#Pengenalan Struktur Atom

Struktur Atom
dan Ikatan Antaratom
1
Tujuan Instruksional
Umum :
“Memahami konsep dasar tentang struktur atom,
ikatan atom dan pengaruhnya terhadap sifat
material. ”
Khusus :
Mampu menjelaskan konsep dasar struktur atom,
jenis-jenis ikatan atom (ikatan ion, kovalen, ikatan
logam), dan pengaruhnya pada sifat material.
2
Hubungan antara: Struktur Atom, Pemrosesan
dan Performansi Material
Basic science : Structure  Properties  Performance

 Physic Experience and
 Chemistry Human Needs
 Mathematic
 Mechanics Processing
 Thermodynamic
Science Knowledge Empirical Knowledge
3
Sifat-sifat Material dipengaruhi oleh Struktur Atom
• Mengapa perlu belajar mengenai ikatan

antar atom?
 Karena sifat – sifat material (seperti
kekuatan, kekerasan, konduktivitas dll..)
sangat dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana
atom-atom itu tersusun dan terikat satu
dengan lain.
• Apakah yang menentukan ikatan antar
atom?
 struktur elektron dari kulit terluar
(orbitals) serta Jumlah elektron dan
tendensi suatu atom untuk menarik atau
melepas elektron.
4
Pendahuluan
• Atom terdiri dari elektron dan inti atom
• Inti atom disusun oleh proton dan neutron
• Elektron mengelilingi inti atom dalam orbitnya masing-
masing
• Massa elektron 9,109 x 10-28 g dan bermuatan –1,602 x 10-
19
C
• Massa proton 1,673 x 10-24 g dan bermuatan 1,602 x 10-19
C
• Massa neutron 1,675 x 10-24 g dan tidak bermuatan
• Massa atom terpusat pada inti atom
• Jumlah elektron dan proton sama, sedangkan neutron
neutral, maka atom menjadi neutral
Konfiguration elektron unsur
No. Element K L M N O P Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
s sp spd s p d f s p d f s p d f s
1 H 1
2 He 2
3 Li 2 1
4 Be 2 2
5 B 2 2 1
6 C 2 2 2
7 N 2 2 3
8 O 2 2 4
9 F 2 2 5
10 Ne 2 2 6
11 Na 2 2 6 1
12 Mg 2 2 6 2
13 Al 2 2 6 2 1
14 Si 2 2 6 2 2
15 P 2 2 6 2 3
16 S 2 2 6 2 4
17 Cl 2 2 6 2 5
18 Ar 2 2 6 2 6
19 K 2 2 6 2 6 - 1
20 Ca 2 2 6 2 6 - 2
21 Sc 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
22 Ti 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
23 V 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
24 Cr 2 2 6 2 6 5* 1
25 Mn 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
26 Fe 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
27 Co 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
28 Ni 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
29 Cu 2 2 6 2 6 10 1*
30 Zn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
31 Ga 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
32 Ge 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
33 As 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
34 Se 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
35 Br 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
36 Kr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
BOHR ATOM
orbital electrons:
n = principal
quantum number
n=3 2 1 Adapted from Fig. 2.1,
Callister 6e.
Nucleus: Z = # protons
= 1 for hydrogen to 94 for plutonium
N = # neutrons
Atomic mass A ≈ Z + N
7
ELECTRON ENERGY STATES
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
4p
n=4 3d
Increasing energy
4s
n=3 3p
3s
n=2 2p
2s
n=1 1s Adapted from Fig. 2.5,
Callister 6e.
8
STABLE ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Stable electron configurations...
• have complete s and p subshells
• tend to be unreactive.
Z Element Configuration
2 He 1s 2 Adapted from Table 2.2,
10 Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 Callister 6e.
18 Ar 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3 s 2 3p 6
36 Kr 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3 s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4p 6
4 9
THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Columns: Similar Valence Structure
give up 1e
inert gases
give up 2e
accept 2e
accept 1e
Metal
give up 3e
Nonmetal
H He
Li Be Intermediate Ne
O F
Na Mg S Cl Ar Adapted from
Fig. 2.6,
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr Callister 6e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra
Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
6 10
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
H He
2.1 -
Li Be F Ne
1.0 1.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity
7 11
IONIC BONDING
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron
Na (cation)
+ - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
8 12
EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 Cs Cl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd
edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell
University.
9 13
COVALENT BONDING
• Requires shared electrons
• Example: CH4 shared electrons
H
C: has 4 valence e, from carbon atom
CH 4
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms
Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 6e.
10 14
EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING
H2 O
column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
Si C - Cl 2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is GaAs
adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940,
3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
• Compound solids (about column IVA) 11
15
3. Ikatan Logam
• Ciri:
– Ikatan ini merupakan ikatan utama yang terjadi
antaratom logam
– Ikatan dihasilkan oleh “lautan elektron” (electron

