusahaan Energi
Pemanfaatan Energi
Konservasi Sumber Daya Energi
2. Manajemen Energi
Industri dapat menerapkan manajemen energi untuk mengatur dan mengawasi jumlah energi yang
dikonsumsi. Adapun langkah yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan melaksanakan audit energi secara
berkala dan melaksanakan rekomendasi hasil audit energi. Audit energi dilaksanakan untuk
mengidentifikasi peluang penghematan energi serta memberikan rekomendasi bagaimana mengelola
penggunaan energi agar lebih efisien.
Sektor rumah tangga mengkonsumsi kira-kira 11% dari total energi di Indonesia.
Berdasarkan hal tersebut, upaya efisiensi energi di sektor ini sangatlah penting, bukan
hanya untuk menghemat biaya pemakaian energi di rumah tangga tersebut, namun juga
untuk mengerem pemakaian energi secara keseluruhan.
Sebagai langkah awal upaya efisiensi energi di rumah tangga, penghuni rumah harus
mengetahui jenis peralatan yang paling banyak mengkonsumsi energi. Di Indonesia, alat-alat
seperti pendingin ruangan, pemanas dan pompa air serta peralatan elektronik merupakan
sumber utama konsumsi listrik di sektor rumah tangga. Untuk membantu menghitung
perkiraan jumlah pemakaian dan biaya listrik per bulan di suatu rumah, silahkan gunakan
Kalkulator Energi EECCHI.
Pertama, dari sisi perencanaan kebutuhan listrik dan pemilihan peralatan pemanfaat listrik,
dilakukan melalui :
1. Menyambung daya listrik dari PLN sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Rumah tangga kecil
misalnya, cukup dengan daya 450 VA atau 900 VA, rumah tangga sedang cukup
dengan daya 900 VA hingga 1300 VA.
2. Memilih peralatan pemanfaat listrik yang tepat dan sesuai dengan kebutuhan,
termasuk memilih peralatan yang memenuhi standar efisiensi energi.
Ke dua, dari sisi perilaku anggota rumah tangga yang hemat energi, dapat dilakukan antara
lain dengan:
Menyalakan peralatan pemanfaat listrik hanya pada saat diperlukan.
Memelihara peralatan pemanfaat listrik secara teratur.
Lokasi dan bentuk desain rumah memainkan peran penting dalam efisiensi energi khususnya
dalam hal pengaturan suhu dan pencahayaan. Misalnya, bukaan-bukaan dalam sebuah
bangunan rumah seperti pintu dan jendela sebaiknya dibangun menghadap Utara atau
Selatan agar tidak secara langsung tersinar matahari. Hal ini akan mengurangi panas yang
masuk ke dalam rumah khususnya pada siang hari. Dengan memasang lebih banyak jendela,
maka cahaya alami dapat dimanfaatkan semaksimal mungkin sehingga menghemat
penggunaan lampu.
Memastikan tidak ada celah atau ruang hampa di antara dinding, seal jendela atau pintu
juga membantu menjaga agar udara panas tidah mudah masuk ke dalam rumah sehingga
beban AC tidak terlalu berat. Sirkulasi udara yang baik di dalam rumah melalui langit-langit
yang lebih tinggi atau sistem ventilasi yang efektif juga akan mengurangi beban AC.
This format, therefore, shows how dependent each industry is on all others in
the economy both as customer of their outputs and as supplier of their inputs.
Each column of the input-output matrix reports the monetary value of an
industry's inputs and each row represents the value of an industry's outputs.
Because the input-output model is fundamentally linear in nature, it lends itself well
to rapid computation as well as flexibility in computing the effects of changes in
demand.
The structure of the input-output model has been incorporated into national
accounting in many developed countries, and as such forms an important part of
measures such as GDP.
In addition to studying the structure of national economies, input-output economics
has been used to study regional economies within a nation, and as a tool for national
and regional economic planning. Indeed a main use of input-output analysis is for
measuring the economic impacts of events as well as public investments or programs
as shown by IMPLAN and RIMS-II. But it is also used to identify economically related
industry clusters and also so-called "key" or "target" industries--industries that are
most likely to enhance the internal coherence of a specified economy.
By linking industrial output to satellite accounts articulating energy use, effluent
production, space needs, and so on, input-output analysts have extended the
approaches application to a wide variety of uses.
or total output equals intermediate output plus final output. If we let be the matrix of
coefficients , be the vector of total output, and be the vector of final demand, then our
expression for the economy becomes:
If the matrix I-A is invertible then this is a linear system of equations with a unique
solution, and so given some final demand vector the required output can be found.
Furthermore, if the principle minors of the matrix I-A are all positive (known as the
Hawkins-Simon Condition), the required output vector x is non-negative.
Consider an economy with two goods, A and B. The matrix of coefficients and the final
demand is given by
Intuitively, this corresponds to finding the amount of output each sector should
produce given that we want 7 units of good A and 4 units of good B. Then solving the
system of linear equations derived above gives us
For practical purposes it is generally a poor idea to actually compute the inverse
matrix, given that some input-output tables are in excess of hundreds of sectors.
Ecolabelling systems exist for both food and consumer products. Both systems were
started by NGOs but nowadays the European Union have legislation for the rules of
ecolabelling and also have their own ecolabels, one for food and one for consumer
products. At least for food, the ecolabel is nearly identical with the common NGO
definition of the rules for ecolabelling. Trust in the label is an issue for consumers, as
manufacturers or manufacturing associations could set up "rubber stamp" labels to
greenwash their products.
Many people believe that most food ecolabels are the same as
organic labelling. This is not inaccurate, a great many
certification standards with ecolabels exist, such as Rainforest
Alliance, Utz coffee, cocoa and tea, GreenPalm, Marine
Stewardship Council, and many more; these are aimed at
sustainable food production and good social and environmental
performance.
These are mainstream standards aimed at improving whole
sectors of the food industry, in addition there are many more of
these which are business-to-business standards that do not
carry consumer-facing ecolabels.
One is the explosion in the numbers of different ecolabeling programs across the world
and across business sectors, with many schemes broadening their issues to cover
social, ethical and safety issues as well as just environmental. This has led to some
confusion and perhaps fatigue amongst consumers and brand awareness of most labels
(such as the EU Ecolabels) remains low.
A second key trend is the rise in uptake of voluntary ecolabels and sustainability
standards by the business-to-business sector. In this space, global firms are demanding
that the standards be (a) global in nature and (b) well documented, transparent and
trustworthy. This has led to the growth of a few "super standards" which have become
major global brands and are likely to edge out some of the smaller standards and labels
in place.
Overview
Stakeholder analysis is a term that refers to the action of analyzing the attitudes of
stakeholders towards something (most frequently a project). It is frequently used
during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the
stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done
once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.
A stakeholder is any person or organization, who can be positively or negatively
impacted by, or cause an impact on the actions of a company, government, or
organization. Types of stakeholders are:
Key stakeholders : (who can also belong to the first two groups) have significant
influence upon or importance within an organization.
The first step in building any stakeholder map is to develop a categorised list of the
members of the stakeholder community. Once the list is reasonably complete it is
then possible to assign priorities in some way, and then to translate the ‘highest
priority’ stakeholders into a table or a picture. The potential list of stakeholders for
any project will always exceed both the time available for analysis and the
capability of the mapping tool to sensibly display the results, the challenge is to
focus on the ‘right stakeholders’ who are currently important and to use the tool to
visualise this critical sub-set of the total community.
The most common presentation styles use a matrix to represent two dimensions of
interest with frequently a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the
symbol representing the individual stakeholders.
Some of the commonly used ‘dimensions’ include:
6. Power (high, medium, low)
7. Support (positive, neutral, negative)
8. Influence (high or low)
9. Need (strong, medium, weak)
A more recent form of Stakeholder Analysis can be seen in Triple Task Method. An
approach which seeks to blend three disciplines: psychoanalytic theory, systems
analysis and action research.
Benefits
Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of the following[1]:
Stakeholders' interests
Mechanisms to influence other stakeholders
Potential risks
Key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase
Negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project
1. Fletcher, A., et al. (2003). "Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization."
in: Journal of Intellectual Capital 4(4): 505 – 527.
2. Mitchell, R. K., B. R. Agle, and D.J. Wood. (1997). "Toward a Theory of Stakeholder
Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What really Counts." in:
Academy of Management Review 22(4): 853 - 888.
3. Savage, G. T., T. W. Nix, Whitehead and Blair. (1991). "Strategies for assessing and managing
organizational stakeholders." In: Academy of Management Executive 5(2): 61 – 75.
