Variabel Bebas
Terdiri dari: 1. Material Awal: sifat kimia dan persyaratan sifat dan karakteristik bahan. Dasar pemilihan: kemudahan fabrikasi, dibatasi oleh bentuk/sifat produk yang diinginkan. 2. Geometri mula dari benda kerja; dipilih dari varitas bentuk yang ada atas pertimbangan ekonomi 3. Geometri perkakas / cetakan; sangat berpengaruh karena system perkakas akan memproduksi dan mengontrol aliran logam
4. Pelumasan; untuk mengatasi gesekan 50% daya yang diberikan untuk mengatasi gesekan Fungsi pelumas: melumasi, pendingin, pembatas panas, pencegah korosi, senyawa perusak. Yang perlu diperhatikan: tipe pelumas, jumlah yang harus diberikan, dan metode pemberian 5. Suhu Awal Pembentukan baik untuk benda kerja dan perkakas beberapa material memepunyai variasi yang besar terhadap terhadap sisfat dasar akibat temperature, Karena itu pilihlah amatilah posisi yang sesuai agar berhasil dgn baik dan tidak rusak saat mengerjakannya. 6. Kecepatan operasi: mempengaruhi efektivitas pelumas, gaya yang diperlukan untuk operasi, waktu tersedia untuk pndah panas 7. Jenis proses deformasi sepeti : rolling , Forging
Pelumasan Pada gear, bearing, journal dan komponen sejenis, kondisi friksi melibatkan:
1. Dua permukaan dengan material dan kekuatan serupa di bawah beban elastik di mana salah satu komponen mengalami perubahan bentuk permanen 2. Keausan berbentuk lingkaran yang menghasilkan kesesuaian permukaan 3. Umumnya suhu rendah sampai sedang
Gesekan
1. 2. 3. 4. Menurut teori friksi modern: permukaan yang rata tidaklah rata, namun ada kekasaran. Bila dua permukaan berinteraksi, kontak permukaan dibangkitkan untuk mengatasi beban yang diberikan. Bila beban ringan hanya 3 titik yang kontak Bila beban naik luasan kontak naik Bila beban tinggi seluruh permukaan kontak Bila beban dinaikkan lagi maka luasan permuakaan kontak tak akan naik lagi dan friksi tetap
Friksi, F
Slope (gradien)
Tekanan kontak, P
Temperature Concerns
Umumnya dengan penambahan temperatur akan mengurangi kekuatan, keuletan dan menambah regangan pemanasan. Pengaruh panas ini mempermudah perencanaan dalam pembentukan Proses panas>< proses dingin In general, an increase in temperature brings out a decrease in strength, an increase in ductility, and a decrease in the rate of strain hardening all effects that would tend to promote ease of deformation.
Telaah Suhu
Proses forming diklasifikasikan menjadi: Hot working (Proses panas); deformasi dilakukan di bawah kondisi temperatur dan laju strain (regangan) di mana rekristalisasi terjadi dan simultan dengan deformasi. Untuk mencapai ini, suhu deformasi biasanya di atas 0.6 kali titik cair material pada skala suhu absolut (Kelvin atau Rankine) Cold working (Proses dingin): adalah deformasi di bawah kondisi proses recovery tidak aktif. Biasanya suhu kerja kurang dari 0.3 kali suhu leleh benda kerja Warm working adalah deformasi di bawah kondisi transisi (yakni suhu kerja antara 0.3 dan 0.6 kali suhu leleh).
Hot working
Hot working didefinisikan sebagi deformasi plastis logam di atas suhu rekristaliasinya. Yang perlu diingat bahwa beda material beda suhu rekristalisasinya. Misalnya tin / timah putih (Sn) pada suhu kamar, baja pada suhu 2000 0F, tungsten pada suhu sampai 4000 0F belum mencapai daerah hot working. Kenaikan suhu berpengaruh terhadap penurunan tegangan yield logam dan meningkatkan keuletannya.