sea) yang disumbangkan oleh masing - masing
atom (sebanyak 1, 2 atau 3 elektron).
– Elektron Valensi tersebut tidak terikat secara kuat

pada suatu atom tertentu, melainkan ‘bebas’
bergerak antar atom  hal ini yang mengakibatkan
logam merupakan konduktor listrik dan panas
yang baik.
16
3. Ikatan Logam (Lanjutan)
• Ciri:
– Ikatan logam ini dapat menghasilkan ikatan yang
lemah s/d kuat (68 kJ/mol s/d 850 kJ/mol).
– Ikatan logam ini menghasilkan logam dapat

bersifat ulet (ductile).
17
Model ‘electron sea’
18
CHAPTER 3: CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES & PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?
(for now, focus on metals)
• How does the density of a material depend on

its structure?
• When do material properties vary with the

sample (i.e., part) orientation?
1 19
ENERGY AND PACKING
• Non dense, random packing Energy
typical neighbor
bond length
typical neighbor r
bond energy
• Dense, regular packing Energy
typical neighbor
bond length
typical neighbor r
bond energy
Dense, regular-packed structures tend to have lower energy.
2 20
Struktur Kristal pada Logam
• Berdasarkan struktur kristalnya, maka material dapat dibagi

menjadi :
– material kristalin
– material non – kristalin (amorf)
• Material kristalin  adalah material yang tersusun atas atom-

atom yang membentuk susunan periodik dan berulang
(memiliki sel satuan), contohnya logam, beberapa jenis keramik
dan polimer termasuk dalam material ini.
• Material non kristalin  adalah material yang atom-atomnya

tersusun secara acak, tidak tersusun secara periodik dan
berulang (tidak memiliki sel satuan). contohnya : kayu, gelas,
dan sebagian besar polimer
21
Sel Satuan (Unit Cell)
• Sel Satuan adalah susunan geometris terkecil dari atom-
atom yang tersusun secara teratur dan berulang
(repetitive).
• Sel satuan merupakan unit terkecil (tersusun secara

sederhana) yang membangun material kristalin.
• Ada 7 sistem kristal yaitu: cubic (kubus), tetragonal,

rombohedral, ortorombik, monoklinik, triklinik, hexagonal.
• Saat ini kita akan mempelajari 3 buah sel satuan yang

paling umum yaitu: BCC, FCC dan HCP
22
MATERIALS AND PACKING
Crystalline materials...
• atoms packed in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(a),
Callister 6e.
Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.18(b),
Callister 6e.
3 23
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)
• Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.
• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

5 24
BODY CENTERED CUBIC
STRUCTURE (BCC)
• Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing. • Coordination #=8
Terdapat sebuah atom pada masing – masing sudut kubus dan

sebuah atom yang terletak di tengah – tengah kubus.
Contoh logam yang tersusun dalam sel satuan BCC adalah
Adapted from Fig. 3.2, Fe,
sebagian besar baja, Cr, W, Mo, Ta, dll Callister 6e.
Kuliah #2(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 7 25

FACE CENTERED CUBIC
STRUCTURE (FCC)
• Close packed directions are face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
Contoh logam Al, Cu, Ni, Au, Ag, Pt,

Adapted from Fig. 3.1(a),
Pb, beberapa jenis stainless steels Callister 6e.

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 9 26
FCC STACKING SEQUENCE
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
A
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites
A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED
STRUCTURE (HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence

• 3D Projection • 2D Projection
A sites Top layer
B sites Middle layer
A sites Bottom layer

Adapted from Fig. 3.3,
Callister 6e.
• APF = 0.74 Contohnya : Ti, Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, Zr

Bagaimana HCP terbentuk ? (1)
• Assuming that metal atoms can be treated as hard
spheres, like marbles with the same size, which is
reasonable in most cases, it is possible to make a “close-
packed plane” by shoving the marbles as close together as
possible.
It is not possible to
pack them any more
tightly together.
Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 29

• This clearly makes an hexagonal pattern.

• We fill space in 3D by adding another close-

packed plane on top of the first one. It sits in
the valleys between the green marbles.

