1. Pengertian
Frambusia merupakan penyakit infeksi kulit yang disebabkan olehTreponema pallidum sub
spesies pertenue (merupakan saudara dari Treponema penyebab penyakit sifilis),
penyebarannya tidak melalui hubungan seksual, yang dapat mudah tersebar melalui kontak
langsung antara kulit penderita dengan kulit sehat. Penyakit ini tumbuh subur terutama
didaerah beriklim tropis dengan karakteristik cuaca panas, banyak hujan, yang
dikombinasikan dengan banyaknya jumlah penduduk miskin, sanitasi lingkungan yang buruk,
kurangnya fasilitas air bersih, lingkungan yang padat penduduk dan kurangnya fasilitas
kesehatan umum yang memadai.
2. Insiden dan Epidemologi
Didunia, pada awal tahun 1950-an diperkirakan banyak kasus frambusia terjadi di Afrika,
Asia, Amerika Selatan dan Tengah serta Kepulauan Pasifik, sebanyak 25 150 juta penderita.
Setelah WHO memprakarsai kampanye pemberantasan frambusia dalam kurun waktu tahun
1954 1963, para peneliti menemukan terjadinya penurunan yang drastic dari jumlah
penderita penyakit ini. Namun kemudian kasus frambusia kembali muncul akibat kurangnya
fasilitas kesehatan public serta pengobatan yang tidak adekuat. Dewasa ini, diperkirakan
sebanyak 100 juta anak-anak beresiko terkena frambusia.
Masih adalah frambusia di Indonesia? Jawabannya masih ada, tersebar di daerah kantongkantong kemiskinan. Pada tahun 1990, 21 provinsi dari 31 provinsi di Indonesia melaporkan
adanya penderita frambusia. Ini tidak berarti bahwa provinsi yang tidak melaporkan adanya
frambusia di wilayah mereka tidak ada frambusia, hal ini sangat tergantung pada kualitas
kegiatan surveilans frambusia di provinsi tersebut.
Pada tahun 1997 hanya enam provinsi yang melaporkan adanya frambusia dan pada saat
krisis di tahun 1998 dan 1999 tidak ada laporan sama sekali dari semua provinsi. Tahun 2000
sampai dengan tahun 2004, 8-11 provinsi setiap tahun melaporkan adanya frambusia.
Pemerintah pada Pelita III (pertengahan pemerintahan Orde Baru) menetapkan bahwa
frambusia sudah harus dapat dieliminasi dengan sistem TCPS (Treponematosis Control
Project Simplified) dan Crash Program Pemberantasan Penyakit Frambusia (CP3F).
Namun, kenyataannya sampai saat ini frambusia masih ditemukan. Hal ini bisa disebabkan
oleh karena metode, organisasi, manajemen pemberantasan yang kurang tepat dan
pembiayaan yang kurang atau daerah tersebut selama ini tidak tersentuh oleh pemerataan
pembangunan. Paling tepat kalau dikatakan bahwa masih adanya frambusia di suatu wilayah
sebagai resultan dari upaya pemberantasan yang kurang memadai dan tidak tersentuhnya
daerah tersebut dengan pembangunan sarana dan prasarana wilayah.
3. Etiologi
Frambusia, yang disebabkan oleh Treponema pertenue, adalah penyakit menular bukan
seksual pada manusia yang pada umumnya menyerang anak anak berusia di bawah 15
tahun. Penyakit ini terutama menyerang kulit dan tulang serta banyak didapati pada
masyarakat miskin, pedesaan dan marjinal di beberapa bagian Afrika, Asia dan Amerika
Selatan, dimana kepadatan penduduk, kekurangan persediaan air, dan keadaan sanitasi serta
kebersihan yang buruk terdapat di mana mana.
Jadi, penyakit ini merupakan penyakit yang berkaitan dengan kemiskinan dan hampir bisa
dikatakan hanya menyerang mereka yang berasal dari kaum termiskin serta masyarakat
kesukuan yang terdapat di daerah daerah terpencil yang sulit dijangkau. Bisa dikatakan
bahwa penyakit frambusia bermula dimana jalan berakhir.
