Subjek Mineralogi

Mineralogi adalah pengetahuan tentang mineral, yang merupakan unsur-unsur dan

senyawa yang terdapat di alam dan merupakan pembentuk bagian-bagian padat dari alam
semesta. Kita biasanya berfikir tentang mineralogi terbatas hanya pada material-material dari
kerak bumi saja. Hal ini tidak benar, karena ada juga meteorit-meteorit yang merupakan
mineral-mineral dari luar bumi, dan pengukuran-pengukuran geofisika memberikan indikasi
tentang beberapa sifat mineral yang terdapat yang terdapat di bawah kerak bumi. Mineralogi
adalah cabang dari geologi, karena mineral itu merupakan pembentuk batuan dari kerak
bumi. Ilmu kimia erat hubungannya dengan mineralogi, karena mineral merupakan senyawa
kimia. memang, istilah mineral kimia dan kimia anorganik kadang-kadang digunakan secara
bergantian. Kristalografi awalnya sebagai cabang dari ilmu mineralogi, yaitu merupakan studi
tentang bentuk-bentuk luar dari kristal-kristal alam, tetapi sekarang telah berkembang
menjadi studi tentang semua semua kristal, baik kristal alam maupun buatan, serta
penyelidikannya tidak terbatas pada bentuk-bentuk luar saja, tetapi juga pada struktur dalam
(internal structure) dari kristal.

Oleh karena mineralogi ialah studi ilmiah tentang mineral, maka kita akan
memulainya dengan pengertian yang jelas mengenai batasan" mineral tersebut. Untuk itu
kita masih memilih definisi sebagai berikut mineral ialah suatu benda padat homogen yang
terdapat dialam, terbentuk secara anorganik, mempunyai komposisi kimia pada batasbatas
tertentu, dan mempunyai atomatom yang tersusun secara teratur.

Sekarang marilah kita telaah definisi tersebut satu persatu .Batasan "yang terdapat
dialam" diperlukan, mengingat bahwa dalam laboratorium kimia dapat dibuat banyak
sekali mineralmineral. Sebagai contoh, penguapan dari suatu larutan sodium klorida (NaCl)
akan menghasilkan suatu kristal yang tidak dapat dibedakan dari mineral halite, akan
tetapi kristalkristal hasil laboratorium yang demikian itu bukanlah termasuk suatu mineral.

Batasan suatu "benda padat homogen", hal ini menyatakan bahwa mineral itu terdiri
dari suatu phase padat hanya satu macam material, yang tidak dapat diuraikan menjadi
senyawasenyawa yang lebih sederhana oleh suatu proses fisika. Dengan adanya
persyaratan bahwa mineralmineral itu suatu benda padat, maka cairan dangasgas tidak
termasuk dianggap sebagai mineral. Hal ini terlihatnya agak kurang tepat; es adalah
mineral (pada tempattempat yang tinggi atau lintanglintang tertentu) akan tetapi air
bukanlah mineral. Beberapa ahli mineralogi membantah pembatasan ini dan menghendaki
air (dan air raksa, yang kadangkadang dijumpai berasosiasi dengan cinnabar) dimasukkan
sebagai mineral.
Pembatasan "terbentuk secara anorganik" menyebabkan bendabenda padat homogen
yang dihasilkan oleh binatang dan tumbuhtumbuhan tidak termasuk. Maka dari itu kulit
tiram (dan mutiara didalamnya), meskipun terdiri dari calcium carbonat yang tidak dapat
dibedakan secara kimia mau pun fisika dari mineral aragonite, tidak dianggap sebagai
sebagai mineral. Tubuh manusia, yang sakit kadangkadang menghasilkan suatu padatan
homogen dalam bentuk batu didalam salah satu organnya (yaitu ginjal). Batu ini seringkali
indentik dalam segala hal dengan mineral alam, tetapi ia tidak dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai
mineral.
Persyaratan" yang mempunyai komposisi kimia pada batasan tertentu" menyatakan
bahwa mineral adalah satu senyawa kimia, dan senyawa kimia yang mempunyai komposisi
pada batasbatas tertentu yang dapat diyatakan dengan suatu rumus. Rumusrumus mineral
dapat sederhana ataupun kompleks, tergantung pada banyaknya unsurunsur yang ada serta
proporsi dari kombinasinya. Sangatlah pentinguntuk membedakan antara komposisi kimia
yang mempunyai batasbatas tertentu dengan komposisi yang "tetap"; banyak sekali
mineralmineral yang bervariasi dalam komposisinya (artinya, tidak mempunyai komposisi
yang "tetap") tetapi variasivariasi ini terbatas pada suatu daerah tertentu.

Batasan "atomatom yang tersusun secara teratur" merupakan ukuran dari keadaan
kristalisasinya, cara lain untuk menyatakan hal ini ialah dengan mengatakan bahwa mineral
ialah "kristalin padat". Dibawah kondisi yang sesuai untuk suatu pembentukan, susunan
atom yang teratur itu dapat tergambar pada bentuk luar kristalnya dari kenyataan, bahwa
adanya susunan atomatom yang teratur didalam kristalin yang padat, telah disimpulkan
dari teraturnya bentuk luar kristal, lama sebelum sinarX ditemukan dan kemudian
membuktikan hal itu..

Sejarah Mineralogi
 Asal-usul dari mineral sudah dikenal sejak zaman prasejarah. Dahulu kala Seni

menulis dikembangkan dengan menggunakan pigmen alami seperti hematite ( merah ) dan

oksida mangan ( hitam ) yang digunakan dalam lukisan gua mereka. Pada zaman batu sudah

dikenal kekerasan dan kekasaran actinolite berserat ( nephrite giok ) yang digunakan untuk

membuat bahan unggul seperti kapak (beliung) dan distribusi alat nephrite menunjukkan

bahwa perdagangan hidup harus dikembangkan dalam materi ini, karena alat-alat ini

ditemukan di tempat-tempat jauh dari sumber yang mungkin dari bahan baku. Pertambangan

dan peleburan mineral logam untuk menghasilkan besi, tembaga, perunggu. Memimpin dan

perak mungkin tanggal kembali 4000 tahun atau lebih, meskipun kami telah ada tertulis

catatan untuk memverifikasi ini.

Salah satu tulisan mineral adalah buku Stones oleh filsuf Yunani Theophrastus (ca.

372-287 B.C). Pliny, di abad masehi pertama mencatat banyak sejarah alam seperti yang

dipahami oleh orang Romawi,dan menjelaskan sejumlah mineral yang ditambang sebagai

batu permata, sebagai pigmen, atau bijih sebagai logam. Sedikit yang diketahui dari

pembangunan selama milenium berikutnya, tapi Renaissance di Eropa membawa itu dengan

sebuah kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. Karya-karya klasik dari mineral dari

periode ini ditulis oleh seorang ahli pertambangan Jerman, Agricola, dan yang menerbitkan

De Re Metallica (1556), dan The Natural Fossilium (1546), di mana catatan tahap geologi,

mineralogi, pertambangan dan metalurgi di waktu itu. Karya-karya ini telah diterjemahkan ke

bahasa Inggris dan tersedia di berbagai perpustakaan. Setelah Agricola, langkah berikutnya

dalam pengembangan mineral disediakan oleh Dane Niels Stensen (yang lebih dikenal

dengan versi Latin nama-ini Nicolaus Steno). Pada tahun 1669 menunjukkan bahwa

antarmuka kristal kuarsa yang konstan, tidak peduli apa bentuk dan ukuran kristal. Sehingga

menarik perhatian pada pentingnya bentuk kristal, yang mengarah pada pengembangan

seluruh ilmu kristalografi.

 Sepanjang abad kedelapan belas lambat tapi stabil kemajuan dalam mineralogi

tercatat. mineral baru diakui dan dijelaskan, dan berbagai upaya dilakukan untuk mencapai

klasifikasi rasional mereka. Sebagian besar karya yang aktif dalam usaha ini berada di

Swedia dan Jerman, dan guru besar waktu itu A. G. Werner (1750-1817), Profesor di akademi

pertambangan di Freiberg, yang menarik mahasiswa dari seluruh bagian atau Eropa. Pada

saat ini mineralogi dan kimia yang berhubungan erat. Sejak ahli kimia hari bekerja sebagian

besar dengan mineral seperti mineral mentah mereka. Hal ini mengakibatkan pengakuan

banyak elemen kobalt, nikel, mangan, tungsten, molibdenum, uranium, dan lain-lain.

Signifikansi kristalografi dalam studi mineral dibawa terutama oleh karya ilmuwan Perancis

Hay ( 1743-1822 ).

Tahun-tahun awal abad kesembilan belas terlihat kemajuan pesat dalam mineralogi,

mengikuti ucapan dari teori atom dan kesadaran bahwa mineral yang senyawa kimia dengan

komposisi tertentu. Penemuan goniometer refleksi juga disediakan sarana untuk lebih harga

pengukuran pada kristal dan klasifikasi diterima dari bentuk kristal dan sistem kristal. Ahli

kimia Swedia Berzelius (1779-1848) dan muridnya, khususnya Mitscherlich (1794-1863),

mempelajari kimia mineral dan diucapkan prinsip-prinsip klasifikasi kimianya.

Sepanjang abad kesembilan belas banyak mineral baru ditemukan dan dijelaskan,

sering sebagai akibat dari pembukaan wilayah pertambangan baru di wilayah yang

sebelumnya belum diselidiki. Perkembangan mikroskop polarisasi, dari sekitar pada tahun

1870, ditempatkan alat baru dan lebih mauju tentang mineral tersebut.

Perkembangan terbesar dalam abad ini telah demonstrasi oleh Von Laue pada tahun

1912 yang meneliti crystal sinar-x dan pola difraksi yang diartikan dapat memberikan posisi

yang sebenarnya dari atom dalam kristal. Mineralogi, sebelumnya terbatas memeriksa bentuk

eksternal dan sifat optik mineral, dan untuk menentukan komposisi kimianya, kemudian

sekarang dilanjutkan untuk menyelidiki struktur internal mereka. Ilmu struktur tahun 1.912
telah ditemukan ratusan mineral, namun banyak yang masih tetap untuk dianalisis. Selain itu,

peningkatan teknik telah memungkinkan untuk mendeteksi perbedaan yang sangat halus

antara struktur kristal yang sama.

Studi tentang Mineralogi

Literatur dasar mineralogi secara khusus menjelaskan penelitian asli pada mineral

dan diterbitkan dalam jurnal ilmiah di seluruh dunia. jurnal paling penting di negara-negara

yang berbahasa Inggris adalah tentang mineral Amerika, yang diterbitkan oleh masyarakat

mineralogi dari Amerika dan majalah mineralogi, diterbitkan oleh masyarakat mineralogi di

Inggris yang besar. Masyarakat terakhir juga telah bertanggung jawab untuk jurnal yang

ditujukan untuk abstrak makalah mineralogi manapun mereka muncul; jurnal ini abstrak

mineralogi, sekarang sedang diperluas dalam ukuran dan ruang lingkup melalui usaha

koperasi masyarakat mineralogi di beberapa negara. Jurnal penting Zentralblatt diterbitkan di

Jerman. Abstrak kimia, diterbitkan oleh masyarakat kimia Amerika, membawa bagian yang

berjudul "mineralogi dan kimia geologi".

Sebuah karya referensi standar dalam mineralogi telah lama sistem Dana

mineralogi. Edisi pertama buku ini ditulis oleh J.D. Dana dan diterbitkan pada tahun 1837. Itu

direvisi dan diperbaharui dengan edisi berturut-turut pada tahun 1844, 1850, 1854, 1868, dan

1892 dan oleh suplemen yang dikeluarkan dengan interval antara setiap edisi. Tiga suplemen

untuk edisi keenam (1892) telah diterbitkan pada tahun 1899, pada tahun 1909, dan pada

tahun 1915. Beberapa tahun yang lalu persiapan edisi ketujuh dimulai. Sekarang tidak

mungkin lagi untuk mempublikasikan seperti kerja yang komprehensif dalam satu volume,

dan edisi ketujuh muncul dalam tiga volume, yang telah diterbitkan, pada tahun 1944, dan

pada tahun 1951 ; volume ketiga, berhubungan dengan mineral silikat, belum muncul .
 Dua rilisan yang sangat komprehensif tentang jenis mineral, telah diterbitkan di

Jerman. Salah satunya adalah Handbuch Der Mineralogi. Satu lainnya adalah Handbuch der

Mineral - Chemie, oleh C. Doelter dan co - workrs, diterbitkan 1911-1931. Yang lainnya

adalah Handbuch der Mineralogi, dimulai oleh C. Hintze dan dijalankan setelah kematiannya

oleh pekerja lainnya ; volume pertama kali muncul pada tahun 1897, yang terakhir pada

tahun 1933, dan bagian pelengkap meliputi mineral baru dan data baru pada sebelumnya

menggambarkan mineral yang diterbitkan dari waktu ke waktu.