4. Cameron, B.G., T. Seher, E.F. Crawley (2010). "Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder
network value considerations." in: Acta Astronautica doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.11.003.
5. Turner, J. R., V. Kristoffer, et al., Eds. (2002). The Project Manager as Change Agent. London,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
6. Weaver, P. (2007). A Simple View of Complexity in Project Management. Proceedings of the 4th
World Project Management Week. Singapore.
7. Hemmati, M., Dodds F., Enayti, J.,McHarry J. (2002) "Multistakeholder Procesess on
Governance and Sustainability. London Earthscan
8. Mendelow, A. (1991) ‘Stakeholder Mapping’, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Information Systems, Cambridge, MA (Cited in Scholes,1998).
CONTOH
An example of applying the ICM approach would be to develop policies in a particular
product area. The responsibility of problems caused by the waste stage can be assigned
to the producers of these products. This leads to improved product design and new
insight in how to put these products in the market. For instance the product can be sold
with a disposal contribution.
On the price tag of a radio nowadays can be printed: "this radio costs 25 $ not including
the 3 $ disposal contribution" The effects can be seen within the whole chain. The
producer will try to choose for not to polluting materials, as they increase the costs of
the waste-stage. The producer of raw materials will try to improve its production process
in order to meet the increased demand for 'clean' primary products. And the consumer
will be aware that some products give more pressure on the environment than others
when its economical lifespan has run out.
The materials used in industrialized economies average 40-80 tons per person, per year.
Whether we express this personal consumption as a ton per week, or a body weight per day,
it amounts to staggering quantities of materials, most of which are used once, then
discarded. An alternative to designing industrial systems that use materials once is to design
industrial ecosystems that mimic the mass conservation properties of natural ecosystems. In
industrial ecosystems, the wastes and by-products from one industrial process would be
used as the raw materials for another. Are such systems realistic? Do they exist now? How
could they be designed? This chapter will address these questions, which will be among the
engineering challenges for the next century.
In its most common usage, the term Industrial Ecology refers to idea that nature
(specifically, nature at its higher levels of organization such as communities and
ecosystems) can serve as a useful metaphor for industrial systems. Drawing on
biological analogies may help industry become more efficient and more sustainable.
Applied more broadly, the term encompasses the analysis of industrial systems, using
tools analogous to those used in the analysis of ecosystems, to gain insight into the
role that technologies, companies or industry sectors play within so-called "industrial
ecosystems.“
Sumber: http://www.utexas.edu/research/ceer/greenmaterial/Background/bckgrnd_green_material.pdf
diunduh 29/4/2012
ALIRAN MATERIAL
Extraction and use of materials at regional, national and global scales have been tracked for more
than a century. In the United States, systematic efforts to track mineral and commodity flows began
in the 19th century, and have been gradually expanded to include additional material flows, such as
environmental emissions.
These mineral and commodity material flow data have been used to answer questions such as
(national Research Council, 2003):
1. “Where were the metals and construction materials needed to supply the growth of
manufacturing, cities, housing and highways?
2. Where were the energy resources to keep transportation moving, keep the machinery turning,
and keep us warm in winter and cool in summer?
3. Where were the alternate sources of supply or substitutes for strategic materials?”
material flow analyses are performed on defined systems. The system boundary might be
the geopolitical boundaries of a nation, the natural boundaries of a river’s drainage basin, or
the technological boundaries of a cluster of industries. The headings for the system inputs
and outputs used suggest that the system is a nation, but these inputs and outputs
(domestic extraction, imports and exports) could be labeled feedstocks and products, and
the system would then appear to be a cluster of industries.
Sumber:
http://www.utexas.edu/research/ceer/greenmaterial/Background/bckgrnd_green_material.
pdf …… diunduh 29/4/2012
MATERIAL FLOW ACCOUNTING
Material flow accounting (MFA) is the study of material flows on a national or
regional scale. It is therefore sometimes also referred to as regional, national or
economy-wide material flow analysis.
Definition
The goal of material flow accounting is to ensure national planning, especially for scarce
resources, and to allow forecasting. It also allows to assess environmental burdens through
economic activities of a nation or to determine how material intensive an economy is.
The principle concept underlying MFA is a simple model of this interrelation between the
economy and the environment, in which the economy is an embedded subsystem of the
environment. Similar to living beings, this subsystem is dependent on a constant throughput
of materials and energy. Raw materials, water and air are extracted from the natural system
as inputs, transformed into products and finally re-transferred to the natural system as
outputs (waste and emissions). In order to highlight the similarity to natural metabolic
processes, the terms “industrial” or “societal” metabolism have been introduced.
Statistics related to material flows are usually combined in different indicators. Some
of these indicators are listed below. More information on how the statistics are
collected, under what legal framework and how they are defined is available on
Economy-wide material flow accounts.
The following indicators are commonly used in material flow accounting to measure
the resource efficiency of a country or region:
Total Domestic Output (TDO) includes the domestic processed output (DPO) plus the
hidden flows associated with the domestic production.
Net Addition to Stocks (NAS), the materials that are neither released to the
domestic environment nor exported, but contribute to a physical increase of the
economic processing system itself, e.g. infrastructure, buildings, machinery or other
durable goods.
Hidden Flows are materials that are extracted or moved, but do not enter the
economy. According to OECD, the "displacement of environmental assets without
absorption into the economic sphere", such as overburden from mining operations.
LINGKUP ANALISIS
The underlying definition of economy-wide material flow accounts includes statistics
on the overall material inputs into national economies, the changes of material stock
within the economic system and the material outputs to other economies or to the
environment. Statistics on EW-MFA cover all solid, gaseous, and liquid materials,
except for water and air. However, water in products is included. EW-MFA includes
statistics on material flows crossing the national (geographical) border, i.e. imports
and exports.
In principle, the statistics will show which countries are dependent on others for
natural resources and which are major exporters of natural resources. The statistics
also show if a countries production is sustainable, i.e. whether the economy of a
country can produce more products using fewer natural resources.
In the European Union between 2000 and 2007, resource productivity increased by
almost eight percent.
Resource productivity of the EU is expressed by the amount of gross domestic product
(GDP) generated per unit of material consumed (Domestic Material Consumption, see
below), in other words GDP / DMC in euro per kg.
This means that less material was consumed in order to produce the same amount of
products in the EU. However, breaking down the components of the index it is seen
that both GDP and DMC are increasing, only not equally fast.
Physical trade balance (PTB) equals physical imports minus physical exports. This means
that in relation to monetary trade balances which is exports minus imports) the flows are
the reverse. It measures the fact that in economies money and goods move in opposite
direction. A physical trade surplus indicates a net import of materials, whereas a physical
trade deficit indicates a net export.
Net Additions to Stock (NAS) measures the ‘physical growth of the economy’, i.e. the
quantity (weight) of new construction materials used in buildings and other infrastructure,
and materials incorporated into new durable goods such as cars, industrial machinery, and
household appliances. Materials are added to the economy’s stock each year (gross
additions), and old materials are removed from stock as buildings are demolished, and
durable goods.
The general form quoted for a mass balance is The mass that enters a system must, by
conservation of mass, either leave the system or accumulate within the system .
Mathematically the mass balance for a system without a chemical reaction is as follows:
Strictly speaking the above equation holds also for systems with chemical reactions if the
terms in the balance equation are taken to refer to total mass i.e. the sum of all the chemical
species of the system. In the absence of a chemical reaction the amount of any chemical
species flowing in and out will be the same; This gives rise to an equation for each species in
the system. However if this is not the case then the mass balance equation must be
amended to allow for the generation or depletion (consumption) of each chemical species.
Some use one term in this equation to account for chemical reactions, which will be negative
for depletion and positive for generation. However, the conventional form of this equation is
written to account for both a positive generation term (i.e. product of reaction) and a
negative consumption term (the reactants used to produce the products). Although overall
one term will account for the total balance on the system, if this balance equation is to be
applied to an individual species and then the entire process, both terms are necessary.
This modified equation can be used not only for reactive systems, but for population
balances such as occur in particle mechanics problems. The equation is given below; Note
that it simplifies to the earlier equation in the case that the generation term is zero.
In the absence of a nuclear reaction the number of atoms flowing in and out are the same,
even in the presence of a chemical reaction
To perform a balance the boundaries of the system must be well defined
Mass balances can be taken over physical systems at multiple scales.
Mass balances can be simplified with the assumption of steady state, where the
accumulation term is zero.
CONTOH ILUSTRATIF
At this point a simple example shall be given for illustrative purposes. Consider the situation
whereby a slurry is flowing into a settling tank to remove the solids in the tank, solids are
collected at the bottom by means of a conveyor belt partially submerged in the tank, water
exits via an overflow outlet.