4. Manifestasi Klinis
Penyakit frambusia ditandai dengan munculnya lesi primer pada kulit berupa kutil (papiloma)
pada muka dan anggota gerak, terutama kaki, lesi ini tidak sakit dan bertahan sampai
berminggu-minggu bahkan berbulan-bulan. Lesi kemudian menyebar membentuk lesi yang
khas berbentuk buah frambus (raspberry) dan terjadi ulkus (luka terbuka). Stadium lanjut
dari penyakit ini berakhir dengan kerusakan kulit dan tulang di daerah yang terkena dan dapat
menimbulkan kecacatan 10-20 persen dari penderita yang tidak diobati akan cacat.
Penyakit ini bisa bersifat kronik apabila tidak diobati, dan akan menyerang dan merusak
kulit, otot serta persendian sehingga menjadi cacat seumur hidup. Pada 10% kasus frambusia,
tanda-tanda stadium lanjut ditandai dengan lesi yang merusak susunan kulit yang juga
mengenai otot dan persendian.
5. Patofisiologi
Pada awalnya, koreng yang penuh dengan organisme penyebab ditularkan melalui kontak
dari kulit ke kulit, atau melalui luka di kulit yang didapat melalui benturan, gigitan, maupun
pengelupasan. Pada mayoritas pasien, penyakit frambusia terbatas hanya pada kulit saja,
namun dapat juga mempengaruhi tulang bagian atas dan sendi. Walaupun hamper seluruh lesi
frambusia hilang dengan sendirinya, infeksi bakteri sekunder dan bekas luka merupakan
komplikasi yang umum. Setelah 5 10 tahun, 10 % dari pasien yang tidak menerima
pengobatan akan mengalami lesi yang merusak yang mampu mempengaruhi tulang, tulang
rawan, kulit, serta jaringan halus, yang akan mengakibatkan disabilitas yang melumpuhkan
serta stigma social.
6. . Cara Penularan Frambusia
Penularan penyakit frambusia dapat terjadi secara langsung maupun tidak langsung
(Depkes,2005), yaitu :
1) Penularan secara langsung (direct contact) .
Penularan penyakit frambusia banyak terjadi secara langsung dari penderita ke orang lain.
Hal ini dapat terjadi jika jejas dengan gejala menular (mengandung Treponema pertenue)
yang terdapat pada kulit seorang penderita bersentuhan dengan kulit orang lain yang ada
lukanya. Penularan mungkin juga terjadi dalam persentuhan antara jejas dengan gejala
menular dengan selaput lendir.
2) Penularan secara tidak langsung (indirect contact) .
Penularan secara tidak langsung mungkin dapat terjadi dengan perantaraan benda atau
serangga, tetapi hal ini sangat jarang. Dalam persentuhan antara jejas dengan gejala menular
dengan kulit (selaput lendir) yang luka, Treponema pertenue yang terdapat pada jejas itu
masuk ke dalam kulit melalui luka tersebut.
Terjadinya infeksi yang diakibatkan oleh masuknya Treponema partenue dapat
mengalami
2
kemungkinan:
a) Infeksi effective
Infeksi ini terjadi jika Treponema pertenue yang masuk ke dalam kulit berkembang biak,
menyebar di dalam tubuh dan menimbulkan gejala-gejala penyakit. Infeksi effective dapat
terjadi jika Treponema pertenue yang masuk ke dalam kulit cukup virulen dan cukup
banyaknya dan orang yang mendapat infeksi tidak kebal terhadap penyakit frambusia.
b) Infeksi ineffective
Infeksi ini terjadi jika Treponema pertenue yang masuk ke dalam kulit tidak dapat
berkembang biak dan kemudian mati tanpa dapat menimbulkan gejala-gejala penyakit.
Infeksi effective dapat terjadi jika Treponema pertenue yang masuk ke dalam kulit tidak
cukup virulen dan tidak cukup banyaknya dan orang yang mendapat infeksi mempunyai
kekebalan
terhadap
penyakit
frambusia
(Depkes,
2005).
Penularan penyakit frambusia pada umumnya terjadi secara langsung sedangkan penularan
secara tidak langsung sangat jarang terjadi (FKUI, 1988).
7. Stadium Frambusia
Frambusia umumnya menyerang anak-anak berusia dibawah 15 tahun. Rata-rata terjadi
antara usia 6 10 tahun. Jenis kelamin tertentu tidak terkait dengan penyakit ini.