Pentingnya Mineral

Sejak awal, manusia telah menemukan pentingnya menggunakan mineral, dan

penggunaan ini telah berkembang sangat pesat dengan perluasan ilmu pengetahuan dan

industri. Mineral pertama yang mereka temukan untuk digunakan yaitu: tanah liat untuk batu

bata dan tembikar: flint, kuarsa, dan batu giok untuk senjata pada alat: oksida besi dan

mangan sebagai cat; pirus, garnet, amethyst, dan batu berwarna lainnya untuk hiasan; dan

emas asli, perak, dan tembaga untuk ornamen dan peralatan. Seni peleburan, dimana logam

diekstrak dari mineral, berani kembali ke zaman prasejarah. Kitab suci menyebutkan enam

logam; emas, perak, tembaga, timah timah, dan besi. Sebuah spesimen merkuri ditemukan

pada jimat dari makam Mesir dari abad kelima belas atau enam belas sebelum masehi dan

Theophrastus menggambarkan ekstraksi dari cinnabar. Namun, penemuan logam baru

berkembang abad kedelapan belas, ketika kemajuan dalam kimia menghasilkan isolasi logam

yang sebelumnya tidak diketahui dari senyawa alamiahnya. Banyak dari logam ini pada

awalnya, digunakan sesuai pengetahuan dahulu. Bahkan di masa yang lebih baru beberapa

mineral bantalan logam-telah dibuang di pertambangan, untuk menjadi berharga di kemudian

hari. Dalam banyak kasus penggunaan yang luas untuk logam dikembangkan hanya setelah

biaya produksi telah dikurangi dengan penemuan deposito mineral yang memadai atau
metode peleburan sederhana. Nikel ditemukan di niccolite dari tambang Saxony di abad

kedelapan belas, tapi hanya terdiri dari sedikit logam sampai ditemukan deposit besar

pentlandit di Sudbury, Ontario, pada penutupan abad kesembilan belas. Logam aluminium

adalah atau lebih dikenal dengan logam bijih bauksit, mulai sedikit digunakan sampai

penemuan simultan untuk proses reduksi elektrolitik pada tahun 1886 oleh Balai di Amerika

dan Heroult di Perancis. Banyak mineral mendapatkan nilai komersial yang lebih besar di

masa depan dengan pengembangan baru yang digunakan untuk mengolah dengan metode

yang lebih ekonomis dari ekstraksi, atau penemuan deposito lebih terkonsentrasi.

Perkembangan mikroskop polarisasi di abad kesembilan belas, memungkinkan

penelitian bahkan untuk batu halus di kerak bumi, menghasilkan fakta bahwa hampir semua

batu dari pecahan agregat terdiri dari satu atau lebih mineral. Penelitian semakin lanjut

menunjukan semakin kuat difraksi alat sinar-x dan mikroskop elektron, yang menunjukan

gelas vulkanik, minyak bumi dan batu bara sebagai batu tubuh penting yang tidak terdiri dari

mineral sesuai dengan definisi. (Perlu dicatat dalam melewati bahwa minyak bumi dan batu

bara yang sering disebut sebagai " bahan bakar mineral " dan produksi biasanya termasuk

dalam statistik produksi mineral).

Sebuah penyelidikan penting dalam bidang mineralogi dalam beberapa tahun

terakhir telah menemukan mineral sintesis. penelitian ini menentukan kondisi fisikokimia

yang diperlukan untuk pembentukan mineral tertentu, dan kemudian pada asal-usul batuan

dan mineral. Banyak senyawa baru yang sebelumnya tidak dikenal sebagai mineral telah

dihasilkan selama penyelidikan dari sintesis mineral; beberapa di antaranya kemudian telah

telah diakui di alam.

Mineral adalah objek alami, dan ada keterangan, penamaan dan klasifikasi adalah

tugas mendasar dari ilmu mineralogi. Mineral diberi nama khas, dan masing-masing

dijelaskan dalam hal sifat fisik dan kimianya. Sebagai kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan, sifat-sifat
lainnya yang tidak diketahui pada saat deskripsi asli menjadi penting, dan karena itu perlu

untuk mengkaji banyak mineral. Ini dilakukan untuk memenuhi koleksi mineralogi bertempat

museum publik dan swasta di seluruh dunia karena museum koleksi ini memiliki kepentingan

untuk menampilkan spesimen mineral untuk masyarakat umum. Ini menjadi tugas umat

manusia untuk menjaga koleksi mineral ini untuk anak cucu. Beberapa mineral yang umum

terjadi dan tersedia dalam kerak bumi untuk siapa pun setiap saat, tetapi banyak mineral yang

ditemukan hanya dalam daerah terisolasi dan lainnya dapat ditemukan hanya selama masa

tambang tertentu. Jika memungkinkan, spesimen asli otentik dan spesimen lain dari daerah

asli harus dilestarikan. Serta mineral khas dari daerah lain seperti yang ditemukan. Banyak

kejadian mineral yang menarik tidak lagi ditemukan untuk studi lebih lanjut, karena

kemajuan peradaban, atau telah hancur oleh pertambangan dan konversi menjadi produk

industri yang berharga.

Mineralogi ekonomi

Studi mineral jarang diperlakukan sebagai subjek yang berbeda. Studi ilmiah

tentang identitas dan hubungan mineral dalam deposit bijih, yang dapat menyebabkan

informasi yang berguna tentang asal yang mungkin dari mineral dalam bijih, biasanya

termasuk dalam subjek geologi ekonomi yang lebih luas. Dalam buku ini ia tepat

dikombinasikan dengan studi tentang proses geologi yang bertanggung jawab atas kondisi

fisik yang menguntungkan untuk pembentukan mineral bijih. mineral bijih biasanya dianggap

orang-orang sebagai mineral yang dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai sumber logam. Beberapa

lainnya mencakup semua elemen logam, sulfida, dan oksida yang terjadi di alam, dan

penambahan beberapa mineral lainnya dari logam seperti tembaga, tungsten, vanadium, dan

uranium. Yang lainnya juga membatasi istilah untuk mineral dari mana logam

menguntungkan dapat diekstraksi. Menurut interpretasi yang terakhir, sebuah mineral tertentu
yang mungkin menjadi mineral bijih hanya terdapat dalam beberapa daerah, sedangkan di

daerah lain, karena lokasi terpencil atau jumlah kecil hadir itu tidak akan begitu ditinjau.

Peninjauan ini untuk mineral bijih yang juga akan berubah seiring waktu, peningkatan

teknologi, transportasi yang lebih baik, dan faktor lain yang memungkinkan eksploitasi yang

menguntungkan. Mineral pengganggu yaitu mineral dalam deposit bijih yang tidak berharga

dan yang harus dihilangkan dalam pengolahan bijih. Dalam bab 8-15, di mana mineral

dijelaskan secara individu, untuk mineral yang biasanya berfungsi sebagai sumber logam.

Kelompok mineral industri lain yang penting yaitu mineral yang bernilai ekonomis.

Istilah ini dapat didefinisikan meliputi mineral-mineral baku untuk industri selain sebagai

sumber elemen tertentu. Ini termasuk mineral yang diproduksi sebagai isolator listrik dan

panas, refraktor, keramik, kaca, kasar, pupuk, fluks, yang digunakan dalam proses metalurgi,

dan semen dan bahan bangunan lainnya. Batu permata juga termasuk, karena banyak mineral

yang menghasilkan batu mulia dan semi mulia yang indah juga memiliki banyak kegunaan

industri, terutama karena kekerasannya.

Distribusi bijih dan mineral industri yang tidak merata dan tidak menentu dan

variabel kualitas deposito yang mengandung mineral ini di berbagai belahan kerak bumi

memiliki efek ekonomi dan politik yang luas. Sebagian besar angkutan laut dan kereta api

terbuat dari bahan mineral baik sebagai bijih mentah atau dalam bentuk terkonsentrasi siap

lebur. Sulit untuk mendapatkan angka yang akurat pada nilai persentase atau tonase, karena

sebagian termasuk dalam kategori statistik mineral, bahan bakar, batu bara dan minyak bumi.

Distribusi yang tidak merata dari bahan baku di atas bumi telah menyebabkan berbagai krisis

di banyak negara, terutama selama perang dunia kedua, dan mineral strategis telah digunakan

secara luas. "Mineral" seperti yang digunakan di sini, termasuk logam serta mineral bijih

yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan logam. Dalam beberapa kasus kata yang lebih tepat

digunakan yaitu "materi" sebagai pengganti kata mineral. Maret 1944 definisi baru dari bahan
strategis dan kritis diumumkan oleh dewan tentara dan angkatan laut amunisi dari negara-

negara bersatu Amerika (DeMille, 1947, hal. 3).

Bacaan yang Dipilih

Agricola, G., De Natura Fossilium: Geological Society of America Special Paper 63 (1955),

New York. English translation from the first Latin edition of 1546 by M. C. and J. A. Bandy.

_______, De Re Metallica: (1950), Dover, New York. Reprint of 1912 English translation

from the first Latin edition of 1556 by H. C. and L. H. Hoover.

Bateman, A. M. (1950), Economic mineral deposits, Ed. 2: Wiley, New York.

Caley, E. R., and J. F. C. Richards (1956), Theophrastus on stones: Introduction, Greek text,

English translation, and Commentary: Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Dana, J. D., A system of mineralogy Ed. 6 (1892), rewritten by E. S. Dana, with supplements

1899, 1909, 1915, Wiley, New York.

_______, A system of mineralogy, Ed. 7, vol. 1 (1944), vol. 2 (1951), rewritten by C. Palace,

H. Berman, and C. Frondel. Wiley New York.

DeMille, J. B. (1947), strategic minerals: McGraw-Hill, New York.

Doclter, C. el al. (1911-1931), Handbuch der mineral-chemic: Steinkopff, Dresden.

Hauy, R.J., Traite de mineralogie, Ed. 1 (1801), Ed. 2 (1822) : Louis, Paris.

Hintze, C., ET AL. (1897-1939, with supplements), Hanbuch de Mineralogie: De Gruyter,

Berlin ( early voumes, Veit, Leipzig).

Voskuil, W. H.(1955), Minerals in world industry: McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kristalografi

Pembentukan Kristal

Kristal merupakan suatu benda padat yang dibatasi oleh bidang, yang merupakan

ekspresi eksternal dari pengaturan internal atom yang konstituen atau ion. kristal yang sangat

baik dapat tumbuh dengan pendinginan secara perlahan-lahan, atau penguapan, larutan jenuh

dari garam, tawas, sulfat tembaga, atau amonium dihidrogen fosfat saltas. Jika kristal kecil

ditangguhkan dari larutan jenuh dan larutan kemudian didinginkan pada tingkat yang stabil

dan lambat, kristal tunggal yang besar yang dibatasi oleh permukaan pesawat yang halus akan

tumbuh terus selama tingkat pendinginan dan pasokan bahan dapat dipertahankan. Kristal
juga dapat tumbuh pada suhu konstan dengan menggunakan peralatan yang memungkinkan

penambahan bahan untuk mempertahankan kondisi jenuh. Pertumbuhan komersial kristal

besar membutuhkan kontrol yang sangat hati-hati suhu. Banyak metode yang telah digunakan

untuk tumbuh kristal, dijelaskan secara rinci oleh Buckley (1951). Kualitas permukaan

bidang bervariasi antara kristal yang berbeda, atau bahkan antara bagian yang berbeda dari

kristal tunggal, dari permukaan seperti cermin yang sangat baik untuk permukaan yang kasar

dan sangat lurik.

Kristal mineral yang ditemukan di alam mana pun tersusun dari atom atau ion bebas

yang menyatu dalam proporsi yang benar untuk membentuk mineral tertentu dan dalam

kondisi pembentukan atau "pertumbuhan" yang memungkinkan dari mineral pada tingkat

yang cukup lambat dan mantap. kristal mineral yang berkembang dengan baik umumnya

ditemukan melapisi dinding fraktur terbuka, mengisi lubang atau rekahan, atau vesikel di

bebatuan. Mereka dapat tumbuh dari pengisian air yang turun melalui permukaan kerak

batuan atau naik dari sumber di kedalaman (kondisi hidrotermal). Juga dapat membentuk

kristalisasi akhir batuan beku dalam rongga (rongga miarolitic) yang dibiarkan terbuka oleh

akumulasi gas dan uap. Namun, jika pasokan bahan mengisi hingga ruang rekahan benar-

benar penuh, permukaan bidang yang merupakan ciri khas dari kristal tidak akan

berkembang.

Juga ketika bentuk bahan padat dari kondisi yang didinginkan atau menguap dengan

cepat, atau dari uap yang didinginkan dengan cepat, membentuk banyak inti. Di bawah

mikroskop inti ini akan menunjukkan karakteristik bentuk geometris kristal. Selanjutnya inti

kristali tumbuh sampai saling mengikat satu sama lain, dan akhirnya membentuk suatu massa

yang solid dari inti-inti yang dibatasi antarmuka yang tidak teratur. Massa yang terbentuk ini,

di mana setiap butir memiliki struktur internal dan sifat fisik yang sama seperti kristal dari
mineral yang sama, senyawa kimia, atau logam yang terbentuk dengan baik, disebut agregat

kristal.