In this example we shall consider there to be two species, solids and water. The species are
concentrated in each of the output streams, that is to say that the water-to-solid ratio at the
water-overflow outlet is higher than at the slurry inlet and the solids concentration at the
exit of the conveyor belt is higher than that at the slurry inlet.
Assumptions
Steady state
Non-reactive system
Analysis
The slurry inlet composition has been measured by sampling the inlet and has a composition
(by mass) of 50% solid and 50% water, with a mass flow of 100 kg per minute, the tank is
assumed to be operating at steady state, and as such accumulation is zero, so input and
output must be equal for both the solids and water. If we know that the removal efficiency
for the slurry tank is 60%, then the water outlet will contain 20kg/min of solids (40% times
100kg/min times 50% solids). If we measure the flow-rate of the combined solids and water,
and the water outlet is shown to be 60kg/min, then the amount of water exiting via the
conveyor belt is 10kg/min. This allows us to completely determine how the mass has been
distributed in the system with only limited information and using the mass balance relations
across the system boundaries
Diagram showing clarifier example
A mass balance can also be taken differentially. The concept is the same as for a large
mass balance, however it is performed in the context of a limiting system (for
example, one can consider the limiting case in time or, more commonly, volume).
The use of a differential mass balance is to generate differential equations that can be
used to provide an understanding and effective modelling tool for the target system.
The differential mass balance is usually solved in two steps, firstly a set of governing
differential equations must be obtained, and then these equations must be solved,
either analytically or, for less tractable problems, numerically.
A good example of the applications of differential mass balance are shown in the
following systems:
Ideal (stirred) Batch reactor
Ideal tank reactor, also named Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
Ideal Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Option value:
Placed on the potential future ability to use a resource even though it is not currently
used and the likelihood of future use is very low. This reflects the willingness to
preserve an option for potential future use.
Resource depletion
Resource depletion is an economic term referring to the exhaustion of raw materials within
a region. Resources are commonly divided between renewable resources and non-
renewable resources. (See also Mineral resource classification.) Use of either of these forms
of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.
Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference to farming, fishing, mining, and
fossil fuels.
Today’s economy is largely based on fossil fuels, minerals and oil. The value increases
because of the large demand, but the supply is decreasing. This has resulted in more
efforts to drill and search other territories. The environment is being abused and this
depletion of resources is one way of showing the effects. Mining still pollutes the
environment, only on a larger scale.
http://indonesianic.wordpress.com/page/251/?archives-
list&archives-type=tags
Deforestation
Deforestation is the clearing of natural forests by logging or burning of trees and plants in a
forested area. As a result of deforestation, presently about one half of the forests that once
covered the Earth have been destroyed. It occurs for many different reasons, and it has
several negative implications on the atmosphere and the quality of the land in and
surrounding the forest.
Causes
One of the main causes of deforestation is clearing forests for agricultural reasons. As the
population of developing areas, especially near rainforests, increases, the need for land for
farming becomes more and more important. For most people, a forest has no value when
its resources aren’t being used, so the incentives to deforest these areas outweigh the
incentives to preserve the forests. For this reason, the economic value of the forests is very
important for developing worlds.
Environmental impact
Because deforestation is so extensive, it has made several significant impacts on the
environment, including carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, changing the water cycle, an
increase in soil erosion, and a decrease in biodiversity. Deforestation is often cited as a cause
of global warming. Because trees and plants remove carbon dioxide and emit oxygen into
the atmosphere, the reduction of forests contribute to about 12% of anthropogenic carbon
dioxide emissions. One of the most pressing issues that deforestation creates is soil erosion.
The removal of trees causes higher rates of erosion, increasing risks of landslides, which is a
direct threat to many people living close to deforested areas. As forests get destroyed, so
does the habitat for millions of animals. It is estimated that 80% of the world’s known
biodiversity lives in the rainforests, and the destruction of these rainforests is accelerating
extinction at an alarming rate.
Controlling deforestation
Efforts to control deforestation must be taken on a global scale. Organizations like the United
Nations and the World Bank have started to create programs like Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) that works especially with developing
countries to use subsidies or other incentives to encourage citizens to use the forest in a
more sustainable way. In addition to making sure that emissions from deforestation are kept
to a minimum, an effort to educate people on sustainability and helping them to focus on
the long-term risks is key to the success of these programs. Reforestation is also being
encouraged in many countries in an attempt to repair the damage that deforestation has
done.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion ………….. diunduh 29/4/2012
DEPLESI: WETLANDS
A wetland is a term used to describe areas that are often saturated by enough surface or
groundwater to sustain vegetation that is usually adapted to saturated soil conditions, such
as cattails, bulrushes, red maples, wild rice, blackberries, cranberries, and peat moss.
Because some varieties of wetlands are rich in minerals and nutrients and provide many of
the advantages of both land and water environments they contain diverse species and
possibly even form a food chain. When human activities take away resources many species
are affected. Many species act as an ecosystem. Years ago people assumed wetlands were
useless so it was not a large concern when they were being dug up. Many people want to
use them for developing homes etc.
On the other side of the argument people believe the wetlands are a vital source for other
life forms and a part of the life cycle.
Some loss of wetlands resulted from natural causes such as erosion, sedimentation (the
buildup of soil by the settling of fine particles over a long period of time), subsidence (the
sinking of land because of diminishing underground water supplies), and a rise in the sea
level. However, 95% of the losses since the 1970s have been caused by humans, especially
by the conversion of wetlands to agricultural land. More than half (56%) the losses of
coastal wetlands resulted from dredging for marinas, canals, port development, and, to
some extent, from natural shoreline erosion.
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of
diminishing returns. Sustained overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource. The term
applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, fish stocks, forests and
water aquifers.
In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.
Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable,
given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at
the population level and even extinction of whole species. In conservation biology the term is usually
used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or
organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand. The term is also used and defined
somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.
Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinctions. However it is also possible for
overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. In the context of
fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock
management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and
endangered species in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans.
Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna.
Water resource, such as lakes and aquifers, are usually renewable resources which naturally
recharge (the term fossil water is sometimes used to describe aquifers which don't
recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, is mined
or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the
practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An
aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be overdrafted or depleted. Forests enhance
the recharge of aquifers in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of
aquifer depletion. Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as
nitrates, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the
ocean.
This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak
usage debates similar to oil. These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban
water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is
also water resource intensive. A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be
harvested faster than it can be replaced. Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to
renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a Hubbert-like peak. This has led to
the concept of peak water.
Forests are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster than
reforestation takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as
food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth.
Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have
played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and
cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building
houses, and wood pulp for paper.
In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and
cooking.
Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or
overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income
and long term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia
and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of
overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.
Fitoremediasi:
Uptake, Translocation and
Volatilization
The rich diversity of marine life inhabiting coral reefs attracts bioprospectors.
Many coral reefs are overexploited; threats include coral mining, cyanide and
blast fishing, and overfishing in general.
In wild fisheries, overexploitation or overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been
fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term maximum
sustainable yield of the fishery". However, overexploitation can be sustainable.
When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the biomass
of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For
sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must
balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased,
then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest
yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the
harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the maximum
sustainable yield, and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished
down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.
It is possible to fish the stock down further to, say, 15% of the pre-harvest biomass, and
then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the
fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down
to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.
Fish stocks are said to "collapse" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of
their maximum historical biomass. Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in
the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992. Even though fishing has
ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover. The absence of cod as the apex predator
in many areas has led to trophic cascades.
About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current
biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield. These depleted
fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns
to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum
sustainable yield.
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided within the context of fisheries if fishing
effort and practices are regulated appropriately by fisheries management. One
effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of
individual transferable quotas (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of
fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that didn't, provided strong evidence that ITQs help
prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline
NATURAL DISASTER
A natural disaster is the effect of earths natural hazards, for example flood,
tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, heatwave, or landslide. They
can lead to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends
on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard, also called
their resilience. If these disasters continue it would be a great danger for the
earth.
This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when
hazards meet vulnerability.” Thus a natural hazard will not result in a natural
disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited
areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events
simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources…………..
EKSPLOITASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources…………..
KONSUMSI YANG BERLEBIHAN
EFEK - DAMPAK
A fundamental effect of over-consumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity.
Excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long term carrying capacity of its
environment (ecological overshoot) and subsequent resource depletion, environmental
degradation and reduced ecological health.
The scale of modern life's over-consumption has enabled an overclass to exist, displaying
affluenza and obesity. However once again both of these claims are controversial with the latter
being correlated to other factors more so than over-consumption.
In the long term these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources and in the
worst case a Malthusian catastrophe.
Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
The Worldwatch Institute said China and India, with their booming economies, along with the
United States, are the three planetary forces that are shaping the global biosphere. The State of
the World 2006 report said the two countries' high economic growth exposed the reality of
severe pollution. The report states that
The world's ecological capacity is simply insufficient to satisfy the ambitions of China, India,
Japan, Europe and the United States as well as the aspirations of the rest of the world in a
sustainable way,
EFEK - DAMPAK
Footprint
The idea of overconsumption is also strongly tied to the idea of an ecological footprint. The term
“ecological footprint” refers to the “resource accounting framework for measuring human
demand on the biosphere.” A study by Mathis Wackernagel has shown that the global ecological
footprint was in overshoot by .4 global hectares per person, or roughly 23%. Of these
developing countries, China presents the largest threat. Currently, China is roughly 11 times
lower in per capita footprint, yet has a population that is more than four times the size of the
USA. It is estimated that if China developed to the level of the United States that world
consumption rates would roughly double.
Counteractions
The most obvious solution to the issue of overconsumption is to simply slow the rate at which
materials are becoming depleted. To consume less is to watch these economies suffer. Instead,
countries must look to curb consumption rates while allowing for new industries, such as
renewable energy and recycling technologies, to flourish and deflect some of the economic
burden. A fundamental shift in the global economy may be necessary in order to account for the
current change that is taking place or that will need to take place. Movements and lifestyle
choices related to stopping overconsumption include: anti-consumerism, freeganism, green
economics, ecological economics, degrowth, frugality, downshifting, simple living and thrifting.
Implications
Standard economic theory states that any voluntary exchange is mutually beneficial to
both parties involved in the trade. This is because buyers or sellers would not trade if
either thought it not beneficial to themselves. However, an exchange can cause
additional effects on third parties. From the perspective of those affected, these effects
may be negative (pollution from a factory), or positive (honey bees kept for honey that
also pollinate crops). Welfare economics has shown that the existence of externalities
results in outcomes that are not socially optimal. Those who suffer from external costs
do so involuntarily, while those who enjoy external benefits do so at no cost.
A voluntary exchange may reduce societal welfare if external costs exist. The person
who is affected by the negative externalities in the case of air pollution will see it as
lowered utility: either subjective displeasure or potentially explicit costs, such as higher
medical expenses. The externality may even be seen as a trespass on their lungs,
violating their property rights. Thus, an external cost may pose an ethical or political
problem. Alternatively, it might be seen as a case of poorly defined property rights, as
with, for example, pollution of bodies of water that may belong to no-one (either
figuratively, in the case of publicly-owned, or literally, in some countries and/or legal
traditions).
The positive externality would increase the utility of third parties at no cost to
them. Since collective societal welfare is improved, but the providers have no
way of monetizing the benefit, less of the good will be produced than would be
optimal for society as a whole.
Goods with positive externalities include education (believed to increase societal
productivity and well-being; but controversial, as these benefits may be
internalized), public health initiatives (which may reduce the health risks and
costs for third parties for such things as transmittable diseases) and law
enforcement. Positive externalities are often associated with the free rider
problem.
For example, individuals who are vaccinated reduce the risk of contracting the
relevant disease for all others around them, and at high levels of vaccination,
society may receive large health and welfare benefits; but any one individual can
refuse vaccination, still avoiding the disease by "free riding" on the costs borne
by others.
Negative Externality
(diunduh dari: http://scicombio.blogspot.com/2011/01/pollution-and-environmental-
policy.html)
Industrial farm animal production, on the rise in the 20th century, resulted in farms that
were easier to run, with fewer and often less-skilled employees, and a greater output of
uniform animal products. However, the externalities with these farms include
"contributing to the increase in the pool of antibiotic-resistant bacteria because of the
overuse of antibiotics; air quality problems; the contamination of rivers, streams, and
coastal waters with concentrated animal waste; animal welfare problems, mainly as a
result of the extremely close quarters in which the animals are housed.”
The harvesting by one fishing company in the ocean depletes the stock of available fish
for the other companies and overfishing may be the result. The stock fish is an example
of a common property resource, and that, in the absence of appropriate environmental
governance, is vulnerable to the Tragedy of the commons.
When car owners use roads, they impose congestion costs and higher accidents risks on
all other users.
A business may purposely underfund one part of their business, such as their pension
funds, in order to push the costs onto someone else, creating an externality. Here, the
"cost" is that of providing minimum social welfare or retirement income; economists
more frequently attribute this problem to the category of moral hazards.
Consumption by one consumer causes prices to rise and therefore makes other
consumers worse off, perhaps by reducing their consumption. These effects are
sometimes called "pecuniary externalities" and are distinguished from "real
externalities" or "technological externalities". Pecuniary externalities appear to be
externalities, but occur within the market mechanism and are not a source of market
failure or inefficiency.
The consumption of alcohol when it leads to traffic or other accidents that injure or kill
others.
Shared costs of declining health and vitality caused by smoking and/or alcohol abuse.
Here, the "cost" is that of providing minimum social welfare. Economists more
frequently attribute this problem to the category of moral hazards, the prospect that a
party insulated from risk may behave differently from the way they would if they were
fully exposed to the risk. For example, an individual with insurance against automobile
theft may be less vigilant about locking his car, because the negative consequences of
automobile theft are (partially) borne by the insurance company.
Antibiotic overuse contributes to antimicrobial resistance, reducing the future
effectiveness of antibiotics. Individuals do not consider this efficacy cost when making
usage decisions, leading to socially sub-optimal antibiotic consumption. Government
policies proposed to preserve future antibiotic effectiveness include educational
campaigns, regulation, Pigouvian taxes, and patents.
There is evidence that crime in a neighborhood increases after the opening of a liquor
store. Liquor stores may draw an undesirable class of citizens into the neighborhood to
shop and hang out. They may also cause more people in the area to drink; such people
may then proceed to commit acts in the neighborhood that they would not normally do,
or else these drunk people may become easy targets for the crimes of others. Even if
the crimes start out small, they may eventually become much worse if not effectively
addressed (broken windows theory). Liquor stores are more likely to be open late into
the night than other stores, and may result in increased noise levels which harm
property values in the community.
The sprinkler systems could eliminate the need for a fire department if it effectively
eliminates the fire. “California and Pennsylvania, starting Jan. 1, 2011, will be the first
two states in the country to require sprinklers in every new home based on the
International Code Council (ICC) mandating the installation of residential fire sprinklers
in all new one- and two-family residences, including townhouses in the 2009
International Residential Code (IRC).
Other states, however, plan to adopt the residential fire sprinkler mandate but delay its
implementation, while other states still oppose it.”(www.contractormag.com) This
would have the potential to reduce the need of a large fire department in the long run.
The argument could be made that the installation of a sprinkler system could pay for
itself quickly, instead of having to pay a fire fee each year.
Similarly, an “opt-in” policy of this nature would enable residents to pay the fire
protection fee if they desired fire service, otherwise, they would not need to worry
about being victimized by a neighbor’s “production” of fire damage (cost) to their
home.
Renewable energy may create positive externalities insofar as it reduces net
environmental pollution.
BIAYA EKSTERNAL
The graph below shows the effects of a negative externality. For example, the steel industry
is assumed to be selling in a competitive market – before pollution-control laws were
imposed and enforced (e.g. under laissez-faire). The marginal private cost is less than the
marginal social or public cost by the amount of the external cost, i.e., the cost of air
pollution and water pollution. This is represented by the vertical distance between the two
supply curves. It is assumed that there are no external benefits, so that social benefit equals
individual benefit.
If the consumers only take into account their own private cost, they will end up at price
Pp and quantity Qp, instead of the more efficient price Ps and quantity Qs. These latter
reflect the idea that the marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost,
that is that production should be increased only as long as the marginal social benefit
exceeds the marginal social cost. The result is that a free market is inefficient since at
the quantity Qp, the social benefit is less than the social cost, so society as a whole
would be better off if the goods between Qp and Qs had not been produced. The
problem is that people are buying and consuming too much steel.
The graph below shows the effects of a positive or beneficial externality. For example,
the industry supplying smallpox vaccinations is assumed to be selling in a competitive
market. The marginal private benefit of getting the vaccination is less than the
marginal social or public benefit by the amount of the external benefit (for example,
society as a whole is increasingly protected from smallpox by each vaccination,
including those who refuse to participate). This marginal external benefit of getting a
smallpox shot is represented by the vertical distance between the two demand
curves. Assume there are no external costs, so that social cost equals individual cost.