Terdapat 3 stadium frambusia yang dikenal, yakni :
1.
Stadium Primer.
Setelah masa inkubasi antara 9-90 hari (rata-rata 3 minggu), lesi primer atau induk frambusia
berkembang pada sisi yang terkena penularan berupa gigitan, goresan dan gesekan dengan
kulit yang terkena frambusia. Umumnya terjadi di daerah anggota gerak (lengan dan kaki).
Lesi berwarna kemerahan, tidak nyeri dan kadang-kadang gatal-gatal berbentol/kutil (papul).
Papul-papul tersebut akan meluas dengan diameter 1-5 cm untuk kemudian menjadi ulkus
(luka terbuka) dengan dasar berwarna kemerahan seperti buah berry. Lesi-lesi satelit bisa
bersatu membentuk plak. Karena jumlah treponema yang banyak, maka lesi tersebut sangat
menular. Pembesaran kelenjar limfa, demam serta rasa nyeri merupakan tanda dari stadium
ini. Induk frambusia akan pecah dalam 2-9 bulan yang meninggalkan bekas dengan bagian
tengah yang bersifat hipopigmentasi.
1.
Stadium Sekunder.
Sekitar 6-16 minggu setelah stadium primer. Lesi kulit atau lesi anakan yang menyerupai lesi
induk tapi berukuran lebih kecil yang biasanya ditemukan dipermukaan tubuh dan sebagian
di rongga mulut atau hidung. Lesi anakan ini akan meluas, membentuk ulkus dan
menghasilkan cairan-cairan fibrin yang berisi treponema, yang kemudia mengering menjadi
krusta. Cairan tersebut menarik lalat-lalat untuk hinggap dan kemudian menyebarkannya ke
orang lain. Kadang-kadang bentuk serupa infeksi jamur dapat terlihat. Kondisi ini
diakibatkan proses penyembuhan inti dari papiloma atau gabungan dari lesi yang membentuk
bundaran. Lesi di aksila atau di lipat paha menyerupai condylomatalata. Papil-papil di telapak
kaki berberntuk tipis, hiperkeratosis yang akan menjadi erosi. Rasa nyeri menandai stadium
ini.
1.
Stadium Tersier.
Pada stadium ini, sekitar 10% kasus setelah 5-15 tahun akan kembali kambuh, yang ditandai
dengan lesi kulit yang destruktif, lesi pada tulang dengan kemungkinan terkenanya jaringan
saraf dan penglihatan penderita. Bertambahnya ukuran, tidak nyeri, perkembangan nodulnodul dibawah kulit dengan penampakan nanah nekrosis dan ulkus. Ulkus tersebut terinfeksi
karena rusaknya struktur kulit dibawahnya. Bentuk hiperkeratosis dan keratoderma pada
telapak tangan dan kaki sangat jelas terlihat. Stadium ini dapat menyerang tulang dan
persendian. Infeksi tulang (osteitis) yang terutama menyerang tulang kaki dan tangan. Infeksi
ini apabila tidak terkendali akan menyebabkan hancurnya struktur tulang, dan berakhir
dengan kecacatan dan kelumpuhan.
8.
Pemeriksaan
Diagnostik
Menurut Noordhoek, et al, (1990) diagnosa dapat ditegakkan dengan pemeriksaan mikroskop
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1053612-medication#showall
Background
Yaws is the most prevalent infectious, nonvenereal treponemal disease and is caused by Treponema pallidumpertenue. Yaws, endemic
syphilis (bejel), and pintacollectively constitute the endemic treponematoses. Yaws is transmitted by direct skin contact and primarily
affects children younger than 15 years, with a peak incidence in those aged 6-10 years. Similar to syphilis, yaws can persist for years as
a chronic, relapsing disease.[1, 2, 3]
Yaws continues to be endemic along the tropical belt in areas characterized by hot temperatures, high humidity, and heavy rainfall.