Cold working
Cold working adalah deformasi plastis logam di bawah suhu rekristalisasi. Proses biasanya pada suhu kamar, tetapi penaikan suhu ringan biasa digunakan untuk meningkatkan keuletan dan mengurangi kekuatan. Keunggulan cold working dibanding hot working Tidak diperlukan panas Permuakan akhir yang diperolehlebih bagus Kontrol dimensi lebih bagus sehingga sedikit/tidak memerlukan pemesinan lanjutan Produk memiliki kemampuan reproduksi dan mampu tukar yang lebih bagus Sifat kekuatan, kelelahan dan keausan ditingkatkan melalui strain hardening Sifat terarah dapat diberikan Problem kontaminasi diminimisasi
Kurva tegangan-regangan pada baja karbon rendah (kiri) dan baja karbon tinggi (kanan)
Deformasi elasis sd X1 Deformasi plastis dr X1 sd X4 X4 material putus Besar dari titik yield (X1) yang menentukan gaya yang diperlukan untuk memulai deformasi permanen, X1 ke X4, yang menunjukkan jumlah deformasi plastis (atau keuletan) yang bisa dicapai tanpa patah.
Kesimpulan:
1 Baja karbon rendah: jumlah deformasi yang bisa dilakukan lebih banyak Keuletan yang lebih besar gaya yang lebih kecil diperlukan untuk memulai dan melanjutkan deformasi. 2 Baja karbon tinggi: memiliki koefisien regangan lebih besar. mengalami kenaikan kekuatan yang lebih besar untuk sejumlah cold work yang sama. akan lebih menarik untuk operasi pemotongan dan lebih mudah untuk dimesin.
Cold-working Processes
Cold-working Processes
Major Cold-Working Operations Squeezing
Bending
Shearing
Drawing
Presses
Squeezing Processes
Classifications of Squeezing Processes
Rolling Cold Forging Sizing Staking
Swaging
Extrusion
Coining
Peening
Burnishing
Hubbing
Riveting
Thread Rolling
Squeezing Processes
ROLLING
process used in sheets, strips, bars, and rods to obtain products that have smooth surfaces and accurate dimensions; most cold-rolling is performed on four-high or cluster-type rolling mills
Squeezing Processes
SWAGING
process that reduces/increases the diameter, tapers, rods or points round bars or tubes by external hammering
Squeezing Processes
COLD FORGING
process in which slugs of material are squeezed into shaped die cavities to produce finished parts of precise shape and size.
Squeezing Processes
EXTRUSION
process which is commonly used to make collapsible tubes such as toothpaste tubes, cans usually using soft materials such as aluminum, lead, tin. Usually a small shot of solid material is placed in the die and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in the material.
Squeezing Processes
SIZING
process of squeezing all or selected areas of forgings, ductile castings, or powder metallurgy products to achieve a desired thickness or precision
Squeezing Processes
RIVETING
process where a head is formed on the shrank end of a fastener to permanently join sheets or plates of material;
Squeezing Processes
STAKING
process of permanently joining parts together when one part protrudes through a hole in the other; a shaped punch is driven into the end of the protruding piece where a deformation is formed causing a radial expansion, mechanically locking the two pieces together
Squeezing Processes
COINING
process where metal while it is confined in a closed set of dies; used to produce coins, medals, and other products where exact size and fine details are required, and thickness varies about a well-defined average
Squeezing Processes
PEENING
process where the surface of the metal is blasted by shot pellets; the mechanical working of surfaces by repeated blows of impelled shot or a round-nose tool
Squeezing Processes
BURNISHING
process by which a smooth hard tools is rubbed on the metal surface and flattens the high spots by applying compressive force and plastically flowing the material
Squeezing Processes
HUBBING
process to used to form recessed cavities in various types of female tooling dies. This is often used to make plastic extrusion dies in an economical manner
Squeezing Processes
THREAD ROLLING
process is used for making external threads; in this process, a die, which is a hardened tool with the thread profile, is pressed on to a rotating workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
- the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or no change in the surface area - the purpose of bending is to form sheet metal along a straight line
outside: stretched inside: compressed center of the sheet -metal is thinned somewhat at the
bend - where the material cannot compensate by the sideways contraction of the free edges
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
The bending operation can be considered as a system with six components:
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Springback - the elastic recovery of the material after unloading of the tools
To compensate with the unbending action of the springback, the metal should be slightly overbent.