If consumers only take into account their own private benefits from getting
vaccinations, the market will end up at price Pp and quantity Qp as before, instead of
the more efficient price Ps and quantity Qs. These latter again reflect the idea that the
marginal social benefit should equal the marginal social cost, i.e., that production
should be increased as long as the marginal social benefit exceeds the marginal social
cost. The result in an unfettered market is inefficient since at the quantity Qp, the
social benefit is greater than the societal cost, so society as a whole would be better
off if more goods had been produced. The problem is that people are buying too few
vaccinations.
There are at least four general types of solutions to the problem of externalities:
Criminalization: As with prostitution in some countries, drugs, commercial fraud, and many
types of environmental and public health laws.
Civil Tort law: For example, class action by smokers, various product liability suits.
Government provision: As with lighthouses, education, and national defense.
Pigovian taxes or subsidies intended to redress economic injustices or imbalances.
A Pigovian tax is a tax imposed that is equal in value to the negative externality. The result is
that the market outcome would be reduced to the efficient amount. A side effect is that
revenue is raised for the government, reducing the amount of distortionary taxes that the
government must impose elsewhere. Economists prefer Pigovian taxes and subsidies as
being the least intrusive and most efficient method to resolve externalities. Governments
justify the use of Pigouvian Taxes saying that these taxes help the market reach an efficient
outcome because this tax bridges the gap between marginal social costs and marginal
private costs.
Some counter arguments against Pigouvian Taxes say that the tax does not account for all
the transfers and regulations involved with an externality. In other words, the tax only
considers the amount of externality produced. Another argument against the tax is: it does
not take private property into consideration. Under the Pigouvian system, one firm for
example, can be taxed more than another firm, when in reality, the latter firm is producing
greater amounts of the negative externality.
However, the most common type of solution is tacit agreement through the political
process. Governments are elected to represent citizens and to strike political compromises
between various interests. Normally governments pass laws and regulations to address
pollution and other types of environmental harm. These laws and regulations can take the
form of "command and control" regulation (such as setting standards, targets, or process
requirements), or environmental pricing reform (such as ecotaxes or other pigovian taxes,
tradable pollution permits or the creation of markets for ecological services). The second
type of resolution is a purely private agreement between the parties involved.
Government intervention may not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have
evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically-run
communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way.
Externalities can sometimes be resolved by agreement between the parties involved. This
resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.
Government intervention may not always be needed. Traditional ways of life may have
evolved as ways to deal with external costs and benefits. Alternatively, democratically-
run communities can agree to deal with these costs and benefits in an amicable way.
Externalities can sometimes be resolved by agreement between the parties involved.
This resolution may even come about because of the threat of government action.
Ronald Coase argued that if all parties involved can easily organize payments so as to pay
each other for their actions, then an efficient outcome can be reached without
government intervention. Some take this argument further, and make the political claim
that government should restrict its role to facilitating bargaining among the affected
groups or individuals and to enforcing any contracts that result. This result, often known
as the Coase Theorem, requires that:
1. Property rights be well defined
2. People act rationally
3. Transaction costs be minimal
If all of these conditions apply, the private parties can bargain to solve the problem of
externalities.
This theorem would not apply to the steel industry case discussed above. For example, with a steel
factory that trespasses on the lungs of a large number of individuals with pollution, it is difficult if not
impossible for any one person to negotiate with the producer, and there are large transaction costs.
Hence the most common approach may be to regulate the firm (by imposing limits on the amount of
pollution considered "acceptable") while paying for the regulation and enforcement with taxes. The
case of the vaccinations would also not satisfy the requirements of the Coase Theorem. Since the
potential external beneficiaries of vaccination are the people themselves, the people would have to
self-organize to pay each other to be vaccinated. But such an organization that involves the entire
populace would be indistinguishable from government action.
In some cases, the Coase theorem is relevant. For example, if a logger is planning to
clear-cut a forest in a way that has a negative impact on a nearby resort, the resort-
owner and the logger could, in theory, get together to agree to a deal. For example, the
resort-owner could pay the logger not to clear-cut – or could buy the forest. The most
problematic situation, from Coase's perspective, occurs when the forest literally does not
belong to anyone; the question of "who" owns the forest is not important, as any specific
owner will have an interest in coming to an agreement with the resort owner (if such an
agreement is mutually beneficial).
Tailings are distinct from overburden or waste rock, which are the materials overlying
an ore or mineral body that are displaced during mining without being processed.
The extraction of minerals from ore can be done two ways: placer mining, which uses
water and gravity to extract the valuable minerals, or hard rock mining, which uses
pulverization of rock, then chemicals. In the latter, the extraction of minerals from ore
requires that the ore be ground into fine particles, so tailings are typically small and
range from the size of a grain of sand to a few micrometres. Mine tailings are usually
produced from the mill in slurry form (a mixture of fine mineral particles and water).
Environmental considerations
The elements and compounds uncovered and liberated through mining and processing,
which are not usually part of the ecological systems (in such a form or concentration) have
the potential to alter the receiving environment to its detriment. Most mining and minerals
processing wastes contain minerals, such as sulphides, which are formed at higher
temperatures and pressures at geological depth. When exposed to aerobic surficial
conditions, or as a result of processing, minerals may breakdown releasing elements from
their mineralogical bindings which may not be easily absorbed by unaccustomed ecosystems
without impact (this process is sometimes known as Acid and Metaliferous Drainage). It is
precisely because these elements did not interact with the overlying ecosystems before
mining that they may pose issues to ecosystems and communities post-mining .
In order to prevent the uncontrolled release of tailings material into the environment, mines
usually have a disposal facility which quite often takes the form of a dam or pond. This is a
convenient method of storage since tailings are often in the form of a slurry when they are
discharged from the concentrator. These facilities often require the clearing of more land
than the rest of the mine (including open-pit operations) combined, and failure of the wall
can result in a massive release of tailings. As such they are of great environmental concern.
Tailings release and subsequent damage to the environment can also occur without
catastrophic failure of the storage facility. These kinds of release are much less obvious and
may take the form of acid drainage or dry tailings dust being blown away from the storage
area.
Disposal of mine tailings is one of the most important environmental issues for any mine
during the project's life. While significant pressure is placed on mining projects in developed
countries to conform to stringent environmental standards, many projects in developing
nations do not take significant steps to prevent or mitigate environmental damage.
The sustainability challenge in the management of tailings and waste rock is to dispose of
material, such that it is inert or, if not, stable and contained, to minimise water and energy
inputs and the surface footprint of wastes and to move toward finding alternate uses.
Although ideally the tailings would be made up of gangue materials (i.e. silica), to some
degree, the sought-after mineral also appears in the tailings. Tailings also commonly contain
unmineralised sulphides that can breakdown and release metals and generate acidic
conditions.
In operations that recover lead, uranium and other toxic heavy metals, this represents a
significant environmental hazard. In addition to the minerals themselves, some processing
methods involve marine pollutants such as copper sulfate, xanthate or cyanide which will be
present to some degree in the tailings. In some operations, components of the gangue may
also be toxic, though it is rare for these materials to be present above trace levels. An
example is thallium in sulfide ores.
Phytostabilisation
Phytostabilisation is a form of phytoremediation that uses plants for long-term
stabilisation and containment of tailings, by sequestering pollutants in soil near the
roots. The plant's presence can reduce wind erosion, or the plant's roots can prevent
water erosion, immobilise metals by adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone
around the roots where the metals can precipitate and stabilise. Pollutants become
less bioavailable and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure is reduced. This approach
can be especially useful in dry environments, which are subject to wind and water
dispersion. New work is also being done by Pan Pacific in the development of algal
sequestration for plutonium and uranium tailings.
Riverine tailings
Usually called RTD – Riverine Tailings Disposal. In most environments, not a
particularly environmentally sound practice, it has seen significant utilisation in
the past, leading to such spectacular environmental damage as done by the
Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company in Tasmania to the King River, or the
poisoning from the Panguna mine on Bougainville Island, which led to large-
scale civil unrest on the island, and the eventual permanent closing of the mine.
This method is used in these cases due to seismic activity and landslide dangers
which make other disposal methods impractical and dangerous.
Pond storage
Tailing ponds are areas of refused mining tailings where the water borne refuse material is pumped
into a pond to allow the sedimentation (meaning separation) of solid particles from the water. The
pond is generally impounded with a dam, and known as tailings impoundments or tailings dams. It
was estimated in 2000 that there were about 3,500 active tailings impoundments in the world. [4]
The ponded water is of some benefit as it minimizes fine tailings from being transported by wind
into populated areas where the toxic chemicals could be potentially hazardous to human health;
however, it is also harmful to the environment. Tailing ponds are often somewhat dangerous
because they attract wildlife such as waterfowl or caribou as they appear to be a natural pond, but
they can be highly toxic and harmful to the health of these animals. Tailings ponds are used to
store the waste made from separating minerals from rocks, or the slurry produced from tar sands
mining. Tailings are sometimes mixed with other materials such as bentonite to form a thicker
slurry that slows the release of impacted water to the environment.