These conditions, coupled with the persistence of poverty, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and lack of public health surveillance, allow for
yaws perpetuation.[4]
Between the years 1952 and 1964, the World Health (WHO) and UNICEF (United Nations Childrens Fund) undertook a major
worldwide campaign to eliminate the endemic treponematoses by treating 300 million people in 46 countries with benzathine
benzylpenicillin. They achieved a 95% success rate; however, there was a reemergence of yaws in the 1970s. In 1995, the WHO
estimated that there were 460,000 infectious cases of yaws throughout the world, with 400,000 in western and central Africa, 50,000 in
Southeast Asia, and the remainder in other tropical areas. [3, 5, 6, 7, 8]
A new yaws eradication program was proposed in 2012 by the WHO following a study that showed that oral azithromycin can
successfully treat yaws in rural, tropical areas. Compared to benzathine benzylpenicillin, oral azithromycin is a simpler regimen that
does not require trained medical personnel for administration. [9] In India, yaws was successfully eradicated through a programm based
on providing information to the population at risk, screening, and treatment. The WHO has concluded that this new eradication
campaign can completely eliminate yaws worldwide by 2020. [7]
Primary stage, in which the initial yaws lesion develops at the inoculation site
2.
Secondary stage, in which widespread dissemination of treponemes results in multiple skin lesions that are similar to the
primary yaws lesion
3.
Latent stage, in which symptoms are usually absent but skin lesions can relapse
4.
Tertiary stage, in which bone, joint, and soft tissue deformities may occur
Cutaneous lesions characterize the primary and secondary stages of yaws. The tertiary stage of yaws may involve the skin, bones, and
joints.
Another classification distinguishes early yaws from late yaws. Early yaws includes the primary and secondary stages and is
characterized by the presence of contagious skin lesions. Late yaws includes the tertiary stage, when lesions are not contagious.
Epidemiology
Yaws does not occur in the United States. However, according to the last estimate by the World Health Organization (WHO), in 1995,
the prevalence of endemic treponematoses, mostly yaws, was 2.5 million, with 460,000 cases being infectious. In 2006, India declared
that yaws had been eliminated in that country. According to the WHO, in 2010, yaws continues to be common in areas with the poorest
population; the endemic nations included Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Benin,
Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Cote dIvoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Togo. [3, 5, 6, 7, 8]
The population at risk of contracting yaws worldwide is estimated to be 34 million, evenly distributed between men and women (17
million each). Children serve as the primary reservoir for yaws, as the condition is transmitted from person to person via direct contact.
By age group, the population considered to be at risk includes 23 million who are 14 years of age or younger and 11 million who are
between the ages of 16 and 24 years. Approximately 75% of those affected by yaws are children younger than 15 years, with the peak
incidence occurring between the ages of 6 and 10 years. [3, 5, 6, 7, 8]
Prognosis
Unless treated, yaws can become a chronic, relapsing disease after 5-15 years, with skin, bone, and joint involvement. In most patients,
yaws remains limited to the skin, but early bone and joint involvement can occur. Although yaws lesions disappear spontaneously,
secondary bacterial infections and scarring are common complications.
In 10% of yaws cases, patients enter a late stage (tertiary stage) characterized by destructive cutaneous lesions and severely
deforming bone and joint lesions. Tissue damage occurring in late yaws is irreversible. Neurologic and ophthalmologic involvement may
also occur. Relapses may occur at intervals of up to 5 years after infection.
Initial papilloma, also called mother yaw or primary frambesioma (from Perine PL,
Hopkins DR, Niemel PLA, et al. Handbook of Endemic Treponematoses: Yaws, Endemic Syphilis, and Pinta. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health
Organization; 1984.).
Plantar papillomata with hyperkeratotic macular plantar early yaws (ie, crab yaws)
(from Perine PL, Hopkins DR, Niemel PLA, et al. Handbook of Endemic Treponematoses: Yaws, Endemic Syphilis, and Pinta.Geneva, Switzerland: World
Health Organization; 1984.).
Osteoperiostitis of the tibia and fibula in early yaws (from Perine PL, Hopkins DR,
Niemel PLA, et al. Handbook of Endemic Treponematoses: Yaws, Endemic Syphilis, and Pinta. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1984.).
Early ulceropapillomatous yaws on the leg (from Perine PL, Hopkins DR, Niemel
PLA, et al. Handbook of Endemic Treponematoses: Yaws, Endemic Syphilis, and Pinta. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1984.).