Bagaimana HCP terbentuk ?(4)
• For the third plane, we have two choices:
On top of the
green atoms.
In the last
gap.

Bagaimana HCP terbentuk ?(5)
Akhirnya
terbentuk sel
satuan HCP.

THEORETICAL DENSITY, 
# atoms/unit cell Atomic weight (g/mol)
 nA
Volume/unit cell Vc N A Avogadro's number
(cm 3 /unit cell) (6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mol)
Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):
• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10 cm) -7
Vc = a 3 ; For FCC, a = 4R/ 2 ; Vc = 4.75 x 10 -23 cm 3
Result: theoretical Cu = 8.89 g/cm 3
Compare to actual: Cu = 8.94 g/cm 3
Characteristics of Selected Elements at 20C
At. Weight Density Crystal Atomic radius
Element Symbol (amu) (g/cm 3 ) Structure (nm)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2.71 FCC 0.143
Argon Ar 39.95 ------ ------ ------
Barium Ba 137.33 3.5 BCC 0.217
Beryllium Be 9.012 1.85 HCP 0.114
Boron B 10.81 2.34 Rhomb ------ Adapted from
Table, "Charac-
Bromine Br 79.90 ------ ------ ------ teristics of
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8.65 HCP 0.149 Selected
Elements",
Calcium Ca 40.08 1.55 FCC 0.197 inside front
Carbon C 12.011 2.25 Hex 0.071 cover,
Callister 6e.
Cesium Cs 132.91 1.87 BCC 0.265
Chlorine Cl 35.45 ------ ------ ------
Chromium Cr 52.00 7.19 BCC 0.125
Cobalt Co 58.93 8.9 HCP 0.125
Copper Cu 63.55 8.94 FCC 0.128
Flourine F 19.00 ------ ------ ------
Gallium Ga 69.72 5.90 Ortho. 0.122
Germanium Ge 72.59 5.32 Dia. cubic 0.122
Gold Au 196.97 19.32 FCC 0.144
Helium He 4.003 ------ ------ ------
Hydrogen H 1.008 ------ ------ ------ 15 35
DENSITIES OF MATERIAL
CLASSES Graphite/
metals ceramic s polymer s Metals/
Alloys
Ceramics/ Polymers
Composites/
fibers
Semicond
Why? 30
Based on data in Table B1, Callister
Platinum
Metals have... 20 Gold, W
Tantalum
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
• close-packing Epoxy composites (values based on
60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
(metallic bonding) 10 Silver, Mo
Cu,Ni
in an epoxy matrix).
• large atomic mass Steels
 (g/cm 3 )
Tin, Zinc
Zirconia
Ceramics have... 5
Titanium
4 Al oxide
• less dense packing Diamond
Si nitride
3
(covalent bonding) Aluminum Glass -soda
Concrete
Glass fibers
PTFE
• often lighter elements 2 Magnesium
Silicon
G raphite
GFRE*
Carbon fibers
Silicone CFRE *
Polymers have... PVC
PET
Aramid fibers
AFRE *
• poor packing 1 PC
HDPE, PS
PP, LDPE
(often amorphous)
• lighter elements (C,H,O) 0.5 Wood
Composites have... 0.4
0.3
• intermediate values Data from Table B1, Callister 6e.

CRYSTALS AS BUILDING
BLOCKS
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
--diamond single --turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 8.30(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.30(c) courtesy
(Courtesy Martin Deakins, of Pratt and Whitney).
GE Superabrasives,
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)
• Sifat kristal menunjukkan fitur struktur atom
--Ex: Certain crystal planes in quartz

fracture more easily than others.

POLYCRYSTALS
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
Adapted from Fig. K, color

inset pages of Callister 6e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of Paul
E. Danielson, Teledyne
Wah Chang Albany)
1 mm
• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld.

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If crystals are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Crystal sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
SINGLE VS POLYCRYSTALS
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
-Properties vary with Callister 6e.
(Source of data is R.W.
direction: anisotropic. Hertzberg, Deformation
and Fracture Mechanics of
-Example: the modulus Engineering Materials, 3rd
ed., John Wiley and Sons,
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron: 1989.)
E (edge) = 125 GPa

• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not 200 m Adapted from Fig. 4.12(b),
Callister 6e.
vary with direction. (Fig. 4.12(b) is courtesy of
L.C. Smith and C. Brady,
-If grains are randomly the National Bureau of
Standards, Washington,
oriented: isotropic. DC [now the National
Institute of Standards and
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa) Technology, Gaithersburg,
-If grains are textured, MD].)
anisotropic.