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Rotary Bending
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Classifications of Bending Processes
Seaming
Roll Flanging
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Angle Bending
Bar folder
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Press Brake
Bending rubber
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll Bending
bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can be bent to a desired curvature
Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 6 inches thick
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Drawing and Compression
Drawing Bending
Compression Bending
- workpiece is clamped against a bending form and the entire assemble rotates to draw the workpiece across a stationary tool
- the bending form remains stationary and the pressure tool moves along the workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll Forming
- involves the progressive bending of metal strip as it passes through a series of forming rolls Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Seaming
- bending operation that can be used to join the ends of sheet metal to form containers such as cans, pails and drums
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Flanging
-the process of rolling on sheet metal in essentially the same manner as seaming
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Straightening
also known as flattening opposite of bending
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll- straightening/ Roll Leveling -subjects the material to a series of reverse bends -metal is bent back and forth Stretcher Leveling -sheets are gripped mechanically
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Aluminum - the mechanical cutting of materials without Brass Bronze the information of chips or the use of burning Mild steel or melting Stainless steel
for straight cutting blades: shearing for curved blades: blanking, piercing, notching, trimming
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Classifications of Shearing Processes Slitting Piercing
Blanking
Shaving
Notching
Trimming
Cutoff
Dinking
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Slitting
- shearing process used to cut rolls of sheet metal into several rolls of narrower width
used to cut a wide coil of metal into a number of narrower coils as the main coil is moved through the slitter.
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Blanking
during which a metal workpiece is removed from the primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. punch-out: workpiece remaining strip: scrap
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Piercing
punch-out: scrap remaining strip: workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Lancing- forms either a line cut (slit) or an actual hole
Perforating- piercing a large number of closely spaced holes
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Notching
-same as piercing
- edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out perimeter Nibbling- produces a series of overlapping slits/notches
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Shaving
- finishing operation in which a small amount of metal is sheared away from the edge of an already blanked part
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Trimming
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Cutoff
- punch and die operation used to separate a stamping or other product from a strip or stock
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Dinking
-used to blank shapes from low-strength materials such as rubber, fiber and cloth
Ligon, Jennilyn
Rod
Die
Ligon, Jennilyn
can be used to produce high quality tubing where the product requires the smooth surfaces, thin walls, accurate dimension and added strength.
Die
Die Tube
Mandrel
Floating plug
Die
Ligon, Jennilyn
Land
Direction of travel
Back radius
Approach angle
Entrance angle
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ligon, Jennilyn
tc
tc will var with th e angle of the particuilar region according to to the relationship: tc = tb sin
Blank Blank
Mandrel
tb Reverse Process
Direct Process
Ligon, Jennilyn
a sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of jaws that stretch it and wrap it up around a single form block
Ligon, Jennilyn
d2
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ram
High-pressure Flexible-die Process (Hydroforming or Flexiforming) the rubber pad is replaced by a flexible rubber diaphram backed by controlled hydraulic pressures
Ligon, Jennilyn
(a) Die
Work
(b)
(c)
Ligon, Jennilyn
2. Embossing> presswork process in which raised lettering or other designs are impressed in sheet materials
Ligon, Jennilyn
Die
work
3. Supeplastic Sheet Foerming> makes possible the economical production of large, complex-shaped products with compound curves >major limitation is low forming rate that is required to maintain superplastic behavior
Ligon, Jennilyn
80 60 40 20 0 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
Minor strain (percent)
Major and minor strain=positive >deformation is stretching >sheet metal decrease in thickness Major strain=positive; minor strain=negative >deformation is drawing >thickness may increase, decrease or stay depending on the magnitudes of the 2 strain
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
A. Classification of Presses
Mechanical Drive
provides faster motion and more positive control of displacement
Hydraulic Presses
produce motion as a result of piston movement, and longer or variable-length strokrs can be programmed within the limitations of the cylinder
A. Classification of Presses
Mechanical Drive Hydraulic Presses Manually operated Presses
Kick presses
Crank>used for most piercing and blanking operations and for drawing Eccentric or cam drives> Used when only a short ram stroke is required Knuckle-joint drive> provides a very high mechanical advantage along with fast action Toggle mechanism> Used principally in drawing presses to actuate the blank holder
Screw-type drives> offer great mechanical advantage coupled witj action that resembles drop hammer
Screw presses> popular in forging industry
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
B. Types of Press Frame
> Imposes limitations on the size and type of work that can be accomodated, How that work is fed and unloaded, and the overall stiffness of the machine
Arch
seldom used today except with screw drives for coining operations