Primary stage
Early yaws lesions include the following:
Papilloma
Serpiginous papilloma
Ulceropapillomata
Squamous macules
Maculopapules
Nodules
Plaques
Hyperkeratosis of palms and soles
Bone and joint lesions
Generalized lymphadenopathy (may occur)
The initial yaws lesion is a papule that enlarges to become a papilloma or frambesioma. The yaws papilloma resolves spontaneously
after 3-6 months. Bone and joint involvement may occur in early disease and may cause pain and swelling. Lymphadenopathy, fever,
and joint pain may accompany this stage.
After an incubation period of 9-90 days (with an average of 3 weeks), the primary lesion, or the mother yaw, develops at the site of
inoculation after a scratch, bite, or abrasion of exposed skin, most commonly on the legs, feet, or buttocks. The primary lesion is a
reddish, nontender, and, occasionally, pruritic papulonodule.
The mother yaw ulcer develops a honey-brown crust and enlarges horizontally to 1-5 cm in diameter, sometimes coalescing with
satellite lesions. The crust frequently sloughs and reveals a raspberrylike base. On rare occasions, a primary lesion is not seen.
Because the exudate of the raspberrylike ulcer is teeming with treponemes, these lesions are considered highly infectious. After the
mother yaw heals, an atrophic scar with central hypopigmentation and peripheral hyperpigmentation remains.
Secondary stage
Following a period of latency (about 6-16 weeks after the primary stage), disseminated skin lesions, bone lesions, and constitutional
symptoms occur. The cutaneous lesions, or the daughter yaws, resemble the mother yaw but are smaller (up to 2 cm in diameter) and
are frequently located adjacent to body orifices, particularly the mouth and the nose. The daughter yaws expand, ulcerate, and exude a
fibrinous fluid teeming with treponemes, which dries into a crust. The exudate attracts flies, which are bothersome to the person who is
affected.
Secondary yaws lesions may occur near primary lesions or elsewhere on the body and may last for weeks to more than 6 months.
Macules, papules, nodules, and hyperkeratotic lesions may appear. Climate influences the morphology and the number of lesions. In
the dry season, lesions are fewer and macular in appearance. Secondary lesions heal spontaneously and are generally nonscarring
and reversible.
Occasionally, central resolution yields circinate or annular scaly lesions resembling fungal infections. These lesions are referred to as
tinea yaws. Papulosquamous patches and plaques that resemble syphilis may be noted on any part of the body. Lesions in the axillae
or the groin resemble condylomata lata; lesions on the mucous membranes resemble hypertrophic mucous patches.
Papillomas on the plantar surfaces can form thick, hyperkeratotic plaques that may become fissured or eroded. Lesions are painful and
cause a deliberate crablike gait (crab yaws).
Skeletal involvement includes painful osteoperiostitis and fusiform soft tissue swelling of the metatarsals and the metacarpals. Some of
the early bone changes can be seen on radiographs. Periosteal thickening can often be palpable. [13]
Piannic onychia is a paronychia caused by papillomas in the nail fold.
Patients may develop relapses at intervals up to 5 years after infection. Relapsing lesions tend to occur in the perioral, perianal, and
periaxillary areas. The disease then enters a noninfectious latent period, and patients do not exhibit any signs or symptoms. Most
patients remain in a noninfectious latent stage for their lifetime.
Tertiary stage
In about 10% of cases, after 5-15 years of latency, a late stage develops, characterized by destructive skin lesions, bone lesions, and,
possibly, neurologic and ophthalmologic involvement. Progressively enlarging, painless, subcutaneous nodules develop, which undergo
abscess formation, necrosis, and ulceration. Lesions have well-defined edges and an indurated base with granulation tissue and
yellowish slough.
Ulcers may become infected, causing destruction of underlying structures. They may also coalesce, forming serpiginous tracts that heal
with keloid formation, which leads to crippling deformities and contractures.
Late skeletal lesions consist of hypertrophic periostitis, gummatous periostitis, osteitis, and osteomyelitis. Chronic osteitis of the tibia
can lead to saber shins. In about 1% of patients, there is occurrence of bilateral hypertrophic osteitis of the external aspects of the nasal
processes of the maxillae with persistent swelling. This condition is referred to as goundou, which slowly progresses over 5-20 years
and eventually may lead to massive destruction and perforation of the nose and the palate (gangosa).
