Standar Dan Perjanjian Tanda Untuk Garis

Garis dalam gambar teknik bukan sekedar menunjukkan geometri dari obyek, tetapi
juga menunjukkan dimensi, posisi potongan dan penjelasan lain dari obyek. Sehingga
dalam gambar teknik perlu diperhatikan penggunaan jenis garis yang sesuai.
Ketebalan Garis
Secara umum dalam gambar teknik diperlukan dua jenis ketebalan, yaitu garis tebal
dan garis tipis. Tebal garis tipis, umumnya adalah setengah garis tebal.
Garis sangat tebal untuk menunjukkan besi-besi tulangan
(reinforcing bars),
Garis tebal yang menerus digunakan untuk sisi-sisi yang
terlihat dan garis-garis luar dari obyek.
Garis tipis digunakan untuk arsiran, dimensi, proyeksi dan
penjelasan lain dari obyek.
Jenis Garis
Batas luar dari obyek.
Perubahan bentuk geometri yang terlihat.
Batas material yang berbeda.
Arsiran.
Garis tengah yang sangat pendek.
Garis diagonal yang menunjukkan adanya void atau
lubang.
Kontur
Digunakan untuk menunjukkan garis yang melewati
pusat obyek (center lines).
Garis simetri
Untuk menunjukkan detail-detail penting yang tersembunyi
Batas partial obyek.
Dimensi
Dimensi harus menggunakan garis tipis yang menerus (continuous thin lines).
Dua garis proyeksi menunjukkan posisi awal dan akhir dari dimensi. Dua garis
proyeksi ini tidak boleh menyentuh obyek dan digambar tegaklurus dengan
elemen dari obyek yang diukur.
Secara umum, unit dari dimensi dapat tidak ditulis apabila penjelasan tentang
unit dinyatakan secara eksplisit di dalam gambar dan dipergunakan secara
konsisten.
Semua dimensi yang lebih kecil dari satu (1) harus dituliskan angka nol sebelum
koma, seperti . .35 harus ditulis 0.35.
Teknik Penulisan Dimensi
Parallel dimensioning
Pada teknik ini
pengukuran dilakukan
terhadap satu garis
referensi
Superimposed
Running Dimensions
Teknik ini
menyederhanakan teknik
parallel dimensions untuk
mengurangi ruang
penulisan.
Chain Dimensioning
Teknik ini digunakan
apabila efek dari
akumulasi toleransi tidak
berpengaruh banyak pada
fungsi dari obyek.
Combined
Dimensions
Mengkombinasikan chain
dan parallel
dimensioning.
0 10 30 45 53 63 70
Dimensioning by Co-
ordinates
Teknik ini menggunakan
teknik Superimposed
Running Dimensions
dalam dua arah. Umunya
untuk menunjukkan posisi
lubang atau baut.
Simplified
dimensioning by co-
ordinates
Teknik ini
menyederhanakan metoda
koordinat dengan
menggunakan simbol-
simbol dan penjelasan
menggunakan tabel.
Pendimensian untuk Obyek Yang Kecil
Pendimensian pada area yang sempit dapat dilakukan dengan beberapa teknik seperti
terlihat dalam gambar di bawah ini.
Pendimensian untuk Lingkaran
All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several
conventions used for dimensioning circles:
(a) shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the
circle between two lines projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second
method dimensions the circle internally.
(b) is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was
placed inside the circle. A leader line is used to display the dimension.
(c) the final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow
which points directly towards the centre of the circle.
Pendimensian untuk Lubang
When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they
necessary for the function of the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added
unless it is considered necessary. The depth of the hole is usually indicated if it is isn't
indicated on another view. The depth of the hole refers to the depth of the cylindrical
portion of the hole and not the bit of the hole caused by the tip of the drip.
Dimensioning Radial
All radial dimensions are proceeded by the capital R. All dimension arrows and lines
should be drawn perpendicular to the radius so that the line passes through the centre
of the arc. All dimensions should only have one arrowhead which should point to the
line being dimensioned. There are two methods for dimensioning radii.