Dalam kondisi pendinginan yang cepat ini beberapa magma cair membeku

membentuk kaca vulkanik atau obsidian yang dalam hal ini atom atau ion tidak punya waktu

untuk membentuk susunan yang teratur. Demikian pula, cairan buatan dalam berbagai jenis,

seperti campuran oksida, dapat membentuk kaca jika didinginkan dengan cepat. Dalam gelas

hampir tidak ada pengaturan yang tegas; oleh karena itu bukan merupakan struktur kristal.

Sebuah padatan terlarut seperti BaSO4, dibentuk cepat dari pencampuran dua kondisi, akan

memiliki pengaturan tegas dalam kristal yang sangat kecil.

Secara umum, ketika suatu zat terbentuk perlahan-lahan dari kondisi lelehan, atau

uap, dalam kondisi suhu dan tekanan tertentu, zat yang terdiri dari satu atau lebih senyawa

kimia atau fase di masing-masing atom penyusun atau ion membentuk sebuah susunan yang

teratur. Ukuran domain dari susunan tertentu yang teratur, atau ukuran butiran kristal tunggal,

tergantung pada tingkat inti pembentukan dari fase padat dan tingkat pertumbuhan kristalit

yang berkembang dari inti tersebut. Jika kecepatan nukleasi tinggi, banyak kristal kecil

membentuk simultan dan domain yang kemudian akan menjadi kristal kecil. Di sisi lain, jika

kecepatan atau nukleasi rendah, beberapa kristal dapat terus tumbuh dan semua bahan dapat

terbentuk dari kondisi ini. Jika pasokan bahan besar, setiap domain biasa berkembang sampai

memberi pengaruh bagian berikutnya, biasanya menghasilkan agregat bijih yang tidak teratur.

Terlepas dari perbedaan formasi dalam tersebut, kristal yang terbentuk dengan baik dan

bidang yang tidak teratur dari substansi yang sama memiliki susunan yang teratur sesuai

aturannya.

Pengembangan Kristalografi
 Istilah "Kristal" dalam bahasa Yunani inggris adalah "Ice", dan umumnya digunakan

di seluruh abad pertengahan untuk menunjuk batu-kristal atau kuarsa. Istilah ini akhirnya

diterapkan untuk benda padat yang berasal dari alam yang memiliki bentuk polyhedral.

Namun, penggunaan kata kristal untuk setiap kuarsa cukup jelas untuk kapal atau hiasan juga

telah bertahan, dan masih dapat didengar kata yang mengacu pada gudang kristal (sekarang

dibuat khusus dari timbal-kaca), atau bola kristal, yang juga dulunya terbuat dari kuarsa.

Penilaian awal dilakukan pada bentuk kristal dan kualitas bidang kristal yang

ditemukan dalam volume XXXVII dari Pliny Sejarah Alam. Hukum dasar antarbidang

kristalografi pertama diumumkan oleh Steno dari Florence pada 1669. Karya awalnya

didasarkan pada pengukuran yang sangat kasar pada kristal kuarsa, tetapi pada tahun 1783

ditegaskan sebagai hukum alam umum oleh Roma de Plsle (1736-1790), di Paris, yang

menggunakan goniometer kontak sederhana untuk mengukur sudut antar muka (lihat

Gambar. 2-25).
Gambar 2-1 Hauys conception of structural units, with the shape of the cleavage rhombohedron,

building up a crystal of calcite in the form of a scalenohedron v{2131}

Gambar 2-2 Hauys conception of structural units, with the form of cleavage cubes of galena or halite,

building up (a) a cube modified by dodecahedron faces, (b) a dedocahedron, (c) an octahedron.

Pada tahun 1611 astronom besar Johannes Kepler menulis sebuah pamflet kecil

"kristal heksagonal," di mana ia menyarankan bahwa keteraturan bentuk kristal mungkin

karena pengaturan geometris reguler unit bidang. Guglielmini (1655-1710) juga menyarankan

teori struktur kristal, berdasarkan kemenerusan dari arah belahan kristal. Namun, dua karya

ini sedikit diketahui dan tampaknya tidak begitu memiliki pengaruh pada perkembangan

selanjutnya.

Pada tahun 1784, Hay (1743-1822) menerbitkan sebuah esai di Paris tentang teori

struktur kristal, dan ini diikuti oleh Traite de Mineralogie di 1801. Sebuah studi tentang

pembelahan kalsit membawanya untuk menyarankan bahwa semua kristal yang terdiri dari
unit polyhedral kecil, unit membentuk masing-masing mineral dan memiliki bentuk yang

khas. Dia menggambarkan ini dengan kalsit dan beberapa kristal kubik (Gambar 2-1, 3-2).

Hay juga didefinisikan sumbu referensi untuk kristal, dan diakui bahwa semua bidang

kristal terbentuk dari zat tunggal yang memotong sumbu ini pada perbandingan kelipatan

sederhana tertentu. Ini dikenal sebagai Hukum Hay, atau Hukum potongan perbandingan

sederhana.

Susunan teratur titik dalam ruang

Dalam definisi tentang kristal ditunjukkan bahwa kebutuhan mendasar untuk

masalah pembentukan kristal adalah susunan teratur atom konstituen atau ion. Hay

menyarankan mereka bahwa kristal terdiri dari susunan reguler unit sederhana, dan ia

menunjuk partikel dari zat tertentu dengan bentuk fragmen pembelahan pada zat-zat tertentu,

seperti isometrik untuk galena, atau rhombohedral untuk kalsit (gambar.2- 1,2-2).

Dimensi Satu Pola

Hal paling sederhana dari susunan titik teratur dapat ditemukan di baris lurus dari

lingkaran dengan spasi yang sama (Gambar 2-3a). pengaturan ini memiliki sebuah unit

panjang, atau periode, yang merupakan karakteristik dari pola dan yang diulang tanpa batas.

Bagian seperti titik identik dapat dilihat di sebagian besar pola teratur yang tampak. Periode

seperti itu selalu berturut-turut dan sama, terlepas dari mana titik-titik yang terletak di pola.

Jika bidang terdiri dari lingkaran alternatif dengan ukuran yang berbeda (Gambar 2-3b)

panjang jari-jari dapat diukur dari pusat.

Gambar 2-3 pengaturan Reguler atau siklus dalam satu dimensi dengan periode ulang. (A) salah satu

ukuran siklus. (B) dua ukuran, komposisi, AB dan urutan teratur AB, AB, ..... (c)

Komposisi ABC urut ABC, ABC, ..... (d) komposisi ABCD, urutan ABCD, ABCD, ... .

(e) komposisi A2B2C, urutan ABABC, ABABC, ......

Berikutnya objek yang menuju pusat objek identik, dengan pola lebih kompleks dapat

dibangun, namun bukanlah pola linear kecuali ada unit yang berulang secara pasti secara

teratur sepanjang baris, yang diwakili oleh ABC, ABC. ., atau ABCD, ABCD, .. atau

ABABC, ABABC ... Gambar (2-3).

dimensi Dua Pola

Jika jumlah bidang identik, masing-masing pengaturan titik identik reguler berulang

dalam satu arah dengan satuan panjang e (OC pada Gambar 2-4), diletakkan di bidang sejajar

satu sama lain, dengan spasi yang sama dan dengan satu titik di setiap bidang membentuk

garis lurus yang juga merupakan titik identik baris. Bidang baru adalah salah satu dari

sejumlah besar paralel dan sejenis bidang spasi dari satuan panjang OC pada sudut .

Pengaturan baru ini dapat disebut jaring, yang idealnya tidak terbatas dalam satu bidang
dimana hubungan ini terdiri dari sejumlah besar set nonparallel dari deretan satuan panjang

yang berbeda. Setiap panjang dua satuan nonparallel mendefinisikan dua sisi dari jajaran

genjang, yang merupakan unit dari kedua baris membentuk tepi atau di kedua baris diagonal

dari unit penghubung.

Gambar (2-4) pengaturan biasa dalam dua dimensi. (a) Clino-net; terkecil setidaknya Unit bersih

miring mendefinisikan oleh, e, dan . Dua Unit bersih lainnya ditampilkan, yang lebih

rendah berpusat, setiap jajaran genjang servis saya Unit sebagai net untuk membangun

seluruh bersih oleh terjemahan saja. (b) array siklus dengan komposisi AB 2 dengan

satuan bersih dimensi yang sama dengan (a).

Dua baris dari satuan panjang terpendek, dengan sudut mendekati 90 0, biasanya dipilih untuk

menentukan unit penghubung. konvensi khusus dalam beberapa kasus, mengakibatkan

pengecualian untuk aturan ini. Sebuah unit penghubung berbentuk segitiga tidak digunakan

karena tidak akan membangun penghubung.

Jika pola bersih mencakup dua atau lebih jenis lingkaran, AB 2 pada Gambar. 2-4,

unit penghubung harus diakukan dengan memilih satuan panjang a dan c, antara titik identik

dalam dua arah OC dan OA. Dalam hal ini unit dapat dipilih dengan lingkaran A yang

terletak di sudut atau titik hubung.

Jenis khusus dari penghubung bidang

 Secara umum, setiap bidang dapat diartikan oleh unit jajaran genjang dengan sisi

berdekatan sama panjang atau tidak sama panjang (a, c) dan dengan sudut yang belum tentu

sama dengan 900. Jenis ini dapat disebut Clino-net (Gambar. 2 -4). Empat jenis khusus dari

penghubung umumnya: (Gambar 2-5) hubungan orto, di mana unit bersih memiliki tepi

satuan panjang yang tidak sama (a, b), dengan sudut sama dengan 90 0; hubungan rhombo, di

mana unit penghubung sederhana memiliki tepi unit yang sama panjang (a ', a'), dengan sudut

( ') tidak sama 900 atau 600 diagonal hubungan ini berbentuk belah ketupat seperti pada

hubungan orto dengan sebuah titik kisi di pusat dan tepi, sudut b sama dengan 90 0; hubungan

hexa, di mana unit penghubung memiliki tepi satuan panjang yang sama (a, a), dengan sudut

sama dengan 1200; hubungan persegi (atau hubungan tetra), di mana unit penghubung adalah

persegi dengan tepi (a) yang sama dalam satuan panjang, dengan sudut sama dengan 900.

Masing-masing dari hubungan khusus berbeda dari kasus umum kecuali bahwa unit

genjang yang memiliki sifat dimensi khusus. Dalam setiap kasus pola dua dimensi

keseluruhan dapat dibangun oleh unit penghubung.

Gambar 2-5 Empat jenis khusus dari jaring planar mewakili pola penerjemahan dua dimensi

biasa. (A) Ortho-net, Unit bersih persegi panjang, tepi a, b, termasuk sudut 90 0.

Rhombo-net, berpusat Unit bersih (b) persegi panjang, tepi a, b, atau unit bersih
 belah ketupat dengan sudut a1 = a1 dan termasuk '. (C) Hexa-net, Unit bersih

belah ketupat, tepi a1 = a2, termasuk sudut 1200. (d) Square atau tetra-net, tepi a1

= a2, termasuk sudut 900.

Gambar 2-6 (a) Array poin memberikan terjemahan kisi triklinik; tiga kemungkinan tetapi

berbeda unit sel ditampilkan. (B) sedikitnya miring sel satuan yang

didefinisikan oleh elemen a, b, c, , , .

Table 2-1. regular patterns of points in translation rows, nets, and lattices

LATTICE TYPE DIMENSIONS SYMMETRY SEE FIGS

LINEAR ROW c n/m 2/m 2-3, 2-10a
PLANAR NETS
Ciino-net ac 2/m 2-6, 2-10b
Otho-net ab 2-5a, 2-10c
Rhombo-net a (a b) 2/m 2/m 2/m 2-5b, 2-10d
Hexa-net a 6/m 2/m 2/m 2-5c, 2-10e
Square-net a 4/m 2/m 2/m 2-5d, 2-10f
SPACE LATTICE
TRICLINIC
1. Pimitive P abc I 2-6

MONOCLINIC
2. Primitive P abc 2/m 2-7a, 2-12a
3. End-centered C or A 2-7b
ORTHORHOMBIC
4. Primitive P 2-7c, 2-12b
5. End-centered C, B or A abc 2/m 2/m 2/m 2-7d
6. Body-centered I
 7. face-centered F 2-7e
2-7f
HEXAGONAL AND RHOMBOHEDRAL
8. Hexagonal P a c 6/m 2/m 2/m 2-8a, 2-12d
9. Rhombohedral R a c (a1 ) 3 2/m 2-8b, 2-12e, f
TETRAGONAL
10. Primitive P a c 4/m 2/m 2/m 2-8c, 2-12c
11. Body-centered I 2-8d
CUBIC
12. Primitive P 2-9a, 2-13
13. Body-centered I a 4/m 3 2/m 2-9b, c
14. Face-centered F 2-9d, e

Center of each unit parallelogram in one set of parallel lattice nets. This results in a unit cell
with two opposite faces centered. An end-centered lattice may be of monoclinic (figure 2-7b)
or orthorhombic (figure 2-7d) type. If the centered face is perpendicular to c and includes the
a and b axes in orthorhombic lattices or is the plane bounded by a and b in monoclinic
lattices, the lattice is designated by the letter C. If the centered face of the attice includes b
and c the lattice designated A, and if it includes a and c the lattice becomes B. In a given
lattice an end-centered cell has twice the value of primitive cell in the same lattice.