Neurologic and ophthalmologic involvement is debated in the literature. Some reports suggest that disc atrophy, optic atrophy, and
myeloneuropathies may occur.
Attenuated yaws
Some reports have described an attenuated, less contagious form of yaws in areas of low disease prevalence. A solitary patch or a few
dry, flat, gray patches confined to the skin folds have been noted to characterize attenuated yaws. [14, 15]
Diagnostic Considerations
The differential diagnosis of skin lesions includes the following:
Idiopathic keratoderma
Calluses
Arthropod bites
Vitamin deficiencies
The differential diagnosis of nasopharyngeal lesions includes the following:
Rhinosporidiosis
Rhinoscleroma
Tuberculosis
South American blastomycosis
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Noma
The differential diagnosis of bone lesions includes the following:
Tuberculosis
Osteomyelitis
Sickle cell anemia
Other problems to be considered include tinea versicolor, lichen planus, and tropical ulcer.
Differential Diagnoses
Blastomycosis
Impetigo
Leishmaniasis
Molluscum Contagiosum
Nongenital Warts
Pediatric Syphilis
Plaque Psoriasis
Rhinoscleroma
Scabies
Tuberculosis
Tungiasis
Approach Considerations
The diagnosis of yaws is made by clinical evaluation of lesions and is confirmed by the detection of treponemes on dark-field
microscopy of serum obtained by squeezing the bases of the lesions.
Radiologic studies are nonspecific but can include any of the following findings:
Serologic Tests
Serologic tests for yaws are identical to those for venereal syphilis, including rapid plasma reagent (RPR) test, Venereal Disease
Research Laboratory (VDRL) test, fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-ABS) test, T pallidumimmobilization (TPI) test,
and T pallidum hemagglutination assay (TPHA). RPR and VDRL tests are reactive 2-3 weeks after the onset of the primary lesion, and
they generally remain reactive throughout all stages.
No serologic test can distinguish yaws from other nonvenereal treponematoses; therefore, diagnosis is ultimately based on correlation
of the clinical findings, epidemiologic history, and positive serologic results that are suggestive of yaws. Biopsy of late lesions may be
needed to show characteristic histopathology.[16]
Histologic Findings
Histologic findings in early yaws include acanthosis, papillomatosis, and spongiosis. Treponemes are found in the epidermidis.
Neutrophilic exocytosis with intraepidermal microabscess formation is the most characteristic finding. The dermis has a moderate to
dense granulomatous infiltrate that is mainly composed of plasma cells and lymphocytes, with few histiocytes, neutrophils, and
eosinophils. Unlike syphilis, endothelial proliferation is absent or low.
Late yaws has histologic findings similar to those of tertiary syphilis, including an intense dermal infiltrate composed of epithelioid cells,
giant cells, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts. Caseation necrosis can also be observed. Plasma cells and histiocytes, in contrast to early
yaws, are scarce.
Silver stains (Steiner) can be used to identify numerous treponemes between keratinocytes in early yaws. They are seen in a bandlike
pattern or in clusters in the epidermis. Unlike T pallidum, which is found in both the epidermis and the dermis,T pallidumpertenue is
almost entirely epidermotropic.
Electron microscopy of early lesions demonstrates scarce treponemes in clusters in the intercellular spaces of the epidermis among
inflammatory cells, within the cytoplasm of macrophages, and in the dermis.
Approach Considerations
Penicillin is the drug of choice for yaws. After a single penicillin injection, early lesions become noninfectious after 24 hours and heal
within 1-2 weeks. Tetracycline, erythromycin, or doxycycline should be considered for patients allergic to penicillin. [17]
In one study in children in Papua New Guinea, oral azithromycin was found to be a reasonable alternative for treating yaws; in addition,
it is a simpler regimen that does not require trained medical personnel for administration. In this study, children aged 6 months to 15
years who were diagnosed with yaws were randomly assigned to receive either one 30 mg/kg oral dose of azithromycin or an
intramuscular (IM) injection of 50,000 units/kg of benzathine benzylpenicillin. After 6 months of follow-up, 96% of patients in the
azithromycin group were cured, compared with 93% in the benzathine benzylpenicillin group. [9]
A new yaws eradication program was proposed in 2012 as the result of the azithromycin study conducted in Papua New Guinea. [9] The
World Health Organization (WHO) has concluded that this new eradication campaign can completely eliminate yaws worldwide by 2020.