(a) shows a radius dimensioned with the centre of the radius located on the drawing.
(b) shows how to dimension radii which do not need their centers locating.
Tolerancing
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on
an engineering drawing. The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process
used and the care taken to manufacture a product. A tolerance value shows the
manufacturing department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension.
Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either
as:
a general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note
specifying that the General Tolerance +/- 0.5 mm.
or a tolerance specific to that dimension
The method of expressing a tolerance on a dimension as recommended by the British
standards is shown below:
Note the larger size limit is placed above the lower limit.
All tolerances should be expressed to the appropriate number to the decimal points for
the degree of accuracy intended from manufacturing, even if the value is limit is a
zero. For example. 44.80 should not be expressed as 44.8
Lettering
All notes and dimensions should be clear and easy to read. In general all notes should
be written in capital letters to aid legibility. All lettering should be of the same size
and preferably no smaller than 3mm. An example typeface is shown below.
The layout of an engineering drawing
It is important that you follow some simple rules when producing an engineering
drawing which although may not be useful now, will be useful when working in
industry.
All engineering drawings should feature an information box. An example is shown
below.
Common information recorded on an engineering drawing
TITLE
The title of the drawing.
NAME
The name of the person who produced the drawing. This is important for
quality control so that problems with the drawing can be traced back to their
origin.
CHECKED
In many engineering firms, drawings are checked by a second person before
they are sent to manufacture, so that any potential problems can be identified
early.
VERSION
Many drawings will get amended over the period of the parts life. Giving each
drawing a version number helps people identify if they are using the most
recent version of the drawing.
DATE
The date the drawing was created or amended on.
SCALE
The scale of the drawing. Large parts won't fit on paper so the scale provides a
quick guide to the final size of the product.
PROJECTION SYSTEM
The projection system used to create the drawing should be identified to help
people read the drawing. (Projection systems will be covered later).
COMPANY NAME
Many CAD drawings may be distributed outside the company so the company
name is usually added to identify the source.
Hatching
On sections and sectional views solid area should be hatched to indicate this fact.
Hatching is drawn with a thin continuous line, equally spaced (preferably about 4mm
apart, though never less than 1mm) and preferably at an angle of 45 degrees.
Hatching a single object
When you are hatching an object, but the objects has areas that are separated, all areas
of the object should be hatched in the same direction and with the same spacing.
Hatching Adjacent objects
When hatching assembled parts, the direction of the hatching should ideally be
reversed on adjacent parts. If more than two parts are adjacent, then the hatching
should be staggered to emphasise the fact that these parts are separate.
Reverse hatching Staggered Hatching
Hatching thin materials
Sometimes, it is difficult to hatch very thin sections. To emphasise solid wall the
walls can be filled in. This should only be used when the wall thickness size is less
than 1mm
.
Hatching large areas
When hatching large areas in order to aid readabilty, the hatching can be limited to the
area near the edges of the part.
Gambar Potongan
Sections and sectional views are used to show hidden detail more clearly. They are
created by using a cutting plane to cut the object.
A section is a view of no thickness and shows the outline of the object at the cutting
plane. Visible outlines beyond the cutting plane are not drawn.
A sectional view, displays the outline of the cutting plane and all visible outlines
which can be seen beyond the cutting plane. The diagram below shows a sectional
view, and how a cutting plane works.
Orthographic projection
The aim of an engineering drawing is to convey all the necessary information of how
to make the part to the manufacturing department. For most parts, the information
cannot be conveyed in a single view. Rather than using several sheets of paper with
different views of the part, several views can be combined on a single drawing using
one of the two available projection systems, first angle, and third angle projection.
First Projection
TYPES OF DRAWINGS AND DIAGRAMS
The types of drawings to be discussed here include working drawings, architectural
drawings, mechanical drawings, shop drawings, and electrical diagrams.
CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
A construction drawing is any drawing that furnishes the information required by
the craftsmen to rough in equipment or erect a structure. The terms working drawings
and construction drawings are sometimes used interchangeably.
Information presented in a set of working drawings, along with the specifications,
should be complete so the craftsman who uses them will require no further
information.