ALL FACE-CENTERED LATTICE.

In an all face-centered lattice each of the three net planes parallel to the faces of the chosen
lattice unit includes lattice point at the center of each unit parallelogram . this all face-
centered cell has four times the volume of a primitive cell in the same lattice. This lattice may
be of orthohombic (figure2-7f) or isometric (figure 2-9d) type, and is designated by the letter
F. An all face-centered cubic (isometric) lattice defines the type of pattern that results from
one method of close packing of spheres, and represents the atomic arrangement: assumed by
many metals the solid state (figures 8-1a, 8-3a).
Figure 2-7 unit cell of translation lattices. (a) primitive monoclinic lattice P, elements a, b, c,
. (b) end-centered monoclinic lattice C, elements a, b, c, . (c) primitive orthorhombic
lattice P, elements a, b, c. (d) end-centered orthorhombic lattice C, elements a, b, c. (e) body-
centered orthorhombic lattice I, elements a, b, c. (f) All face-centered orthorhombic lattice F,
elements a, b, c.

Figure 2-8 unit cell of translation lattices. (a) Primitive hexagonal lattice P, elements a, c, .
(b) Rhombohedral centered lattice R, elements in hexagonal natation a, c; rhombohedral unit
cell has elements a, . (c) Primitive tetragonal lattice P, elements a, c. (d) Body-centered
tetragonal lattice I, elements a, c.

BODY-CENTERED LATTICE
In a body-centered lattice each unit cell of the lattice has an extra lattice point within the unit
at each precise centered. This cell, with double the volume of a primitive cell in the same
lattice, may be of orthorombic (figure 2-7c), tetragonal (figure 2- 8d), or isometric (figure 2-
9b) type, and is designated by the letter I. A number of metals crystallize in a body-centered
cubic structure (figure 8-1b).

RHOMBOHEDRAL LATTICE

The remaining type of special lattice shown in figure 2-8b, is related to a lattice of hexagonal
type. It is best considered as resulting from the regular staggered stacking of a given hexa-net
such that the fourth net is directly over the first, the first and the fourth hexa-net forming a
hexagonal cell with a point from each of the second and third net falling equals spaced along
one of the long body diagonals. This array of points, designated by the letter R, may be joined
to give a primitive cell that is rhombohedral in form with the three edges (a r) equal in length
and the three inter-edge angles () equal but in general not 90 0 or 600. A rhombohedron with
an inter-edge angel of 900 is a cube, and one with an inter-edge of 60 0 is a primitive unit cell
in an all fece-centered isometric lattice (figure 2-9e). Similarly, a rhombohedron with an
inter-edge angel of 1090 28is a primitive unit cell a body-center isometric lattice (figure 2-
9c).

Figure 2-9 unit cell of translation lattices. (a) primitive isometric lattice P, element a. (b)
body-centered isometric lattice I, element a. (c) body-centered isometric lattice I, showing a
 a r 3 2a 109 0 28'.
primitive unit cell which each a rhombohedron with edge and (d)
All face-centered isometric lattice F, element a. (e) All face-centered is a rhomohedron with

ar a / 2 60 0
edge and .

Symmetry In Translation Rows, Nets, And Lattice

The regular array of atoms that that result from crystallization of an element or compound is
often seen to present symmetry. The symmetrical development of crystals of the substance
reflect this symmetry in the arrangement of atoms. Symmetry in an object may be defined as
the exact repetition, in size, form and arrangement , of parts on opposite of plane, line, or
point.

Symmetry in the linear row

The simplest expression of symmetry is seen in the linear row representing regularly spaced,
identical atoms (figure 2-3a). Through each point and midway between each point there is a
plane perpendicular to the row, which may be called a mirror (or reflection) plane of
symmetry; it is designated by the letter m. Every element of the row, when reflected
perpendicularly across the plane, coincides exactly with an identical element on the opposite
side of the plane (figure 2-10a).

Likewise, through each point and midway between any to point there are many axes
perpendicular to the row, which are called twofold rotation axes of symmetry (2). When the
whole row is rotated by 1800 about such an axis it falls into exact coincidence with eacg
original position. The drawing of figure 2-10a shows only those axes of symmetry that are
perpendicular to and parallel to the paper.

It may also be noted that each lattice point and each point midway between two points acts as
a center of symmetry. The operation of a center of symmetry repeats every aspect of an array
by inversion through the point at which the center is located.

The row of points may be considered as having infinite rotational symmetry about its length
and an infinite number of intersecting mirror planes parallel to its length. This rotational
symmetry, designated n, is perpendicular to a set of mirror planes (n/m), * and the twofold
rotation axes are perpendicular to mirror planes (2/m). The complete symmetry of a row of
point identical atoms is then expressed by the symbol n/m, 2/m.

Linear patterns of atoms of more than two kinds, as in figure 2-3c, d, e, do not possess
twofold axes, nor mirror planes, perpendicular to the row; the symmetry in this case is only
nm.

Figure 2-10 Symmetry in a translation row and in the five type translation net. Net nodes are
shown as small open circles. (a) Linear row of points, symmetry n/m 2/m. (b) Clino-net,
symmetry 2/m (c) Ortho-net, symmetry 2/m 2/m 2/m. (d) rhombo-net, symmetry 2/m 2/m
2/m. (e) Hexa-net, symmetry 6/m 2/m 2/m. (f) Square-net (tetra-net), symmetry 4/m 2/m 2/m.

Symmetry in the type of planar net

In the group of four units of a clino-net (figure 2-10b), it is evident that if the net is rotated
1800 about an axis perpendicular to the plane at the center point, the new position is precisely
identical to the first, if a similar is about made an axis perpendicular to the plane through any
net point or any point midway between any two net points, the new position would be like the
first but displaced by multiples of the unit lengths. If the net in considered as being of infinite
extent, rotation 1800 about any of the points shown as 0 results in exact coincidence of the
new and old positions. There is, therefore, a twofold rotation axis through each net point,
perpendicular to the plane of the net (figure 2-10b).
In the ortho-net and rhombo-net, twofold axes are also present at the netpoints and at any
point midway between any two net points. In addition, the net may be repeated in exact
coincidence by folding it over either of the two linear rows, a, b, which intersect at right
angles or across line parallel to a or b through the middle point of each unit net. The rows a or
b in the net are then the traces of mirror planes of symmetry (figures 2-10c, d).

The hexa-net shows sixfold and threefold rotation axes of symmetry (figure 2-10c), requiring
repetition six times an d three times in a single full rotation. Twofold axes are also present. In
this net the short diagonal of the simplest unit parallelogram is equal to and indistinguishable
from the edges of the net unit (a, a). These three equivalent rows are usually designated a 1, a2,
and a3, and each may be the trace of a mirror plane of symmetry. In addition, the three
equivalent rows that are the long diagonals of the unit at 30 0 to the a rows may be the trace of
mirror planes of symmetry perpendicular to the net. If the net points are joined using all three
a directions, a net unit in the fro of a hexagon, with one point at the center, may be chosen.
This unit, which better displays the symmetry of the whole net, also builds up the whole net
pattern by translation. it should be noted here that this type of net represents the closest
possible packing of spheres in two dimensions.

The square net shows fourfold axes of symmetry, which required exact repetition four times
in a full turn of 3600 (figure 2-10f). Twofold axes are also present through certain points on
the net. This net displays mirror planes whose traces fall along the diagonals of the squares as
well as parallel to the edges (a1, and a2). The two diagonals of the unit square define a square
with a point at the center, and with double the area of a simple unit.

In all of these net, representing possible planar arrays of identical circular objects of one kind,
each net point as well as eac point midway between any pair of nets points is a center of
symmetry; each net row which is perpendicular to the trace of a symmetry plane is a twofold
axis each net plane is itself a reflection plane to which the two, three, four, or sixfold axes,
shown in figure 2-10, are perpendicular.

Although all regular planar arrangements of circles may be described in terms of one of these
five nets, some may have less symmetry than that outlined for each type. In figure 2-4b a
pattern of two sizes of circles with composition AB2 has the same symmetry as the clino-net.
In figures 2-11a, b two hypothetical arrangements of composition AB4 are shown. In the first
the array has a square net with all the elements of symmetry shown in figure 2-10f. In figure
2-11b, however, the array possesses the fourfold axis of symetry but lacks mirror planes of
symmetry. The fourfold axes require the net to be square.

Figure 2-11 (a) array of circles, AB4 , with a square-net unit, symmetry 4/m 2/m 2/m. (b) array
of circles, AB4, with a square-net unit, symmetry 4/m. (C) array of circles, AB4 , with a square-
net under the conditions shown, symmetry 2/m 2/m 2/m.

In figure 2-11c a hypothetical array of circles of composition AB4 displays only twofold axes
of symmetry and two mirror planes, as in an ortho-net. Here the unit net may be square
within the limits of measurement, but the equaliti of edge lengths could be only fortuitous,
and under changes of temperature, chausing changes in the size of the circles, the two edges
would be expected to change at different rates.

The elements of symmetry

We have noted the symmetry elements that are possible in regular two dimensional arrays of
identical atoms. These are, two, three, four, and sixfold rotation axes of symmetry (2, 3, 4, 6);
mirror reflection planes of symmetry (m); center of symmetry (I). As we shall see later,
certain crystals may also possess rotatory axes of symmetry, often referred to as composite
symmetry elements; these also may occur as two, three, four, five, and sixfold (2, 3, 4, 6).
The symmetry elements in a translation lattice pass through each lattice point and coincide
with certain lattice rows. Symmetry along a certain lattice row results from a specific atomic
arrangement, in which certain nonparallel lattice rows are identical in period and atomic
arrangement and certain nonparallel sets of lattice planes have identical spacing and atomic
arrangement.

Certain lines in the rhombo-, tetra-, and hexa-nets, parallel to the traces of some mirror planes
and not coinciding with rows of points, are the trace of planes which combine reflection with
translation of half the row period parallel to the line; these are called glide planes of
symmetry. There are also lines in these nets, not coincident with rows of points and
perpendicular to glide planes, which combine twofold rotational symmetry with translation of
half the length of the row period two which it is parallel; these are known as twofold screw
axes of symmetry. Three-dimensional arrays of atoms in some crystal structures may possess
two, three, four, or sixfold screw axes. However, a detailed disscussion of these symmetry
operations is beyond the scope of this book.

Symmetry in the space lattices

The classification of the fourteen translation lattices (i.e. crystal lattices) of all crystals into
the six crystal systems is based primarily on symmetry, although the names of the six crystals
systems, as mentioned on p. 20, are derived from the special dimensional properties of the
lattices required by the symmetry. The lengths of the three lattice rows, a, b, c, with the
values of the included angels, which outline the unit cell, serve to define a given lattice.
These three lattice rows become the axes of reference for crystals.

TRICLINIC LATTICE.

In the triclinic lattice (figure 2-6), with three principal lattice periods unequel in length (a b
c), and interaxial angels ( ) not 90 0, the lattice rows have no symmetry, since the lattice
must be rotated 3600 about any lattice row before it comes into coincidence with the former
position. Each lattice point, and each point midway between any pair of lattice points, is a
center of symmetry. The whole array of points in any lattice comes into coincidence when
inverted through a center of symmetry. The center of symmetry is designated I, which
becomes the symmetry symbol. It must be noted than the presence of a center of symmetry I,
in an array of points, does not require any pair of nonparallel lattice rows to be equal in
length nor to be at any special angle to each other. In a certain crystal structure the lengths a,
b, c, and the angles , , , have specific values. In some crystals two lattice rows may,
fortuitously, be equal within the limits of measurement, or an angle between two rows may be
indistinguishable from 900.

MONOCLINIC LATTICE

the primitive monoclinic lattice (P) shown in figure 2-7a is derived most readily by stacking
clino-net directly over one another, parallel, and with regular spacing. the resulting lattice
has, characteristically, three unequal lattice periods a, b, c with ==900 and 900.
According to a widely accepted convention, the lattice row perpendicular to the set of clino-
nets, which is a twofold rotation axis of symmetry, is labeled the b-axis. The plane through
the lattice coincident with the ac clino-net or midway between two ac clino-nets is a mirror
plane of symmetry and is perpendicular to the b axis. As in the triclinic lattice, each lattice
point and each lattice point midway between any two lattice points is a center of symmetry.
Since the twofold rotation axis is perpendicular to the mirror plane, the symmetry symbol
becomes 2/m. the symmetry arrangement is shown in figure 2-12a.

by definition, monoclinic crystals have a lattice in which the symmetry of the array of points
is 2/m. this symmetry requires one lattice row, here designated b, to be perpendicular to one
set of lattice nets, which is characteristically a clino-net and parallel to the plane of
symmetry.