[7]
If greater than 50% of children are seropositive (hyperendemic), treat the entire population
If 10-50% of children are seropositive (mesoendemic), treat active cases, contacts, and all children aged 15 years or younger
If less than 10 of children are seropositive (hypoendemic), treat active cases, household members, and other obvious
contacts
Medication Summary
Penicillin remains the drug of choice for yaws. No resistant strains of T pallidumhave been reported. Benzathine benzylpenicillin is the
drug of choice for treating yaws. In remote areas where benzathine benzylpenicillin is unavailable, oral penicillin V for 7-10 days can
reduce the prevalence of yaws and is effective in treating individual children with active lesions. [18]
Antibiotics
Class Summary
Empirical antimicrobial therapy must be comprehensive and should cover all likely pathogens in the context of the clinical setting.
[19]
Benzathine benzylpenicillin should be avoided in patients who are allergic to penicillin; tetracycline, azithromycin, or erythromycin are
alternative therapies.
View full drug information
Penicillin G benzathine interferes with synthesis of cell wall mucopeptides during active multiplication, which results in bactericidal
activity. It is given as a single injection, which kills the treponemes within minutes, and lesions become noninfectious after 18-24 hours.
View full drug information
Tetracycline
Tetracycline treats gram-positive and gram-negative organisms, as well as mycoplasmal, chlamydial, and rickettsial infections. It inhibits
bacterial protein synthesis by binding with 30S and, possibly, 50S ribosomal subunits. Tetracycline may be used in adults and in children
who are older than 8 years and are allergic to penicillin.
View full drug information
pernapasan) yang kira-kira dua kali lebih mungkin untuk memiliki tahan
strain T pallidum pallidum, dibandingkan dengan pasien
yang tidak mengambil macrolides.121 Untuk Mycoplasma
genitalium, yang memiliki mutasi resistansi sama dengan
T pallidum, Ito dan colleagues122 diuji sampel sebelum
dan setelah pengobatan dan menunjukkan bahwa azitromisin dosis rendah
dapat menginduksi perkembangan resistensi.
Macrolide tahan T pallidum pallidum belum
ditemukan di Uganda, 123 Tanzania, 124 atau Madagascar125negara di mana makrolida tidak banyak used.119
resistensi makrolida di T pallidum dikaitkan dengan
perubahan situs target karena titik mutasi di
posisi Ala2058126 atau Ala2059127 dari ribosom 23S
gene.128 RNA Meskipun mutasi ini belum pernah
ditemukan di T pallidum pertenue, 126 surveilans untuk pengobatan
kegagalan dan penanda biologis perlawanan akan
penting jika azitromisin secara luas digunakan untuk pemberantasan
dari frambusia. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini perlu upaya bersama
beberapa bidang: penyalahgunaan atau pengalihan makrolida untuk
tujuan lain harus dilacak dan dosis yang benar
harus diberikan kepada setiap individu yang memenuhi syarat selama
kampanye pemberantasan; pasien harus dimonitor untuk
kegagalan pengobatan dan beralih ke Benzathine benzilpenisilin
dalam kasus seperti; analisis molekuler harus
dilakukan di laboratorium rujukan yang ditunjuk untuk mendeteksi
mutasi pada spesimen klinis dari pasien yang melakukan
tidak menanggapi treatment.120
Prognosis dan tindak lanjut
lesi frambusia menjadi non-menular dalam waktu 24 jam
pengobatan; nyeri sendi biasanya hilang dalam 24-48 jam, dan
penyembuhan lengkap dari lesi primer dan sekunder
biasanya terjadi dalam waktu 2-4 minggu setelah treatment.113,129
Walaupun pengobatan pada tahap awal menghasilkan penyembuhan di
hampir 100% dari pasien, tidak akan mundur destruktif
perubahan dalam tahap tersier akhir. Lesi stadium awal
yang belum sembuh dalam 4 minggu harus dianggap sebagai
kegagalan pengobatan. Dalam kasus tersebut, tes serologi untuk
mengkonfirmasi diagnosis frambusia penting. Jika hasilnya