There are many different subsets of this method, including valley impoundments, ring dikes, in-pit
impoundments, and specially dug pits. The most common is the valley pond, which takes
advantage of the natural topographical depression in the ground. Large earthen dams may be
constructed and then filled with the tailings. Exhausted open pit mines may be refilled with
tailings. In all instances, due consideration must be made to contamination of the underlying water
table, amongst other issues. Dewatering is an important part of pond storage, as the tailings are
added to the storage facility the water is removed - usually by draining into decant tower
structures. The water removed can thus be reused in the processing cycle. Once a storage facility is
filled and completed, the surface can be covered with topsoil and revegetation commenced.
However, unless a non-permeable capping method is used, water that infiltrates into the storage
facility will have to be continually pumped out into the future.
The biggest danger of tailings ponds is dam failure, with the most publicized failure in the US being
the failure of a coal slurry dam in the West Virginia Buffalo Creek disaster, which killed 125 people;
other collapses include the Ok Tedi environmental disaster on New Guinea, which destroyed the
fishery of the Ok Tedi River. On the average, worldwide, there is one big accident involving a
tailings dam each year.
Application
Phytoremediation may be applied wherever the soil or static water environment has
become polluted or is suffering ongoing chronic pollution. Examples where
phytoremediation has been used successfully include the restoration of abandoned
metal-mine workings, reducing the impact of sites where polychlorinated biphenyls
have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of on-going coal mine
discharges.
Phytoremediation refers to the natural ability of certain plants called
hyperaccumulators to bioaccumulate, degrade,or render harmless contaminants in
soils, water, or air. Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives,[1]
and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects
worldwide. Many plants such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and
pigweed have proven to be successful at hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic
waste sites.
Keuntungan Fitoremediasi:
1. the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes
both in situ and ex situ
2. the plants can be easily monitored
3. the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by companies
specializing in “phyto mining”)
4. it is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally occurring
organisms and preserves the environment in a more natural state.
Keterbatasan:
5. Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the
roots.
6. Slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment
7. With plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely
prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the
complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not
resolve the problem of contamination)
8. The survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land
and the general condition of the soil.
9. Bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants which
then pass into the food chain, from primary level consumers upwards or
requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material.
FITO-STABILISASI
Phytostabilization focuses on long-term stabilization and containment of the
pollutant. Example, the plant's presence can reduce wind erosion; or the plant's
roots can prevent water erosion, immobilize the pollutants by adsorption or
accumulation, and provide a zone around the roots where the pollutant can
precipitate and stabilize.
Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering
pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues.
Pollutants become less bioavailable, and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure
is reduced. An example application of this sort is using a vegetative cap to
stabilize and contain mine tailings.
Natural capital is described in the book Natural Capitalism as a metaphor for the
mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed as a
means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of other
ecosystem services. It is one approach to ecosystem valuation, an alternative to
the traditional view of all non-human life as passive natural resources, and to the
idea of ecological health. However, human knowledge and understanding of the
natural environment is never complete, and therefore the boundaries of natural
capital expand or contract as knowledge is gained or lost.
It has been argued that it's useful to view many natural systems as capital because
they can be improved or degraded by the actions of man over time (Tragedy of the
commons), so that to view them as if their productive capacity is fixed by nature
alone is misleading.
Moreover, they yield benefits naturally which are harvested by humans, those
being nature's services, 17 of which were closely analyzed by Robert Costanza.
These benefits are in some ways similar to those realized by owners of
infrastructural capital which yields more goods, e.g. a factory which produces
automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.
The term and metaphor were first used by E.F. Schumacher in his book Small Is
Beautiful and are closely identified with Herman Daly, Robert Costanza, the
Biosphere 2 project, and the Natural Capitalism economic model of Paul Hawken,
Amory Lovins, and Hunter Lovins until recently, when it began to be used by
politicians, notably Ralph Nader, Paul Martin Jr., and agencies of the UK
government including the London Health Observatory. Some economists and
politicians, including Martin, believe natural capital measures play a key role in
money supply and inflation measurements in a modern economy. They point to
uneconomic growth and a lack of any direct connection between measuring well-
being and such indicators as GDP.
Full cost accounting, triple bottom line, measuring well-being and other proposals
for accounting reform often include proposals to measure an "ecological deficit" or
"natural deficit" alongside a social deficit and financial deficit. It is difficult to
measure such a deficit without some agreement on methods of valuating and
auditing at least the global forms of natural capital (e.g. value of air, water, soil).
The concept of natural capital implies that the savings rate of an economy is an
imperfect measure of what the country is actually saving, because it measures only
investment in man-made capital.
The World Bank now calculates the genuine savings rate of a country, taking into
account the extraction of natural resources and the ecological damage caused by
CO2 emissions.
The boreal forest ecosystem is one of the planet's great atmospheric regulators
and it stores more carbon than any other biome on the planet. The annual value
for ecological services of the Boreal Forest is estimated at US$93.2 billion, or 2.5
greater than the annual value of resource extraction. The economic value of 17
ecosystem services for the entire biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated
average value of US$33 trillion per year.
Design for disposal or reuse: The end-of-life of a product is very important, because some
products emit dangerous chemicals into the air, ground and water after they are disposed of
in a landfill. Planning for the reuse or refurbishing of a product will change the types of
materials that would be used, how they could later be disassembled and reused, and the
environmental impacts such materials have.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is employed to forecast the impacts of different (production)
alternatives of the product in question, thus being able to choose the most environmentally
friendly. A life cycle analysis can serve as a tool when determining the environmental impact
of a product or process. Proper LCAs can help a designer compare several different products
according to several categories, such as energy use, toxicity, acidification, CO2 emissions,
ozone depletion, resource depletion and many others. By comparing different products,
designers can make decisions about which environmental hazard to focus on in order to
make the product more environmentally friendly.
Alternatives
Sumber: Assessment
………….. diunduh Program
29/4/2012
In order to help industries choose safer chemicals for applications, DfE conducts Alternatives
MATERIAL FLOW MANAGEMENT
Material flow management (MFM) is a method of efficiently managing materials.
Material flow management is the goal oriented, efficient use of materials, material
streams and energy. The goals are given by ecological and economical areas and by
observing social aspects. (in "Protection of human beings and environment", by an
Enquete Commission of the German Bundestag)
This triple jump of environmental, social and economical orientation makes MFM a
tool of high importance in the field of Sustainable Development (SD) and Circular
Economy (CE). Seen historically Material Flow Management is a relatively new tool
that can be understood as an implementation-orientated advancement of the
methodology of Material Flow Analysis (MFA).
MFM was established as a policy tool after the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro 1992.
The German “Bundestag” clearly outlined the targets and specific goals of MFM in a
special report by an Enquete Commission.
With the environment and resource facing more and more serious challenge,
Circular Economy in China become a considerable topic. Integrating industrial
symbiosis into the corporate development plans to optimize materials and
energy flows is a feasible strategy for many corporations in their transition
between nonsustainable and sustainable development. This paper takes the
Nanning Sugar Group, a Chinese sugar complex, as a case to conduct an
analysis on the material flow. On the basis of a brief introduction of the
concept of industrial ecosystem, the paper describes the Nanning Sugar
Group and its material flows of ecosystem After summarizing experiences of
the application of the Group's model, it analyzes challenges and then
introduces possible solutions. The material flows experience in question is
hoped to point to a feasible development path for similar corporations.
Waste minimization is the process and the policy of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society.
Waste minimization involves efforts to minimize resource and energy use during
manufacture. For the same commercial output, usually the fewer materials are used,
the less waste is produced. Waste minimisation usually requires knowledge of the
production process, cradle-to-grave analysis (the tracking of materials from their
extraction to their return to earth) and detailed knowledge of the composition of the
waste.
The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes
from the construction and demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying,
industry and commerce .
Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the
creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the supply chain. For example, a
company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular
packing because it fits its packaging equipment.
In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the
top. In contrast to waste minimisation, waste management focuses on processing
waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling, and waste-to-energy
conversion.
Waste hierarchy
Processes
Resource optimisation
Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes
hand-in-hand with optimising their use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker
may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in a particular way to enable the
garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric. Reuse of scrap material
Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing
line so that they do not become a waste product. Many industries routinely do this;
for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls to the beginning of the
production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap are re-
incorporated into new products. Improved quality control and process monitoring
Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a
minimum. This is achieved by increasing the frequency of inspection and the
number of points of inspection. For example, installing automated continuous
monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.