A second method of stacking clino-nets so that alternate nets are directly over one another
result in an end-centered (figure 2-7b) or a body-centered lattice. The unit of this lattice is

i.e., a b c, 90 , 90
0 0

monoclinic in symmetry and in shape , but one of the

lattice nets, which is perpendicular to the symmetry plane and includes the symmetry axis as
one of its lattice row, os really a rhombo-net. the two diagonals of the rhombic net unit of
define a centered ortho-net, and one of these diagonals becomes the b axis of the monoclinic
lattice, which is again a twofold symmetry axis and perpendicular to the symmetry plane
(figure 2-12a).

In monoclinic lattice the a and c axes are usually chosen arbitarilly, as the two shortest lattice
ac
periods in the clino-net perpendicular to b, often with . in the center lattice, if a and c
are chosen so that the center lattice point is in the ab plane, it is designated C (figure 2-7b). If
the choice of a and c results in the centered point falling in the center of the unit cell, the
lattice is designated I, and if in the bc plane it is designated A.

ORTHOROMBIC LATTICE

The primitive lattice (P) arises from the regular stacking of identical ortho-nets to form a unit

abc 90 0
cell with and (figure 2-7c). In an array of points with these
restrictions, each axis a, b, or c is perpendicular to an ortho-net (ab, bc, or ac) and is a twofold
rotation axis. A mirror plane is found coincident with or midway between each ortho-net.
This result in a symmetry symbol 2/m 2/m 2/m, indicating that each twofold axis is
perpendicular to a mirror plane (figure 2-12b). All lattice points and points midway between
each pair of lattice points are centers of symmetry.

Ortho-nets may also be stacked such that that alternate nets are directly over one another,
again resulting in an orthorhombic lattice but with one ortho-net centered (an end-centered
lattice, figure 2-7d), or with the unit cell body-centered (figure 2-7c) in these lattice the three
edges of the unit cell are again twofold rotation axes of symmetry, each of which is

abc
perpendicular to a mirror plane; also the unit is of the same general form with and

900
interaxial angles .

Orthorhombic lattice will also results from the regular stacking of rhombo-nets. It has already
been noted that a rhombo-net may be described as a centered otrho-net. If rhombo-nets are
stacked directly over one another, an end-centered orthorhombic lattice results (figure 2-7d).
This lattice is of the same type described in the previous paragraph. If rhombo-nets are
stacked in a staggered fashion so that alternate nets are directly over one another, an all face-
centered (F) orthorhombic lattice results (figure 2-7f).

It is important to noted that all four types of orthorhombic lattice possess three, mutually
perpendicular, twofold rotation axes of symmetry, each of which is perpendicular to a mirror
reflection plane of symmetry parallel to the net (ab, bc, or ca) which includes the other two
axes. This is the fundamental the a, b, and c axes of the tha lattice, and they are
characteristically but not necessarily unequal in length. The three centered lattice are
described in term of a centered orthorhombic unit cell rather than in terms of simple cells of
diverse form because they possess the same rotation axes and reflection plane as the
orthorhombic primitive lattice.

cab
In labeling the twofold axes a, b, or c most authors choose an orientation with ; this
choice usually corresponds with habitual elongation of the crystals along the c-axis. The end-
centered lattice may be describe as A, B, or C, depending on the orientation chosen.
Figure 2-12. Symmetry in translation lattice. (a) Monoclinic lattice symmetry 2/m. (b)
orthorhombis lattice, symmetry 2/m 2/m 2/m . (c) Tetragonal lattice, symmetry 4/m 2/m 2/m.
(d) Hexagonal lattice. symmetry 6/m 2/m 2/m . (e) Rhombohedral lattice, symmetry 3 2/m., c
axis vertical (f) Same as (e), with c axis horizontal.

HEXAGONAL AND RHOMBOHEDRAL LATTICE

The simple hexagonal lattice results from the regular stacking of hexa-nets such that the
shortest row joining points in successive nets is perpendicular to the hexa-net (figure 2-8a).
this lattice possesses one sixfold rotation axis of symmetry perpendicular to the hexa-net,
three twofold rotation axes, at 60 0 to one another in theplane of the hexa-net and coincident

a1 , a 2 a3
with the three shortest rows in the net ( and ), and three twofold axes at 300 to the
first set in the plane of the hexa-net and coincident with the long diagonal of the 600 rhomb of
the hexa-net. Each of these seven symmetry axes is perpendicular to a mirror plane of
symmetry (figure 2-12d). the symmetry of the hexagonal lattice thus requires three equal

a1 , a 2 , a 3 a1 , a 2
0
axes at 60 in one plane, and one axis (c) at right angles to the plane (and to

a3
and ). Although the c axis usually shorter or longer than the a axis it may appear to be the

a2
same length within the limits of observation. In the hexa-net the short diagonal ( ) of the
 a1 a2 a1
600 rhomb is the same length at the edges and and is indistinguishable from and

a2
except in position.

a second type of lattice result from the regular stacking of hexa-nets, staggered such that
every third net is connected by a lattice row perpendicular to the net (figure 2-8b). this lattice

a1 a 2 c a1 a 2 120 0
is hexagonal in form, but each unit cell, with and , contains two
extra lattice points located on one long diagonal of the cell at distances of one-third and two-
third of the length from one end. a primitive cell of this lattice may readily be outlined in
three adjoining hexagonal cells, to each of the extra points in each cell at a height c/3 above
the hexa-net. These three periods are equal and have identical angles between each pair. This
primitive unit, so defined , is a rhombohedron. This case of centering is unique. Compared
with centered lattices in other systems, in that the centered lattice (rhombohedral) does not
have the same symmetry as the primitive hexagonal lattice. In the rhombohedral lattice the
unique body diagonal of the rhombohedron (the c axis of the hexagonal cell, perpendicular to
the hexa-net) is a threefold rotatory inversion axis of symmetry. The three planes each
perpendicular to a hexagonal a axis and including the c axis are mirror planes of symmetry,
whereas the three planes parallel to a and c are not planes of symmetry in the rhombohedral
lattice (figure 2-12e,f). the hexagonal a axes are twofold rotation axes of symmetry, whereas
the long diagonals of the 600 rhomb in the hexa-net are not symmetry axes. Thus the
symmetry of the rhombohedral lattice is designated 3 2/m. Both the hexagonal and
rhombohedral lattices have centers of symmetry at all lattice points and at each point midway
between each pair of lattice points.

TETRAGONAL LATTICE

If square nets are stacked directly over one another such that successive nets are parallel, with
like edges also parallel and equally spaced so that the spacing is not equal to the edge length
of the square, and with the shortest row connecting successive nets perpendicular to the

a1 a2
square net, a tetragonal lattice results (figure 2-8c). the two edge row ( and ) and the
two diagonal rwos of the square nets are twofold rotation axes of symmetry, and the rows
perpendicular to the square net ore fourfold axes of symmetry. Each of the axes is
perpendicular to a mirror plane of symmetry 9figure 2-12c). the symmetry is described by the
symbol 4/m 2/m 2/m. again, each lattice point is also a center of symmetry.

a1 a 2
The lattice dimensions are defined by the edge length of the square net and the
period of the row normal to the square net, c, all mutually perpendicular. The length c may be
either greater or less than a. If the diagonal rows of the square net are chosen as the a axes,
the square net becomes a centered square net and the lattice becomes end-centered (C). Since
both the edge rows and the diagonal rows are twofold axes of symmetry they can be
distinguished only by their length.

If identical square nets are stacked in a regular staggered fashion such that the row joining
alternate nets is perpendicular to the square, and points of the intermediate nets fall midway
along the body diagonal, a body-centered tetragonal lattice (I) results (figure 2-8d). This
lattice becomes all face-centered (F) in the diagonals of the square are chosen as the a axes.

In all tetragonal crystals the symmetry 4/m 2/m 2/m requires that the lattice be square in any
section perpendicular to the fourfold axis, and, further, that the interaxial angle be always
right angles. Therefore in tetragonal crystals the a and c axes are characteristically unequal in
length but may appear equal within the limits of observation in some case.

ISOMMETRYC LATTICE.

The most specialized type of lattice is found in the isometric stem where the unit
parallelepiped is a cube with three lattice rows of equal period intersecting 90 0 (figure 2-9a).
The array of points found in each of the three types of isometric lattice has the same
symmetry as the cube. There are three mirror planes of icometri, one parallel to each of the
three cube edges (a1, a2, a3) and perpendicular to each cube face (4/m). Each of the four body-
diagonal axes of the cube is a threefold rotatory inversion axis of symmetry (3). Each lattice
plane that includes two opposite, parallel, cube-face diagonals is also a mirror plane of
symmetry; three are six these. Each face diagonal is an axis of twofold symmetry,
perpendicular to one of the diagonal mirror planes (2/m). The full symmetry of the isometric
lattice is expressed in the symbol 4/m 3 2/m (figure 2-13).
 figure 2-13.simmetry in the lattice, 4 m 3 2/m.

Relation of the crystal lattice to the crystal

A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional array of identical points. this array of points has an
ordered arrangement such that all points fall on straight rows and each point is repeated at a
regular interval along the row. Every pair of nonparallel rows forms a lattice net-plane in
which a unit parallelogram is repeated by translation throughout the net. Any three
noncoplanar rows define a unit parallelepiped, which is repeated by translation through the
array, special types of lattice, making fourteen lattices in all. These may be classified into six
systems on the basis of axez of reference, or into seven system on the basis of lattice
symmetry.

The plane surfaces bounding natural crystals, which we call crystal faces, develop parallel to
certain sets of net-planes in the crystal lattice for a specific substance or mineral species.
Each edge between any pair of nonparallel faces is parallel to a lattice row. If the lattice for a
substance has certain linear and angular dimensions, the angles between corresponding planes
in each lattice domain for a given substance will be identical if measured under conditions of
cohstant temperture and pressure. This is in complete agreement with the law of constancy of
angles: the angles between corresponding faces on different crystals of one substance are
constant.

The symmetry displayed by some lattices requires that certain nonparallel sets of lattice
planes be identical in spacing and bear identical relations to the crystal structure.
Consequently, crystal faces developing parallel to these equivalent sets of lattice planes will
be symetrycally equivalent, anf will be expected to appear in equal development on a crystal.
Such symetrycally equivalent faces together constitute a crystal form, and, conversely, the
identification of certain crystal forms will lead to information about the symmetry of the
internal atomic arrangement.

Crystal projections.

In crystallography, as in many other fields, we are, constantly confronted with the problem of
representing a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional surface. To achieve this we
must utilize variouas kinds of projections, such as the orthographic or clino graphic
projection shown in the pictorial crystal drawings in this book and in standard works of
reference. The orthographic view is a plan or elevation drawn perpendicular to a major axis
crystal. The clinographic view is a trimetric drawing using a standard rotati and tilt of the
principal directions and retaining a parallel perspective. The drawings are useful for showing
the shape and relative sizes of crystal faces but thei are incinvencient for displaying the
angular relations between crystal faces and for deriving the dimensional properties of the
crystal lattice. The significant features of a crystal are not the size and shapes of individual
face (which is what is normally shown by a pictorial drawing) but the angular relations
between them. These angular relations are readily shown by plotting the positions of the
crystal faces as the points of interection of the face normal drawn through a common point,
on a sphere centered at the same point.

In the construction of a crystal projection it is necessary to imagine that the crystal is located
at the center of a sphere. A perpendicular is drawn to eacli face or lattice plane (MNMN in
figure 2-14) through the center of the sphere to intersect the surface; each crystal face or
lattice plane is then represented by a point or pole. P, on the sphere. This lattice plane
through the center of the sphere intersects the surface of the sphere in a circle of maximum
diameter MNMN called a gread circle. Lattice rows may also be represented by apole, or
the intersections of a parallel diameter through the center (points M or N), or by extending
the plane perpendicular to the latice row. Also through the center, to the surface of the
sphere. Any plane that does not pass through the center of the sphere intersects it in a small
circle. An array of poles on a sphere, a spherical projection, will therefore correctly represent
the angular relations.
Figure 2-14 (a) a lattice plane MNMN passing through the center of a sphere at O.OP is
normal to the plane, P is the role of the plane on the sphere. (b) The same lattice plane
parallel to the page. O R is normal to MM, and OQ is normal to NN.