Working drawings show the size, quantity, location, and relationship of the
building parts. Generally, working drawings may be divided into three main
categories: architectural, mechanical, and electrical.
Regardless of the category, working drawings serve several functions:
They provide a basis for making material, labor, and equipment estimates
before construction starts.
They give instructions for construction, showing the sixes and location
of the various parts.
They provide a means of coordination between the different ratings.
They complement the specifications; one source of information is
incomplete without the other when drawings are used for construction
work.
Architectural Drawings
Architectural drawings consist of all the drawings that describe the structural
members of the building and their relationship to each other. This includes
foundation plans, floor plans, framing plans, elevations, sections, details,
schedules, and bills of materials.
Plans
A plan is actually a part of the architectural drawing that represents a view of the
project from above. Two types of plans will be discussed here: plot plans and floor
plans.
PLOT PLANS.A plot plan (also called a site plan) includes not only the project
but also the surrounding area. The project may be represented only by an outline.
The grades at fixed points are shown throughout the area. This is done to show how
the land slopes before construction is started and the finished grade after construction
is completed. The north arrow symbol, used for orientation of the drawing, is shown.
The Construction Electrician may have to have a plot plan to construct a pole line to
the project site at or near the earliest phase of construction. Another example is when
the slope and grade of the surrounding area is to be changed and you have to bury
cable or conduit. You must know what the finished grade is and how deep to dig. This
type of work requires close coordination between you, the Engineering Aids,
Equipment Operators, and Builders. By looking over the plot plan, you will know
what to do to prepare for the job.
FLOOR PLANS. .Imagine that you want to know the outline of a building,
including each partition.This building is shown in figure 2-10, view A, and you are
equipped with a huge saw. If you sawed the building in half horizontally and
looked down on it from above, you would see the complete outline of the
building (view B).
This particular view directly above would be called a floor plan (view C). Architects
and engineers project their thoughts of a building, not yet built, onto a piece of paper
and call it a floor plan. It does not matter that the heights of the outlets, appliances, or
building parts are different. These heights will be indicated by figures in inches or
feet, next to the symbols that represent them. Electrical construction drawings are
floor plans modified by the inclusion of electrical symbols.
Figure 2-11 shows an electrical layout superimposed on an outline taken from
an architectural floor plan. The service line that brings power into the house is a three-
wire line in 1 1/4-inch conduit. The service line feeds power by way of a service
switch to a lighting panel, from which three branch circuits run to the lighting fixtures
and convenience outlets in the rooms. The symbols for these fixtures and outlets and
the service switch are shown at the bottom of figure 2-11. Elevations An elevation is a
drawing that represents a view of the finished structure as you would see it from the
front, back, left, or right.
There are interior elevations, such as a view of a fireplace, as well as exterior
elevations, as shown in the elevations of a small building shown in figure 2-12. Doors,
windows, shapes of roof, chimneys, and exterior materials are shown. These views
provide the viewer with a finished appearance. Few dimensions are given on
elevations. Only those vertical dimensions that cannot be shown on the plan are
generally included on an elevation view.
A Construction Electrician can quickly see from any one of the elevations in figure 2-
12 that there is an attic where easy access would be provided to electrical wiring. This
is important where there is a requirement for junction boxes that must be
accessible. The electrician can also see a foundation wall where, if a service lateral is
required, a conduit or sleeve must be placed (for a later run of conduit). This
knowledge will allow the electrician to plan ahead to work with the Builders when
they build the forms. The conduit will be placed in or through the form before the
concrete is poured.
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS.---Mechanical drawings include all drawings and
notes that have something to do with the water supply, sewage, drainage, heating
and ventilating, refrigeration, air conditioning, and gas supply systems. It may also
include other drawings that are necessary to present the system properly in relation to
the other portions of the project.