Struktur dari Material Kristalin
• Pada umumnya material crystalline dibentuk dari
kumpulan (clusters) jutaan kristal – kristal.
Individual crystals,
or “grains”.
Interfaces between
different crystals, or
“grain boundaries.”

SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPY
• Atoms can be arranged and imaged!
Photos produced from the
work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M.
Eigler. Reprinted with
permission from
International Business
Machines Corporation,
copyright 1995.
Carbon monoxide Iron atoms arranged on

molecules arranged on a a copper (111) surface.
platinum (111) surface. These Kanji characters
represent the word
“atom”.

DEMO: HEATING AND
COOLING OF AN IRON WIRE
The same atoms can have
• Demonstrates "polymorphism" more than one crystal
structure.
Temperature, C
Liquid
1536
BCC Stable
1391
longer
heat up
FCC Stable
shorter!
914 longer!
BCC Stable
cool down
Tc 768 magnet falls off
shorter

SUMMARY
• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or

amorphous structures.
• We can predict the density of a material,
provided we know the atomic weight, atomic
radius, and crystal geometry (e.g., FCC,
BCC, HCP).
• Material properties generally vary with single
crystal orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic),
but properties are generally non-directional
(i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals with
randomly oriented grains.

Latihan
• How many atoms are there in each BCC or FCC unit
cell?.

Latihan
• For the common
metallic crystals, we
can easily calculate
the lattice parameter
if we know the
atomic diameter.
– a?
– Volume sel satuan?
hint FCC:
a atoms touch along
face diagonal

Latihan
• For the common
metallic crystals, we
can easily calculate the
lattice parameter if we
know the atomic
diameter.
BCC: atoms touch along

cube diagonal. We’ll
a calculate “a” …. And
volume of unit cell…

Latihan
Calculate the lattice parameter of
Copper, whose atomic radius is
0.128 nm.
Hitung :
• Panjang rusuk (a)
• Panjang diagonal sisi + ruang
• Volume atom dlm sel satuan
• Volume sel satuan
• APF (rasion perbandingan antara
Volume atom / volume sel satuan
• Luas masing – masing bidang
• Kerapatan atom dlm bidang = atom
/ luas bidang
a hints: use math and your brain

instead of memorizing formulas.

Latihan
• Now that we know the lattice parameter of

copper, the number of atoms in the unit cell,
and we know from the periodic table that its
atomic weight is 63.5 g/mol, calculate: Its
density.

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Struktur Atom

dan Ikatan Antaratom

Basic science : Structure  Properties  Performance

Science Knowledge Empirical Knowledge

• Mengapa perlu belajar mengenai ikatan

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 6e.

• Molecules with nonmetals

– Ikatan dihasilkan oleh “lautan elektron” (electron

– Elektron Valensi tersebut tidak terikat secara kuat

– Ikatan logam ini menghasilkan logam dapat

• How does the density of a material depend on

• When do material properties vary with the

• Dense, regular packing Energy

Dense, regular-packed structures tend to have lower energy.

• Berdasarkan struktur kristalnya, maka material dapat dibagi

• Material kristalin  adalah material yang tersusun atas atom-

• Material non kristalin  adalah material yang atom-atomnya

• Sel satuan merupakan unit terkecil (tersusun secara

• Ada 7 sistem kristal yaitu: cubic (kubus), tetragonal,

• Saat ini kita akan mempelajari 3 buah sel satuan yang

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Terdapat sebuah atom pada masing – masing sudut kubus dan

Kuliah #2(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 7 25

Contoh logam Al, Cu, Ni, Au, Ag, Pt,

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 11 27

• ABAB... Stacking Sequence

A sites Top layer

B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 12 28

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 29

• This clearly makes an hexagonal pattern.

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 30

• We fill space in 3D by adding another close-

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 31

• For the third plane, we have two choices:

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 32

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 33

• large atomic mass Steels

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 16 36

• Sifat kristal menunjukkan fitur struktur atom

--Ex: Certain crystal planes in quartz

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 17 37

Adapted from Fig. K, color

• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld.

E (edge) = 125 GPa

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 19 39

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 40

Carbon monoxide Iron atoms arranged on

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 21 41

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 22 42

• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 23 43

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 44

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 45

BCC: atoms touch along

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 46

a hints: use math and your brain

Kuliah #2 ITI - 124 Pengetahuan Bahan 47