Chap. 2 Cryctallography

Fig 2.22 The crystal lattice whth a unit cell defined by the cell
edges a, b,c and by the interedge angle (not labeled here).
The set of planes XYZ have miller in dices (321)
In figs 2.20,2.21 and 2.22 it will be noted that each crystal face, EF,MN,XYZ etc, is
the outermost lattice plane of a set of lattice plane which are parallel, equidistant, and
geometrically equivalent. Each plane of a st will have different intercept, although thev will
be propertional, depending on the physical size of the crystal and teh location of the origin O.
It can be seen that for the set parallel to MN (fig. 2.21) each plane of the set has the same
Miller indices when the fractions in the reciprocal are cleared tu the simplest integers. Some
planes of the set MN have intercepts as follows

Face intercepts reciprocal indices

 1 1 1
, , 12
MN 6,4, 6 4 230

10 1 3 1
, , , 10
MN 5, 3 5 10 230

8 1 3 1
, , , 8
MN 4, 3 4 8 230

5 5 2 3 1
, , , , 5
MM 2 3 5 5 230

1 1 2 3 1
, , , , 1
mn 2 3 1 1 230

Here, then, we see same of the advantages of Miller indices-they aplly to whole set of
parallel planes, and the indicate the orientation of a face in tercepts of its axes of reference,
irrespective of te size of the ctystal and and the position the origin. From this example, and
from fog. 2.21, and 2.22, it will be observed that each set of lattice planes subdivides the
edges or axial lenghts of the u.... lattice cell a, b, c, into h,k,l, aqual parts, respectively, where
h, k, and l a whole numbers. The Millner indices of a set of lattice planes, or the
corresponding crystal face, may thus be usefull defined as the numbers of parts into whic the
set of planes subdivides the axial periods of the lattice. It follows that an crystal face with
Millner indice (hkl)* intersect the axes a, b, c, at length a/h, b/k, c/l from any lattice point as
origin (fig. 2.22)

We have referred only tu those planes that cut the positive ends of the axes with origin
O. For a full description of the planes in a tattice or the faces on crystal it is necesary to
recognize the direction OA, OB, OC as negative directions fir the axes of the lattice. The
intercepts and indices of the crystal face then have the following values, negative values
being indicated by a ba....

Face intercepts indices

JHI 4, , 100

KLQ , 4, 010

JK 6,6, 110
 IP 6,6, 110

QR 6,6, 110

For proper designation of the position of a crystal face, the origin O must be taken inside the
crystal, then parallel and opposite crystal faces, both members of one set of lattice planes,
have Millner indices in which each index is opposite in sign.

From figs. 2-20 and 2.21 it is further apparent that each set of lattice plane has a
specific spacing and point density. The absolute values of the spacings (perpendicular
distance between two adjacent planes of a set of lattice planes) are proportional, and can be
calculated (or obtainned graphically) from the lattice elements a, b, c, , , amd the Miller
indices. It will be scen also that the spacings and point densities decrease with increase in the
numerical value of the indices of the lattices of the lattice planes.

By further examination of any regular array of points, such as there in a lattice, it is

evident that all planes containing three or more points not in a stainght line are lattice planes
which can be designated with reference to there noncoplanar axes, a,b,c by intercepts that are
whole numbers or infinity, or b Millner indices that are whole number or zero.

Chap. 2 Crystallography

I: was early observed, firts by Hauy, and it has since been recognized as a law of
crystallography, that crystal faces make simple rational intercepts on suitabel crystal axes.
This statement is known as the Law of Hauy (p. 16). Since crystal faces are parallel to lattice
planes, it is axiomatic that the intercepts are whole multiples or submultiples of the lattice
periods a, b, c, which may then be consedered axes of reference for the crystal. It is
importnat to note that that the Law of Hauy intercepts be simple; thus we should expect that
the Miller indices of observed crystal faces should be simple whole numbers. Crystal of most
substances are found to have faces that will index with small single digith numbers as Millner
indices, with reference to a reasonable set of axes a, b, c. Rarely are Millner indices, tor
crystal of simpe development larger that fiv. Crystal of very complex development are
occasionally found of some sub-stance, e.g. calcite, on which some of the face indices larger
than ten.

It follows, and it is generally supported by observaion, that the face most likely to be
found on crystals are those parallel to lattice planes of gratest point density. This has been
enunciated as the Law of Bravais: the relative importance of crystal forms is proportional to
the point densities or spacings of the respective lattice planes. This statement is nearly
equivalent to Hauy is Law, but requires that the order of importance of crystal face (i.e., in
decreasing order of are) correspond with the decreasing order of interplanar spacing in the
lattice. Because point density or spacing can be expressed axecily, Bravas Law is the more
specific. For individual crystals the Law is found to be only approximately true. Numerous
factors, such as the particular atomic arrangement, the physical conditions of formation, and
the presence of minor chemical elements in in the original solution, influemce the general
development of crystals, commonly know as the crystal habit. If crystals of a minerals of
decreasing size of faces obtained from a statistical average of the different habits, the Law of
Bravais is more nearly satisfied.

Cystal Edges, Lattice Rows, and Zone Axes

Two nonparallel crystal faces meet in a line that is called an edge; it coincides with
the row of lattice points common to the intersecting planes. A lattice row is one of a set of
parallel lattice row with common direction and poind. Figure 2.23 represents a cross-section
of a crystal bounded by faces (001) (parallel to the drawing) and (110) (DE); (100), (DK);
(010), (EE), (430), (EF); (100), (FF); (120), (FJ): and (230), (JK). The adge DE between
(001) and (110) is equivalent to the lattice row joining origin O to lattice point G, whose
cordinates ere 110. The indices (uvw)* of lattice row OG, ore crystal edge DE, are therefore
[340], and in like manner a crystal edge inclined to all the axes is denoted by the coordinates
of the firts lattice point uvwon the parallel row passing through the orogin.

On crystal several faces may itersect i parallel edges that are all parallel to the some
lattice row. Such a group of face is called a zone, and the lattice row common to two ore
more nonparallel crystal faces is generally called a zona axis. From figs. 2.20 and 2.21 we see
that each set of lattice rows has a speding period, which is the distance between
successivepoint in the row, and common quently a specific poimt density, which is the
reciprocal of the period. That can be calculated from a, b, c, , , and u, v, wor obtained
graphycall. A increasig complexity of indices [uvw]is accopanied by increase in lattice and
therefore decrease in point density.

This provides a useful alternative statement of the Law of Bravais: The row of crystal
growth in any lattice directions is is proportional to the point density in that direction In Fig.
2-23, for example, suppose the plane (001) has the greatest point density in the lattice (thus
will be true if c is longer than a and b); according to the useful statement of the Law of
Bravais, it will bethe largets face. But if this plane has the greatest point density, it will
contain the two denset lattice rows [100] and

Fig. 2.23 The same net as that in fig. 2.20, showing

the edge DE with indice [110] and EF with indices [340].

CHAP.2 CYSTALLOGRAPHY

[010]. According to this alternative statement of the law of Bravis, crystal growth will be
most rapid in these direction, and therefore face[001] will again the largest. This law of
crystal growth is clearly displayed in habitually elongated crystals, in which the shortest
lattice period coincides with the direccetion of elongation, and in habitually tabular crystals,
in which the plane of tabular development contains the two shortest lattice periods. It fllows
that the ncarer the three shortest lattice periods approach one another in length the more
nearly equidimensional wiil be the crystal development, and isometric crystals will
normally be eaquant or will approach a rough sphere if many crystal faces are displayed. As
stated previously, the law Bravais is only approximately true in the development of a
particular crystal. Atomic arrangement and enviormental conditions at the time of formation
affect the growth, so the statement is a generalization rather a rigorous law.

Zone Relationships

Certain zone relationships, which apply to the miller indices and zone axis indices, are very
useful to thecrystallorgrapher . These relation may be derived from the equations of planes
and lines that pass through the origin. A brief of these relation follows.
 Consider, as an example, the three planes (h1k1L1),(h2k2l2),(h3k3l3) which pass througt
the origin and intersecect along the same starigtht line. This is equivalent to saying that the
in three equations for the planes have one system of solutions (Donnay, 1934):

y z
h1 +k 1 +h =0
b c

x y z
h2 +k 2 + l 2 =0
a b c

x y z
h3 + k 3 +l 3 =0
a b c

The will be the case if the determinant of the coefficients is equal to zero,

h1 k 1 l 1
h2 k 2 l 2 =0
h3 k 3 l 3

For then all elements of a row are multiplied by the same factor, the determinant is
multiplayed by the factor. If this determinant is multiplied by confantors, condition that the
palnes belong to the same zone may be written

k 2 l2 l h h k
h1 + 2 2 k 1+ 2 2 l 1=0
k 3 l3 l2 h 2 h3 k 3

Which, by expansion and substitution, gives the formula

h1 u +k 1 v +l 1 w =0

k 2 l 3k 3 l 2 v=l 2 h2l 2 h2 w=h2 k 3h3 k 2

Where u=

Therefore :
1. The plane (hkl) belongs to the zone [uvw], i.e., includes the lattice row [uvw] if ...
Hu + kv + lw = 0
2. The plane (hkl) belongs to two zones [u1, v1, w1] i:k:l = .....
v w v w w u w2 u1 u v u v
h:k:l = ( 1 2 2 1 ):( 1 2 )( 1 2 2 1 )

This relation may be remebered by the following operation of cross-multiplication.

3. Similarly, the zone [uvw] is common to the two palens (h1, k1, l1) and (h2, k2, l2)if u:v
(k1l2-k2l1): (l1h2-l2h1):(h1k2-h2k2). This is analogous to the preceding formula and be
remembered in the same way. From fig. 2.23 the zone axis common to (001) and may be
determined as follows:

From which [uvw] =

4. The plane (h2,k2,l2) will belong to the same zone as does (h1, k1, l1) and (h2, k2, l2) if

h2=h1+ h2 , k 3=k 1+ k 2 danl 3=l 1 +l 2

Atau jika
h3=h1h2 , k 3=k 1k 2 dan l 3=l 1l 2

Atau jika
h3=mh1 n h2 , k 3=m k 1 k 2 dan l 3=ml 1 n l 2

Study and Measurement of Crystals

In exmining crystaly of minerals or chemical substance, measurement interfacial

angles and a study of the symmetry may provide diagnostic information about the substance.
Symmetry may be desuced from the geometric development of the crystal in its gross
appearance, and from similarity familiar geometrical froms, supplemented by the
measurement of interfaci angles. Angular measurement usually enable the plotting of a
stereograph or gnomonic projection of the crytal. The resulting array of face poles wich then
display the symmetry of the crystal. This method is essential in the cas of complex or very
small crystals.

In an antomic arrangement possesing certain symmetry, certain interplanar and inter-

row angles will be aqual in value, and certain nonparallel lattices planes will intersect certain
axes at equal angles. This is ilustrated in a simple manner in fig. 2.24, which compares
croos_sections of two crystals in which a principal axis is perpendicular to the plane of the
drawing. In fig. 2.24b it is an ortho-net. I fig. 2.24b lattice row OA ia the trace of a mirror
plane of symmetry perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. The presence of this

CHAP 2. Crystallography

Fig. 2-24 one lattce plane in two different crystal: (a) a clino-net, (b)

an ortho-net. The plane of symmetry in (b) parallel to OA requires

the equivalent of OG and OH in period, the spacing of (110),

the angles AOB,AOB, and the angles BOG,HOB.

Mirror reflection plane of symmetry requires the following: OG=OH;

the spacing of (110) equal to(110) (also perpendingcular to the drawing);
0
and the angle AOB=AOB= 90 . Therefore the planes (110) and (110) are

equivalent. From the law of bravis we would expect these two faces,(110)
and to be equal in size on a crystal with the lattice of fig. 2-24b.
symmetry is a feature of of the atomic arrangement, and equivalence of
certain lattice planes is a consequence of symemmetry, whereas the
growth of a crystal in different directions in space may be affected by
various outside influeneces. Thefore , in a crystal (fig.2-24b) we will find
that planes OH and GO make equal angles with OA and OB, but that the
resulting crystal faces (110) and (110)vmay be different in size due to the
addition of more material in the direction of OG than in OH or vice versa.
This the is the essence of crystal grows symemetry , and this symemetry
is stiil presnt whether or not the crystal grows exactly the same amount
OG and OH

Here, the infinite variety formend in all natural objects is evident, it is

rare to find two indentical crystals of one mineral even among many
hundereds formed under similar conditions at particular locality. Likewise
it is rare formed indeed to find a crystal as perfect in delopment as the
wooden models commonly used for study. Thus planes, which are
symmetriacally equivalent and bear an indetical to the atomic
arregement, have indentical interplanar spacings and indentical angles
with respect to symemetry elements.

We may expext them to develop to appoximmately the same size on a

crystal, but ouside influeneces may affect this. Also, occsaonally outside
influences may cause two faces, which are parallel to nonequivalent
lattice planes, to develop to about the sme extent on some crystal.thus
mineral crystal from certain.

Localities may display an unusual development of faces. The crystal

of averal development for the spacies will usually show geometrical
symmetry corretly reflect the symmetry of the internal atomic
arrangement.the pseudosymmetry is used when a crystal of a species
displays a symmetrical development that differs from the symmetry of the
crystal structure of the species. Geometrical solid models can be used to
illustrate the features of crystal symmetry, but crystal simmetry does not
require the perfection of geometry symmetry.
 Permukaan sudut antara indeks

JHI 4, , 100

KLQ , 4, 010

JK 6,6, 110

IP 6,6, 110

QR 6,6, 110

One of the best methods for comprehending the distinction between

crys and goemetric symmetry, and at the same time obesrving the Law of
Constan of Interfacial Angles, is to study a number of hexagonal crystal of
two or more substances which are readily available in most collection.