Waste exchanges
This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a
second process. Waste exchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal
volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated. Ship to point of use
This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to
the point where they are assembled or used in the manufacturing process to
minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or enclosures.
Durability
Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years
instead of 12, can reduce waste and usually much improves resource optimisation.
But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its
replacement with more efficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing
machine produced 10 years ago may use twice as much water, detergent and energy as one
produced today. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life may place a heavier
burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model.
Similarly, older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern
counterparts.
Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any
manufactured product at the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse
rather than waste. Recycling a product is easier if it is constructed of fewer materials. Car
manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their cars from twenty
or more to three or four, hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars.
However, exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on
glass) do exist, and might enable a product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.
Synonyms
Pollution Prevention (or P2) and Toxics use reduction are also called source
reduction because they address the use of hazardous substances at the source.
Procedures
Source Reduction is achieved through improvements in production and product
design, or through Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP).
Zero waste is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resource life cycles so that
all products are reused. Any trash sent to landfills and incinerators is minimal. The
process recommended is one similar to the way that resources are reused in nature. A
working definition of zero waste, often cited by experts in the field originated from a
working group of the Zero Waste International Alliance in 2004. The definition is as
follows: "Zero Waste is a goal that is ethical, economical, efficient and visionary, to guide
people in changing their lifestyles and practices to emulate sustainable natural cycles,
where all discarded materials are designed to become resources for others to use. Zero
Waste means designing and managing products and processes to systematically avoid
and eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste and materials, conserve and recover all
resources, and not burn or bury them. Implementing Zero Waste will eliminate all
discharges to land, water or air that are a threat to planetary, human, animal or plant
health."
In industry this process involves creating commodities out of traditional waste products,
essentially making old outputs new inputs for similar or different industrial sectors. An
example might be the cycle of a glass milk bottle. The primary input (or resource) is
silica-sand, which is formed into glass and then into a bottle. The bottle is filled with
milk and distributed to the consumer. At this point, normal waste methods would see
the bottle disposed in a landfill or similar. But with a zero-waste method, the bottle can
be saddled at the time of sale with a deposit, which is returned to the bearer upon
redemption. The bottle is then washed, refilled, and resold. The only material waste is
the wash water, and energy loss has been minimized.
There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens
associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or
process, at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential LCAs seek to
identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a
system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and
economic implications of a decision may have to be taken into account. Social LCA
is under development as a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to
assess social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA should be considered as
an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000
environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO
14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.)
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the
technosphere. Those completing a questionnaire will be able to specify how
much of a given input they use from supply chain sources, but they will not
usually have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for those
production processes.
The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does
not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases
or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily
accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken
to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or
national conditions.
Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment#Cradle-to-grave ………….. diunduh
30/4/2012
LCIA : LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last
compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above
mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and
weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study.
In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are
usually compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for
example.
Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.
During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative
to each other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for
the total environmental impact.
This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high
degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting
1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA
phases of an LCA;
2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency
checks; and
3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
In the former category, the principal tools are GaBi Software, developed by PE
International, SimaPro, developed by PRé Consultants, Quantis SUITE 2.0, developed by
Quantis International and umberto, developed by ifu Hamburg GmbH, and web-based
solutions include Earthster and LinkCycle. In the second category, different tools
operate at different levels. At the product level, the U.S. National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) makes its BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic
Sustainability) tool freely available, Solidworks CAD software (Dassault Systèmes)
presents LCA-based environmental information to the user through an add-on called
SustainabilityXpress, and PTC’s Windchill Product Analytics makes LCA results an
integral part of product development systems.
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 LCA is mostly used to
support business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design
(15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%).
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or
commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national
databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III
labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental
data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series
of standards, but not excluding additional environmental information". These third-
party certified LCA-based labels provide an increasingly important basis for assessing
the relative environmental merits of competing products.
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste
management and pollution studies.
Cradle-to-grave
Cradle-to-grave is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction ('cradle') to
use phase and disposal phase ('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can
be recycled into low-energy production cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation, then
used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000
times the fossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers
are replaced and the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and
outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.
Cradle-to-gate
Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle
from resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e.,
before it is transported to the consumer).
The use phase and disposal phase of the product are omitted
in this case.
Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for
environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-
business EDPs.
Gate-to-gate
Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added
process in the entire production chain.
Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their
appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-gate
evaluation.
Well-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is
often broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and
"station-to-wheel" or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel".
The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and
fuel delivery or energy transmission, and is called the "upstream" stage, while the stage
that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the "downstream" stage.
The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy consumption, or
energy conversion efficiency and emissions impact of marine vessels, aircrafts and
motor vehicle emissions, including their carbon footprint, and the fuels used in each of
these transport modes.
Ecologically-based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies
as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological
impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise management of human
activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological
resources and surrounding ecosystems.
PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards ("concave") from the origin but can also be
represented as bulging downward or linear (straight), depending on a number of factors.
In addition, an outward shift of the PPF results from growth of the availability of inputs
such as physical capital or labour, or technological progress in our knowledge of how to
transform inputs into outputs. Such a shift allows economic growth of an economy
already operating at its full productivity (on the PPF), which means that more of both
outputs can be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the
output of either good. Conversely, the PPF will shift inward if the labor force shrinks, the
supply of raw materials is depleted, or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical
capital. However, most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced, but
that the economy has started operating below the frontier—typically both labor and
physical capital are underemployed.
The combination represented by the point on the PPF where an economy operates
shows the priorities or choices of the economy, such as the choice between producing
more capital goods and fewer consumer goods, or vice versa.
Production Inefficiency
Marginal product of capital is: 5 widgets or 6 getwids
Marginal product of labor is: 5 widgets or 4 getwids
To show that the situation in the table is not production-efficient, consider what happens if a getwid
producer trades a unit of labor to a widget maker for one unit of capital. The widget maker will have
no change in output as a result. Reducing capital by one unit cuts output by five, but this is offset by
the five widgets the extra labor adds. However, there will be more getwids. The extra unit of capital
adds 6 getwids, whereas the loss of a unit of labor subtracts 4 getwids. There is a net gain of two
getwids. Because the amount of production after the exchange of resources was more than the
original amount, the economy could not have been on the production-possibilities frontier originally.
Further, because more output has more value to consumers, the original use of resources was less
efficient than the use of resources after the trade.
As a result of the trade of resources, marginal products should change. Because more capital is being
used in producing getwids, its marginal product in getwid production should drop (by the law of
diminishing returns). Because more labor is being used in producing widgets, its marginal product in
widget production should drop. Hence some exchange of resources should bring the ratios of
marginal products to equality.
The ability to produce a good using the fewest resources possible. Efficient production
is achieved when a product is created at its lowest average total cost.
'Production Efficiency‘
1. Production efficiency measures whether the economy is
producing as much as possible without wasting precious
resources. Theoretically, production efficiency will include all
of the points along the production possibility frontier, but this is
difficult to measure in practice.
Some terms that encompass phases of economic efficiency include allocational efficiency,
production efficiency and Pareto efficiency.
'Economic Efficiency'
A state of economic efficiency is essentially just a theoretical one; a
limit that can be approached but never reached.
Instructions
1. Determine the time it takes to complete each piece of an order from the point of
order until delivery. Record this as the total production time. In this time are
included inspection time, the time during which the product is moved and
downtime waiting between steps to continue the manufacturing process. Do not
include waiting time before the order process actually begins.
2. Separate out the time actually spent manufacturing the product, also called the
value-added time. Look for the length of time the product spends in the factory
line where the actual construction occurs. Do not include other parts of the order
and delivery process in this time. Write this down.
3. Calculate the manufacturing efficiency. Divide the amount of total manufacturing
time by the value-added time. For instance, a car that is delivered 15 days from
when it is ordered and production is initiated, and that spends three days on the
manufacturing line would have manufacturing efficiency of 3/15 = .2.
Sumber: http://www.ehow.com/how_5523216_calculate-manufacturing-efficiency.html
EFISIENSI PRODUKSI
Production efficiency is a term used to describe the state or level at which a business is
producing the greatest number of units while utilizing the least amount of resources
possible. The idea is to achieve a balance between use and production without
decreasing the quality of the products that are manufactured. As it relates to an
economy in general, production efficiency focuses on whether or not that economy is
making the most prudent use of the resources available, or if making some changes
would make it possible to derive more benefit from the consumption of those
resources.