Gap
frames are in the shape of letter C Most verastile and commonly preffered presses Provide unobstructive access to the dies from 3 directions and permit large workpiece to be fed into the press
Straight Sided
have frames that consist of a crown, 2 uprights, a base or bed , and one or more moving slide
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
C. Press Feeding Device >increases productivity >operators safety is an advantage
When continuous strip is used it can be fed automatically by double-roll feeds mounted on the side of the press
Cold-working Processes
Cold-working Processes
Major Cold-Working Operations Squeezing
Bending
Shearing
Drawing
Presses
Squeezing Processes
Classifications of Squeezing Processes
Rolling Cold Forging Sizing Staking
Swaging
Extrusion
Coining
Peening
Burnishing
Hubbing
Riveting
Thread Rolling
Squeezing Processes
ROLLING
process used in sheets, strips, bars, and rods to obtain products that have smooth surfaces and accurate dimensions; most cold-rolling is performed on four-high or cluster-type rolling mills
Squeezing Processes
SWAGING
process that reduces/increases the diameter, tapers, rods or points round bars or tubes by external hammering
Squeezing Processes
COLD FORGING
process in which slugs of material are squeezed into shaped die cavities to produce finished parts of precise shape and size.
Squeezing Processes
EXTRUSION
process which is commonly used to make collapsible tubes such as toothpaste tubes, cans usually using soft materials such as aluminum, lead, tin. Usually a small shot of solid material is placed in the die and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in the material.
Squeezing Processes
SIZING
process of squeezing all or selected areas of forgings, ductile castings, or powder metallurgy products to achieve a desired thickness or precision
Squeezing Processes
RIVETING
process where a head is formed on the shrank end of a fastener to permanently join sheets or plates of material;
Squeezing Processes
STAKING
process of permanently joining parts together when one part protrudes through a hole in the other; a shaped punch is driven into the end of the protruding piece where a deformation is formed causing a radial expansion, mechanically locking the two pieces together
Squeezing Processes
COINING
process where metal while it is confined in a closed set of dies; used to produce coins, medals, and other products where exact size and fine details are required, and thickness varies about a well-defined average
Squeezing Processes
PEENING
process where the surface of the metal is blasted by shot pellets; the mechanical working of surfaces by repeated blows of impelled shot or a round-nose tool
Squeezing Processes
BURNISHING
process by which a smooth hard tools is rubbed on the metal surface and flattens the high spots by applying compressive force and plastically flowing the material
Squeezing Processes
HUBBING
process to used to form recessed cavities in various types of female tooling dies. This is often used to make plastic extrusion dies in an economical manner
Squeezing Processes
THREAD ROLLING
process is used for making external threads; in this process, a die, which is a hardened tool with the thread profile, is pressed on to a rotating workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
- the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or no change in the surface area - the purpose of bending is to form sheet metal along a straight line
outside: stretched inside: compressed center of the sheet -metal is thinned somewhat at the
bend - where the material cannot compensate by the sideways contraction of the free edges
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
The bending operation can be considered as a system with six components:
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Springback - the elastic recovery of the material after unloading of the tools
To compensate with the unbending action of the springback, the metal should be slightly overbent.
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Rotary Bending
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Classifications of Bending Processes
Seaming
Roll Flanging
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Angle Bending
Bar folder
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Press Brake
Bending rubber
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll Bending
bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can be bent to a desired curvature
Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 6 inches thick
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Drawing and Compression
Drawing Bending
Compression Bending
- workpiece is clamped against a bending form and the entire assemble rotates to draw the workpiece across a stationary tool
- the bending form remains stationary and the pressure tool moves along the workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll Forming
- involves the progressive bending of metal strip as it passes through a series of forming rolls Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Seaming
- bending operation that can be used to join the ends of sheet metal to form containers such as cans, pails and drums
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Flanging
-the process of rolling on sheet metal in essentially the same manner as seaming
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Straightening
also known as flattening opposite of bending
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Roll- straightening/ Roll Leveling -subjects the material to a series of reverse bends -metal is bent back and forth Stretcher Leveling -sheets are gripped mechanically
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Aluminum - the mechanical cutting of materials without Brass Bronze the information of chips or the use of burning Mild steel or melting Stainless steel
for straight cutting blades: shearing for curved blades: blanking, piercing, notching, trimming
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Classifications of Shearing Processes Slitting Piercing
Blanking
Shaving
Notching
Trimming
Cutoff
Dinking
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Slitting
- shearing process used to cut rolls of sheet metal into several rolls of narrower width
used to cut a wide coil of metal into a number of narrower coils as the main coil is moved through the slitter.