When we examine a number of single crystal of quartz, apatite,

beryl, corundum, we find that a cross-section of the crystal in a plane
perpendicular the usual axis of elongation is essentially six-sided or
hexagonal. The six face that outline the crystal, and which are parallel to
the axis of elongtation, for what is termet a hexagonal prism. Let us
examine thei cross-section uotline more closely, make a scale drawing of
the outline of several crystals, an measure the lengths of the sides and
the angles between the faces in the plane of the section. Taking into
account the arrors of measurement, we find that the interfacial angles are
aqual but that the lengths of the sides are not equal. In some cases the
sides are nearly equal, and the outline approaches a geometrically perfect
hexagon; in others there is extreme variability in the lengths of the sides.
However, on any of the previuosly named crystals we find that, on the
same crystal, the angle between two faces that meet in an edge will be

600 withinthe errors of measurement. Thus, crystals of this sort are

described a being hexagonal in outline, and the angles between

corresponding pairs on faces on different crystals are identical (constant).
This property of crystal so intersted Nicolaus Steno in 1669 that he sawed
thruogh several quartz crystals in order to measure the internal angles
directly an so convince himself of the Law of Contancy of Interfacial
Angles.

Intervacial angles must be measured in a plane perpendicular to

both of the crystal face conterned. This may be done with simple contact
goniometer* consisting of a printed protractor with a straight strip of a
celluliod that is pivoted at the center ant which has a hairline scratch that
is read against the scale (fig. 2.25). The goniometer is held with the
staight edge of the protractor in

A convenient model for general class use is available from Wards

Natural Science Establisment, Rochester, N. Y.

Stereographic projection of an orthorombic crystal , including the points located the constructions of
figs. 2-27,2-28.

Result in the plotting of planes (h0l) of the zone (010). These may be combined in a full projection ,
as in fig.2-30. If we now look back to the lattice net drawing , fig 2-27 a, and visualize c axis
emerging perpendicular to the paper at the center , with planes cutting both a and b at 1 unit but tilted
to cut the c axis at 1,2,3 , etc, units or cutting both a and b at 2 units , and c at 1,2,3, etc, units, we
have the planes (hhl) , i.c., (111), (221) , etc, in the zone (110) . the planes ( 001) and (110) are also
in this zone. A cross-section of this zone in shown in fig. 2-29a; it may be transferred to the sphere on
a great circle . on tehe stereographic projection this great circle becomes a dimaeter of the primitive
joining (110) and (110) and including all planes whose miller indices have the first two indices alike.

It may be further demonstrated that all planes, in which two of the incides, have the same ratio
throughout , belong to the same zone ( fig. 2-30), for example ( 010(, (241), (211), (221) ,(201), (211);
or (100), (211), (111), (011), (111). If the indices of two non parallel faces are added together ( p,
50) , the sums are the indices of a face lying between the two faces and in the sames zone . this
remains true if the miller indices of one or both planes are multiplied by a simple whole number ; i.e
(110) + (001) = (111), ( 110 ) + ( 002 ) = ( 112 ) , ( 201) + ( 010 ) =( 211 ), and so on.

Lattice Symmetry Displayed in Projections

The distribution of lattice pointsis figs . 2-27 and 2- 28 is such that the lattice has twofold axes of
symmetry parallel to a and c and mirror planes of symmetry parallel to OA, OB and OC . A third
drawing of the lattice in the section ac would show twofold symmetry about the b axis. This is the
full symmetry 2/m 2/m 2/m of the orthorhombic lattice . since the distribution of points as shown in
these drawings is required by this symmetry, it will be further noted that the planes (110) , (110),
(110) are also equifalent in spacing and point dencity , and are therefore consivered equivalent in this
crystal lattice.

This combination of symmetrically equivalent planes is known as a crystal form , and writing the
miller indices (110) implies all the faces of the form in a given symmetry. It will be evident that for
orther miller indices there are a group equivalent planes that can be denoted by form symbols : {120}
, {130} , {011}, {021} , and so on.

This equivalence of planes in this symmetry is evident also in the stereographic projection (Fig. 2-30).
The poles of (110) , (110), (110), (110) fall on the corners of the rectangle with sides parallel to the
east-west and north-south directions of the projection; these directions then are the traces of vertical
symmetry planes , parallel to the ac and bc nplanes of the lattice. Further , a line perpendicular to the
center of the rectangle has twofold rotational symmetry that coincides in direcctio with the vertical
symmetry axis , c, in the lattice. The poles of the forms {110}, {120}, etc. Also fit in with this
symmetry.

The poles of the zone (0kl) show, on projection, a distribution that fits in with the vertical twofold
axis and two vertical mirror planes, and, in addition , a horizontal mirrro plane when each form (0kl)
includes (011) , ( 011) , (011), or (021), (021), (021), (021), and so on (Fig .2-28). Those planes with l
plus are shown by + and those with l minus by o in later projections ( Figs . 2-45, 2-47, etc). If we
examine the poles of faces (hkl) we find thar, for example (111), (111), (111), and (111) are equivalent
in position as in (110) , but each is represented in the projection by both + and o (Fig.249) ; therefore
(111), (111), (111), (111) are also equivalent to those with l plus , making eight equivalent planes . this
is evident from the lattice drawings of Figs. 2-28a and 2-29a, if we realize that the section of the
lattice parallel to OX (Fig.2-27) has its exact counterpart in the section parallel to OX1. In fact, they are
indistinguishable except by our arbitrary labeling of the axes. Further , it is clear that all forms of the
type (hkl) include eight equivalent planes. Thus the stereographic projection can be used to illustrate
crystal symmetry , since the positions of the face poles are determined by the angular relations and not
by the size of faces.

Construction Of The Stereographic Projection

When constructing a stereographic projection , first a prominent zona axis is chosen as a

vertical axis. In hexagonal or tetragonal crystals the c axis is ussualy chosen as the vertical
axis , regardless of the habit of the crystal. The interfacial angles in this zone may be
measured with a goniometer as described on p.52. the face poles are then readily plotted on
the primittive circle, using a plain dixided circle , or on a tracing paper overlying a wulff net.

ZONES AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE VERTICAL AXIS . Other zones which may include two faces n the
vertical zone may often be recognized on a crystal. If these zones include a terminal face that
is perpendicular to the vertical axis , the poles of the faces will lie in a vertical great circle of
the sphere. They may be located by laying of the interfacial angles along a dimaeter of the
projection that joins the poles of the two vertical faces. Using the wulff net this is readily
done by adjusting the tracing paper until this diametre coincidies with the east-westline of the
net. The poles may then be located by laying off the first angle from a vertical face along the
east west diameter, starting from east or west and using the stereograhic scale on the net .
each pole on the zone is the plotted.

These poles may also be plotted b drawing a circle of equal diameter to the primitive circle
(figs.2-28b or 2-29b). An east- west diameter to this circle is drawn; the ends o this diameter
represent the poles of the faces (100) ,(100), (010), (010); or (110), (110); [or , in general,
(hk0) and (hk0) which lie in the vertical zone and in the zone to be plotted . this circle is a
vertical section of the spere , and the north-south pole is the c axis direction with the pole of
(001) at the north except in the monoclinic or ticlinic systems. Next, the angles (hko) ^ (hkl) ,
or (hk0) ^ (hk2) , or (001) ^ (hkl) , etc, are laid of on the circle . the poles of (hk1)or (hk2) are
then located on the northern circumference of the circle, and these points are joined to the
south pole (Fig. 2-28b,2-29b). The points of intersection of these lines with the east-west
diameter are the stereographic poles of the faces in the zone (hk0) (001) (hk0) . This east-
west line is the transferred with the located poles to the appropriate diameter of the projection
(Fig.2-30).

ZONES INCLINED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS. In many crsytals zones of faces will be obsereved fore
whch the zone axis , as evidenced by the intersection edges. Between faces, is not
perpendicular to the chosen vertical axis. All zones in triclinic crystals will have this
property , but such zones may also be observed in crystals of other sytems . The interfacial
angles may be measured in the same way-form one vertical zone face (p) to each face in the
inclined zone. It will be necessary to measure the interfacial angle from one terminal face(Q)
in the zone to some other vertical face (R). Any terminal face common to two zones may be
located as follows .

Using the wulff net: locate the vertical face P on the tracing paper at N on the wulff net (Fig.
2-31a). Measure the angle P^Q on the diameter from N toward the center , and draw a small
circle at the angle P^Q from N. The desired pole will be found on this small circle. Turn the
tracing through angle P^R until R falls at N on the net. Measure the angle Q^R along the
diameter from N , and again draw a small circle through the point on the diameter . The point
Q then lies at the intersection of the two small circles.

Locating face poles on a stereographic projection. (a) Locating a pole Q from measured
angles P^R , P^Q , and Q^R, using a wulff net. (b) Locating a pole Q from the same angles,
using direct construction . (c) Locating a pole A in the same zone as P and Q .

Using only a divided circle (fig. 2-31b): plot poles P and R on the primitive circle.
Draw radii OR and OP. Locate points d and e by the angle Q R to either side of R; and m
and n by angle P Q to either side of P. Locate s and s 90 from R and P, respectively. Join
es and ns. The intersections, f and l, on OR and OP, give the stereographic projection of
angle R Q and P Q, respectively. Draw a small circle, with center on OR extended, to
pass through def; all points on this circle will be separated from R by the angle R Q.
Similarly draw a small circle, with center on OP extended, through mnl. The point of
intersection of the two small circles will be the pole Q.

In order to plot other faces that are in the same zone as faces P and Q (Fig. 2-31a) it is
necessary to construct the great circle through P and Q. This is readily done by turning the
tracing until P coincides with north on the Wulff net, and drawing the meridian through Q
from P to south on the net. Without the net this may be accomplished (Fig. 2-31c) by
drawing an arc through PQT with center on UOV extended. This great circle intersects UOV
at W. By extending PIV to the primitive at X; laying off 90 to Y; joining PY; we locate the
pole of the great circle PQWT at Z. ZQ extended to the primitive at m cuts off the angle P
m = P Q. Any other face A in the same zone with P, Q and T may be located by laying off
the angle P A on the primitive, joining AZ to locate A, the pole of face A.

A may be readily located, using the net, by reading the number of degrees of latitude, P
A, along the longitude parallel to the great circle PQT. The angle between any two poles
may be read in degrees of latitude along a longitude passing through both. The great circle
through any two poles A and A may be readily located by turning the projection over the
Wulff net to bring both points on to the same meridian that is the required great circle.

Determination of the Axial Ratio

In stereographic projection the ratios of the lengths of any two axes can be determined
graphically if the position of any face cutting these two axes and parallel to the third is known
on a stereographic projection. That is: a face (hk0) will give the ratio a:b; (h0l) the ratio a:c;
and (0kl) the ratio b:c. Any two will suffice to determine the axial ratio for an orthorhombic
crystal, which is always stated in the following way:

a:b:c = x:1:z

In tetragonal and hexagonal crystals the location of one face cutting c and either a axis will
give the ratio stated as:

a:c = 1:z

For monoclinic and triclinic crystals, more information is required. The following paragraphs
illustrate the graphical derivation of the axial ratio for orthorhombic crystals.

On a circle of any diameter lay off the position of the poles of (100), (hk0), (110, 120,
etc.), and (010) (Figs. 2-32a,b). Draw a tangent to the circle at (hk0) [this tangent is parallel to
the trace of a lattice plane (hk0) in the plane ab].
Fig. 2-32 Graphical derivation of the axial ratio of an orthorhombic crystal in
stereographic projection. (a) a:b from the pole (110). (b) a:b from the pole (120). (c) b:c
from the pole (011). (d) b:c from the pole (021). (e) a:c from the pole (101). (f) a:c from
the pole (201).

This tangent cuts the radius of the circle through (100) (the a axis) at e, and the radius
through (010) (the b axis) at f. The axial ratio a:b = h(oe):k(of) = (h cot )/k:1, where is the
polar angle (010) (hk0).
Fig. 2-33 Graphical derivation of the axial ratio of an orthorhombic crystalin
stereographic projection and locating any face pole for a given axial ratio. (a) a:b:c from
the pole (111). (b) a:b:c from the pole (241). (c) locating the pole (432) for the axial ratio
a:b:c = 0.75:1:0.65.

The a:c and b:c ratios may be obtained in a similar way from faces (h0l) or (0kl) (Figs.
2-32c,d,e,f) where b:c = k(of):l(og) = 1:(l tan )/k and a:c = h(oe):l(og) = 1:(l tan )/h.