The same general concept can be found in balancing the production of different
goods and services within a particular economy. If expansion in one area leads to
the need to sacrifice production of goods considered equally important to the well
being of that economy, the rate of production efficiency is decreased. If these
activities continue and the balance between production and the consumption of
resources is further undermined, the economy as a whole may suffer. Once the
trend begins, it may take some time to compensate and restore the economic
balance that is a central characteristic of true production efficiency.
Integrated chain management should not be mixed up with Supply Chain Management or
Integrated Supply Chain Management. These concepts do not have the reduction of
environmental load as their main goal.
An important aspect of ICM is that shifting to other phases in the product chain is
avoided. For instance, a producer of chairs can choose to leave away an environment
unfriendly material in a new product. The producer can even see this as an extra selling
point for the customer. But as a consequence the supplier of raw materials has to use
much more energy to produce a material with the same qualities. Within the integrated
chain management approach this is not possible.
The chain can be managed by developing new policies and economical or political
incentives. Therefore one must have insight into the inputs and outputs of the production
chain. Before these policies can be developed one must engage in several actions.
Analyse the processes into a preferred level of detail
Determine the boundaries of the chain. Should links outside the companies be involved
as well?
Determine whether there should be a focus on just one or on several environmental
problems
Determine on which material flows or energy flows there should be a focus.
Effective supply chain management can impact virtually all business and production
processes
Supply chain management is aimed at managing complex and dynamic supply and demand
networks. (cf. Wieland/Wallenburg, 2011)
One could suggest other key critical supply business processes which combine these
processes stated by Lambert such as:
9. Customer service management
10. Procurement
11. Product development and commercialization
12. Manufacturing flow management/support
13. Physical distribution
14. Outsourcing/partnerships
15. Performance measurement
16. Warehousing management
Strategic plans are drawn up with suppliers to support the manufacturing flow
management process and the development of new products. In firms where operations
extend globally, sourcing should be managed on a global basis. The desired outcome is a
win-win relationship where both parties benefit, and a reduction in time required for the
design cycle and product development. Also, the purchasing function develops rapid
communication systems, such as electronic data interchange (EDI) and Internet linkage to
convey possible requirements more rapidly.
Activities related to obtaining products and materials from outside suppliers involve
resource planning, supply sourcing, negotiation, order placement, inbound
transportation, storage, handling and quality assurance, many of which include the
responsibility to coordinate with suppliers on matters of scheduling, supply continuity,
hedging, and research into new sources or programs.
Customers and suppliers must be integrated into the product development process in
order to reduce time to market. As product life cycles shorten, the appropriate products
must be developed and successfully launched with ever shorter time-schedules to remain
competitive.
According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), managers of the product development and
commercialization process must:
1. Coordinate with customer relationship management to identify customer-
articulated needs;
2. Select materials and suppliers in conjunction with procurement, and
3. Develop production technology in manufacturing flow to manufacture and
integrate into the best supply chain flow for the product/market combination.
(F). OUTSOURCING/PARTNERSHIPS
This is not just outsourcing the procurement of materials and components, but
also outsourcing of services that traditionally have been provided in-house. The
logic of this trend is that the company will increasingly focus on those activities
in the value chain where it has a distinctive advantage, and outsource everything
else.
This movement has been particularly evident in logistics where the provision of
transport, warehousing and inventory control is increasingly subcontracted to
specialists or logistics partners.
Also, managing and controlling this network of partners and suppliers requires a
blend of both central and local involvement. Hence, strategic decisions need to
be taken centrally, with the monitoring and control of supplier performance and
day-to-day liaison with logistics partners being best managed at a local level.
Experts found a strong relationship from the largest arcs of supplier and customer
integration to market share and profitability. Taking advantage of supplier capabilities
and emphasizing a long-term supply chain perspective in customer relationships can both
be correlated with firm performance. As logistics competency becomes a more critical
factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage, logistics measurement
becomes increasingly important because the difference between profitable and
unprofitable operations becomes more narrow. A.T. Kearney Consultants (1985) noted
that firms engaging in comprehensive performance measurement realized improvements
in overall productivity. According to experts, internal measures are generally collected
and analyzed by the firm including:
1. Cost
2. Customer Service
3. Productivity measures
4. Asset measurement, and
5. Quality.
A few authors such as Halldorsson, et al. (2003), Ketchen and Hult (2006) and Lavassani,
et al. (2009) have tried to provide theoretical foundations for different areas related to
supply chain by employing organizational theories. These theories include:
1. Resource-based view (RBV)
2. Transaction Cost Analysis (TCA)
3. Knowledge-Based View (KBV)
4. Strategic Choice Theory (SCT)
5. Agency Theory (AT)
6. Institutional theory (InT)
7. Systems Theory (ST)
8. Network Perspective (NP)
9. Materials Logistics Management (MLM)
10. Just-in-Time (JIT)
11. Material Requirements Planning (MRP)
12. Theory of Constraints (TOC)
13. Performance Information Procurement Systems (PIPS)
14. Performance Information Risk Management System (PIRMS)
15. Total Quality Management (TQM)
16. Agile Manufacturing
17. Time Based Competition (TBC)
18. Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM)
19. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
20. Requirements Chain Management (RCM)
21. Available-to-promise (ATP)
22. and many more
The SCM components are the third element of the four-square circulation
framework. The level of integration and management of a business process link is a
function of the number and level, ranging from low to high, of components added to
the link (Ellram and Cooper, 1990; Houlihan, 1985). Consequently, adding more
management components or increasing the level of each component can increase
the level of integration of the business process link. The literature on business
process re-engineering, buyer-supplier relationships, and SCM suggests various
possible components that must receive managerial attention when managing supply
relationships.
This study integrates GWP and cost–benefit criteria to carry out optimal
planning of a typical SWM system – the borough of Lewisburg, Pennsylvania.
The GaBi® software package was used to estimate the possible greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions throughout the scenario-based design process. Five
managerial scenarios were organized with and without the inclusion of GWP
concern within such an optimization analysis for SWM. With the aid of LINGO®
software package, the optimization models were solved sequentially to
allocate different waste streams subject to the market demand and possible
carbon regulation to maximize net benefit and minimize GWP, simultaneously
or independently.
The planning scenario with respect to a carbon-regulated environment
particularly minimizes the large environmental gap in traditional cost–benefit
analyses for SWM.
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_hubEid=1-s2.0-
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_useri
d=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012
Comparative LCA of the use of biodiesel, diesel and gasoline for transportation
Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol. 20, Issue 1, (January 2012). Pages 14-19
Evanthia A. Nanaki, Christopher J. Koroneos
The energy fuels used for in the Greek transport sector are made up of gasoline
consumed by automobiles, diesel oil consumed by taxis, trucks, maritime transport
and railroads, and jet fuel used in the aircrafts. All these fuels are hydrocarbons that
emit great amounts of CO2 which has a major impact in the global warming
phenomenon. The issues relating to climate change, the soaring energy prices, and
the uncertainty of future oil supplies, have created a strong interest in alternative
transportation fuels. During the past decade biofuels in the form of blended gasoline
and biodiesel have begun to find place in energy economy. The Greek car market
shows a remarkably low rate in the penetration of biodiesel compared to the average
European Union market.
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_hubEid=1-s2.0-
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=
0&_userid=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012
A taxonomy of ecodesign tools for integrating environmental requirements into
the product design process
Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol. 20, Issue 1, (January 2012). Pages 61-71
M.D. Bovea, V. Pérez-Belis
Over the years a wide range of techniques have been developed to evaluate
the environmental performance of products. However, they all consider the
environmental aspect of a product in an isolated way, without taking into
account the remaining requirements that a designer has to consider during
the design process. Hence, the integration of environmental aspects into the
early stages of the design process together with a multi-criteria approach that
makes it possible to balance the environmental requirements against other
traditional requirements are two of the key factors for successful sustainable
design.
With the intention of providing designers with a brief guide to selecting the
ecodesign tool that best fits a specific case study, a classification was made
according to criteria such as:
1. the method applied for the environmental assessment,
2. the product requirements that need to be integrated in addition to the
environmental one (multi-criteria approach),
3. whether the tool has a life cycle perspective (i.e. it considers all the stages
of the life cycle of a product),
4. the nature of the results (qualitative or quantitative),
5. the stages of the conceptual design process where the tool can be
applied, and
6. the methodology taken as a basis for such integration.
Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_hubEid=1-s2.0-
S0959652611X00148&_cid=271750&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000066135&_version=1&_urlVersion=
0&_userid=5027778&md5=13836673f416c7e0e200790422f065c0 ………….. diunduh 3/5/2012