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Blanking
during which a metal workpiece is removed from the primary metal strip or sheet when it is punched. punch-out: workpiece remaining strip: scrap
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Piercing
punch-out: scrap remaining strip: workpiece
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Lancing- forms either a line cut (slit) or an actual hole
Perforating- piercing a large number of closely spaced holes
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Notching
-same as piercing
- edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out perimeter Nibbling- produces a series of overlapping slits/notches
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Shaving
- finishing operation in which a small amount of metal is sheared away from the edge of an already blanked part
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Trimming
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Cutoff
- punch and die operation used to separate a stamping or other product from a strip or stock
Glassl, Gerlli
Shearing
Dinking
-used to blank shapes from low-strength materials such as rubber, fiber and cloth
Ligon, Jennilyn
Rod
Die
Ligon, Jennilyn
can be used to produce high quality tubing where the product requires the smooth surfaces, thin walls, accurate dimension and added strength.
Die
Die Tube
Mandrel
Floating plug
Die
Ligon, Jennilyn
Land
Direction of travel
Back radius
Approach angle
Entrance angle
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ligon, Jennilyn
tc
tc will var with th e angle of the particuilar region according to to the relationship: tc = tb sin
Blank Blank
Mandrel
tb Reverse Process
Direct Process
Ligon, Jennilyn
a sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of jaws that stretch it and wrap it up around a single form block
Ligon, Jennilyn
d2
Ligon, Jennilyn
Ram
High-pressure Flexible-die Process (Hydroforming or Flexiforming) the rubber pad is replaced by a flexible rubber diaphram backed by controlled hydraulic pressures
Ligon, Jennilyn
(a) Die
Work
(b)
(c)
Ligon, Jennilyn
2. Embossing> presswork process in which raised lettering or other designs are impressed in sheet materials
Ligon, Jennilyn
Die
work
3. Supeplastic Sheet Foerming> makes possible the economical production of large, complex-shaped products with compound curves >major limitation is low forming rate that is required to maintain superplastic behavior
Ligon, Jennilyn
80 60 40 20 0 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
Minor strain (percent)
Major and minor strain=positive >deformation is stretching >sheet metal decrease in thickness Major strain=positive; minor strain=negative >deformation is drawing >thickness may increase, decrease or stay depending on the magnitudes of the 2 strain
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
A. Classification of Presses
Mechanical Drive
provides faster motion and more positive control of displacement
Hydraulic Presses
produce motion as a result of piston movement, and longer or variable-length strokrs can be programmed within the limitations of the cylinder
A. Classification of Presses
Mechanical Drive Hydraulic Presses Manually operated Presses
Kick presses
Crank>used for most piercing and blanking operations and for drawing Eccentric or cam drives> Used when only a short ram stroke is required Knuckle-joint drive> provides a very high mechanical advantage along with fast action Toggle mechanism> Used principally in drawing presses to actuate the blank holder
Screw-type drives> offer great mechanical advantage coupled witj action that resembles drop hammer
Screw presses> popular in forging industry
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
B. Types of Press Frame
> Imposes limitations on the size and type of work that can be accomodated, How that work is fed and unloaded, and the overall stiffness of the machine
Arch
seldom used today except with screw drives for coining operations
Gap
frames are in the shape of letter C Most verastile and commonly preffered presses Provide unobstructive access to the dies from 3 directions and permit large workpiece to be fed into the press
Straight Sided
have frames that consist of a crown, 2 uprights, a base or bed , and one or more moving slide
Ligon, Jennilyn
Presses
C. Press Feeding Device >increases productivity >operators safety is an advantage
When continuous strip is used it can be fed automatically by double-roll feeds mounted on the side of the press