Shop Drawings - Shop drawings are drawings and related data used to show some
portion of the work prepared by the construction contractor, manufacturer, distributor,
or supplier. Product data, such as brochures, illustrations, standard schedules,
performance charts, and other information, are furnished by the contractor or the
manufacturer to show a material, product, or system for some portion of the
work. Engineering Aids are sometimes required to draft shop drawings for minor
shop and field projects. These drawings may include shop items, such as doors,
cabinets, and small portable buildings (prefabricated berthing quarters and
modifications of existing structures), or they may come from portions of design
drawings, specifications, or freehand sketches given by the design engineer.
Working from a shop drawing is much like working from other working drawings.
You convert the ideas you get from your interpretation of the lines and symbols
into the product represented by the drawing.
ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS-In addition to the construction drawings discussed
above, you will be working with other types of electrical drawings or diagrams. These
drawings show the arrangement and relationship of parts. Electrical diagrams are
usually used to show how the parts of one or more pieces of equipment are wired
together. There are several types of these diagrams. They are similar, yet different in
some way. The short description of each that follows should enable you to recognize
their differences. Isometric Diagram The isometric diagram is not often seen in
electrical work. It may be used to show the electrical wiring system in multilevel
buildings. Appliances sometimes have an isometric diagram glued to an access panel
so that it may be referred to for a quick look at an entire wiring system. (See fig. 2-
13.)
BLOCK DIAGRAM.-- A block diagram is a simple drawing showing the
relationships of major parts of a wiring circuit or system. Figure 2-14 shows a block
diagram of a motor control system You can easily see how it gets its name.
Sometimes the blocks are connected with only one line that may represent one or
more conductors or cables. Either major or minor components or parts may be
represented by blocks. This type of diagram is often used to show something of
the relationship of components in a power distribution system. The block diagram
provides little help in troubleshooting.
Axonometric Projection
For objects which are fairly small in size and reasonably close to the observer we
often use a form of drawing known as axonometric projection. The word axonometric
means 'measured axes'. Axonometric drawings often appear distorted because they
ignore the foreshortening effects of perspective (foreshortening means the way things
appear to get smaller in both height and depth as they recede into the distance.
All axonometric drawings use vertical lines for those lines representing height and
sloping parallel edges for all other sides. There are a number of axonometric
drawings.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
An Isometric Projection is constructed from 3 axes created by dividing a circle into 3
equal angles of 120
0
DIMETRIC PROJECTION
A Dimetric projection is created using 3 axes but only two of these have equal angles.
The smaller these angles are the less we see of the top surface. The angle is usually
around 105
0
.
TRIMETRIC PROJECTION
A Trimetric projection is created using 3 axes where each of the angles between them
is different (there are no equal angles)
The three methods of projection described above have one corner of the object facing
the observer and none of the visible faces are their true shape.
OBLIQUE PROJECTION
Oblique projection is created by drawing one side of the object facing the observer.
This side is always drawn as a true shape (in this case a square).
The receding lines are usually drawn at 45
0
(although other angles could be used) and
one half their true size, to avoid undue distortion.
PLANOMETRIC or PLAN OBLIQUE
This is similar to oblique in that the top surface is drawn true shape and size. It is
usually rotated so that the angles shown are 45
0
- 45
0
or 60
0
- 30
0
.
'CRATING'
'Crating' is a means of drawing complicated shapes, by fitting them into a box or
'crate'. A crate or box can be drawn using any of the techniques shown above, by
following the procedure shown below.
Difficult shapes can be drawn by starting with the box or crate that the finished object
will fit into and then adding or removing the bits that are not required.
CIRCLES DRAWN IN AXONOMETRIC VIEWS
A circle drawn on a sloping surface in axonometric projection will be drawn as an
ellipse. An ellipse is a circle turned through an angle. All the examples shown above
were box shapes without any curved surfaces. In order to draw curved surfaces we
need to know how to draw ellipses.
If you draw a circle and rotate it slowly, it will become an ellipse. As it is turned
through 90
0
it will eventually become a straight line.
An ellipse has a major axis and a minor axis. The major axis is the axis about which
the ellipse is being turned. The minor axis becomes smaller as the angle through
which the ellipse is turned approaches 90
0
.
You can draw a cylinder using the technique shown on the right. The ellipses can
either be sketched freehand or drawn using an ellipse template.