The ratio may also be obtained from the position of a point hkl (Figs. 2-33a,b). Draw a
radius of the primitive circle through the point (hkl) to the circle: its intersection on the
primitive is (hk0), which may or may not be present in the particular case. Draw a tangent to
the primitive at (hk0) to cut the radii through (100) and (010) at e and f , respectively. The a:b
ratio is then h(oe):k(of). Draw a diameter parallel to the tangent at hk0; this diameter will
represent the c axis folded down onto the paper with the positive end in the northeast
quardant. Draw a line mn from the negative end of c at the primitive through the pole of hkl
to the primitive beyond at n. The radius on is normal to (hkl) in the new orientation. Draw the
trace of (hkl), through the pole of (hk0), normal to on, and extend to cut the c axis at g. The
complete axial ratio is now a:b:c = h(oe):k(of):l(og).
Ploting Faces When The Axial Ratio Is Known

Knowing the axial ratio, faces cen be plotted simply by reversing the foregoing
procedure and construction. First plot the position of a face (hk0) for a crystal with axial ratio
x:1:z (Fig. 2-33c). On a primitive circle of any suitable radius, with the north-south axis as the
pole of (100) and the east-west axis as (010), take the radius as unity to represent the b axis,
and measure the length (ka)/h from (001) toward (100) at e. Join ef, and draw a radius of the
circle perpendicular to this line; where this perpendicular cuts the primitive circle is the
position of the pole of (hk0). On Fig. 2-33c the line ef is the trace of the (hk0) plane. Draw the

c axis as a line C OC parallel to ef, and lay off og equal to (ke)/l. The trace of (hkl) is the
line joining g with x, the intersection of ef and the radius to (hk0). Draw the radius on
perpendicular to gx; join mn the correct projection point for (hkl) is the intersection of mn
with the radius to (hk0). Similar constructions can be used to plot (0kl) and (h0l) faces.

Axial Ratios From Interfacial Angles

In the case of crystals of simple development, axial ratios may be calculated directly
from interfacial angles.

G. Tunell* presents concisely the formulac relating interfacial angles to axial elements
in the general case of a triclinic crystal. These formulac may be used as a basis for deriving
simpler formulac for obtaining the axial ratio in the other system. For crystals other than
those of the triclinic and isometric systems, some of the simpler relations are given in Table
2-II, and are illustrate in Figs. 2-34 through 2-37,

*G. Tunell, and J. Murdoch (1957), Laboratory manual of crystallography for students of mineralogy
and geology. Wm. C. Brown & Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
Table 2-II Some formulae relating interfacial angles to
axial elements
Tetragonal Crystals (Fig. 2-34) (010) (110) = 45; a1 = a2 for all crystals
(001) (h0l)
or (0hl) a:c = 1:[l tan (001) (h0l)]/h
(001) (hhl) a:c = 1:[l tan (001) (hhl) sin 45]/h
cot ( 100 ) ( 111)
(100) (111) a:c = 1: cos[sin 1 cot ( 100 ) (111)]
 (001) (hkl) a:c = 1:[lk sin (tan h/k) tan (001) (hkl)]/h

Hexagonal Crystals (Fig.2-35) (10 1 0) (01 1 0) = 60 and (10 1 0) (11 2 0) =
30

(0001) (hh 2 hl a:c = 1:[l tan (0001) (hh 2 hl ]/2h

(0001) (h0 h l a:c = 1:[l tan (0001) (h0 h l sin 60]/h

Orthorhombic Crystals (Fig. 2-36)

(010) (hk0) a:b = [h cot (010) (hk0)]/k:1
(010) (0kl) b:c = 1:[l cot (010) (0kl)]/k
(010) (h0l) a:c = 1:[l tan (001) (h0l)]/h
(001) (hkl) a:b:c = [h cot (010) (hk0)]/k:1: [l cos (010)
(hk0) tan (001) (hkl)]/k
Monoclinic Crystals(Fig. 2-37) (100) (001) = = 180
(100) (110) a:b = [tan (100) (110)]/sin :1
(001) (011) b:c = 1:[tan (001) (110)]/sin

TETRAGONAL AND HEXAGONAL CRYSTALS. For tetragonal or hexagonal crystals the

axial ratio may be calculated from the interfacial angle between a face perpendicular to the c
axis and one intersecting the c axis and one or more a axes, or an interfacial angle between a
face parallel to c and one intersecting c, providing both cut the same a axes. (Figs. 2-34, 2-
35).

ORTHORHOMBIC CRYSTALS. In order to derive the two values of the axial ratio for
orthorhombic crystals it is necessary to have two interfacial angles. If one of these angles is
between two faces that are parallel to the same axis of reference, this angle will yield the ratio
between the other two axes. A second angle between one of these faces and a face
intersecting the third axis will readily yield the relative length of the third axis (Fig. 2-36).

MONOCLINIC CRYSTALS. For monoclinic crystals calculation of the axial ratio is more
involved and requires at least three measured angles. The angle the obtuse angle between
the a and c axesis most easily obtained from the polar angle (100) (001). An angle
between two faces parallel to the c axis will give the ratio between b and the projected length
of a is equal to a sin , a may be determined. Similarly, an angle between two faces parallel
to a will give the ratio of b to the projected length of c in a direction normal to a. This
projected
Fig. 2-34 tetragonal crystals, the axial ratio a:c derived from interfacial angles. (a) From d =
(001) (011) or e = (010) (011). (b) from f = (101) (201). (c) and (d) from g = (110)
(111)

Length is equal to c sin . The simpler angular relations leading to an axial ratio are given

in the diagrams of Fig. 2-37

The Gnomonic Projection and Two-Circle

Goniometer Crystal Measurements
The gnomonic projection provides the most convenient method of treating

measurements obtained from the two-circle goniometer, especially for crystals with numerous

faces. The two-cyrcle angles, V and H (see p.55), obtained from one setting of teh crystal for

all faces in the zone of adjustment and terminating one end of this zonal axis, enable the
direct plotting of the face poles in either stereographic or gnomonic projection. Thus the

projection shows the

Fig. 2-35 Hexagonal crystals, the axial ratio a:c derived from interfacial angles. (a) and (b) from d =
(0001) (1121) or c = (1120) (1121). (c) and (d) from f = (0001) (1011) or g = (1010) (1011).
Fig. 2-36 orthorhombic crystals, the axial ratio a : b: c derived fro interfacial angles. (a) a:b from d =
(100) (110) or e = (010) (110). (b) a:bfrom f = (100) (120) or g= (010) (120). (c) and (d)
a:b:c from a:b and i = (001) (111) or h= (110) (111)

complete face development of one end of the cyrstal in relation to the face of the vertical

zone. In the gnomonic projection, zone of faces other than the vertical zone fall on straight

lines rather than ares of circles as in the stereographic projection. This array of points will, on

inspection, display the symetry of the crystal at least in part, especially any symmetry

elements that are parallel to a lattice row that is not one of the axes of the unit cell in the more

symmetrical crystals, the symmetry of the crystal may not be readily apparent. If the crystal

belongs to the isometric, tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, or monoclinic systems, the

array of point will usually display a symmetrical distribution about the vertical axis as a four,

six, three, or twofold symmetry axis. In the first four of these systems, two or more symmetry

planes, intersecting the center of the projection, may be apparent; in monoclinic crystals,

projections, with b vertical will shows a twofold axis, and with a or c vertical they will show
one mirror plane through the center. Projections of triclinic crystals display no symmetry,

regardless of the axial of adjustment.

In any gnomonic projection a net composed of two parallel sets of equally spaced

lines may be drawn through the points, and a repeat unit, with a shape appropriate to the

symmetry, may be chosen; a square in isometric and tetragonal crystal; a 60 0 rhomb in

hexagonal crystals; a rectangle in orhorhombic crystals. In these, one node of chosen net will

fall at the center of the projection. In monoclinic crystals with a or c vertical the net will be

rectangular, but a node will not ussualy fall at the center of the projection. If the b axis is

vertical in monoclinic crystals, the net unit will be a parallelogram with one node at the

center. With triclinic crystals the net unit will also be a parallelogram, but, in general, a node

of the will not fall at the center of the projection.

The axial elements of a crystal, obtained from morphological angle measurements,

will correspond closely to the correct unit cell of the latitce obtained from x-ray diffraction

measurements, if the largest faces in the major zone are assigned the simplest

indices.Exceptions to this rule are numerous, due to: unusual form development of crystals

resulting from particular conditions during growth at some localities; the presence of a

centered lattice; or the presence pf glide planes or screw axes of symmetry in the structure

parallel to reflection planes or ratation axes of symmetry in the crystal morphology.where the

measurements have been made with the c axis vertical, and in those systems with orthogonal

axes, the gnomonic net node at the center is assigned the coordinates 00.

In isometric crystals the four net nodes falling in the primitive circle and on two

mutually perpendicular net rows are assigned coordinates 10, 01, 10, 10. Thus the gnomonic

net unit is a square with edge (po)equal to the circle radius (fig. 2-38a). The other nodes of the

net have coordinates 11, 21, 12, 22. . . .

 In tetragonal crystals the edge length of any square in the gnomonic net will not be the

same as the circle radius. Ussually the node representing the largest faces are assigned the

coordinates 10, 01, 10, 01, defining the net unit with edge poWhich is not equal to circle

radius ro. These elements po and ro are mesured in direction normal to (100) and (001) in the

lattice. The other nodes of the net have coordinates 11, 21,12,22, . . . . (Fig. 2-38b). The face

represented by the node 11, is, ideally, the largest in the zone 00, 11, 22. . . . face poles may

1 1 11 1 1
0, 0 , 0, 1
also occur with coordinates 2 2 , 22 3 2 . . . . normally these faces are also

less important on the crystal than 10, 01, 11.

In hexagonal crystals a sixfold or threefold distribution of face poles is present.

Fig. 2-37 monoclinic crystals, the axial elements a:b:c and derived from interfacial angles.
(a) = (001) (100) or (001) (100), = 1800 - =(100) (001) or (100) (001). (b) x = projected
length of a normal to c, and y = projected length of c normal to a.(c) a:b from d = (100) (110) or e
= (010) (110), (d) b:cfrom g = (001)(011) or f= (010) (011).
Fig. 2-38 gmomonic projections of a typical crystal from each system. The gnomonic net unit is
defined by the square, rectangle, or pallelogram with projevtion points (001), (101), (111), and (011)
(omitting the third index in the hexagonal) at the corners. The projection elements-the constants which
define the gnomonic net- are related to the axial elements by the formulae in table 2-III.
 a) Isometric crystal, gnomonic net unit with elements po = ro = 1.
b) Tertagonal crystal, gnomonic net unit with elements po , ro = 1.
c) orhorhombic crystal, gnomonic net unit with elements po,qo, ro = 1.
d) Hexagonal crystal, gnomonic net unit with elements po , ro = 1 and angle =600
e) Monoclinic crystal with c as vertical axis, gnomonic net unit with elements po1, qo1, ro 1= 1.
f) Monoclinic crystal with bas vertical axis, gnomonic net unit with elements p2, q2, r2 = 1, and
angle = (p2r2).
g) Triclinic crystal, gnomonic net with elements po1, qo1,(ro = circle radius), x01, y01, the offset of
(001) from the center, and v the angle between po1andqo1

In gnomoic projection. The poles representing the largest faces are ideally assigned

coordinates 10, 01, 1 1, 1 0, 0 1 , 1 1 in the net with the two coordinates axes at

600. The projection on polar element p0 is measured in a direction perpendicular to (100)in

the latice and usually difers in lenght from r0, the circle radius (Fig. 2-38d). In a gnomonic

projection of a rhombohedral crystal such as calcite, face poes with coordinates 10, 1 1, 0

1 1 1 1
1 ; 0 2 0, 2 2 will usually occur, in keeping with the
2 , 2 0, 2 2 ; or 02,

rhombohedral lattice. (Compare the stereographic projection Fig. 2-56.)

With orthorombic crystal, the net unit is a rectangle with one node 00 at the center and

nodes 10, 01, 1 0,0 1 on mutually perpendicular net rows. Again 10, 01, 11, etc. Are

assigned to the poles representing the largest faces in the zones 10, 20, ...; 11, 22, ...; those
poles for which the coordinates in the net are fractions or numbers greater than one represent
less important crystal faces. The larger edge of the net unit is p0 and the shorter q0, both
different in lenght from the circle radius r0 = 1 (Fig. 2-38c).
With monoclinic crystals measured with the c axis vertical, the faced poles will fall on a
rectangular net with one row of the net passing through the circle center. This row is the trace
of the plane of symmetry, and the projection element unit in this row is p0 , while q0 is the
unit in the row perpendicular to p0. The net node nearest to the center on the row through the
projection center is assigned coordinates 00; the nodes representing the larger faces in each
zone 10, 01, 11, and other face poles may occur with fractional or larger coordinates. The
distance x0 from the projection center to the node 00 constitutes a third projection element
(Fig. 2-38e). In this case the projection elements are larger than the polar element p0, q0, r0 =
1, since the height of the projection along r0, the perpendicular to (001), is greater than unity.
 In the above examples, all with c as the zonal axis of adjustment (except in the isometric
case, which has a3 vertical), the gnomonic coordinates for each face pole may be converted
directly to the Miller indices of the face by adding 1 for the third index. In cases ehen one or

1 1
both of the coordinates are fraction, for example: coordinates 2 2 become Miller

indices 112.
Faces parallel to the vertical axis are represented in gnomonic projection by lines drawn
radial to the center at the measured V angles. The first two Miller indices of these faces are
obtained by noting the coordinates of the next node to 00 along a line in the gnomonic net
parallel to the radius polar to the face; the third index is zero.
For monoclinic crystals measured with b axis as the zonal axis of adjustment, the
gnomonic net unit is a parallelogram wwith unit edges p2 and r2 and included angle , circle
radius q2 = 1 (Fig. 2-83f). The node with coordinates 00 coincides with the center of the
circle. In this case Miller indices are obtained by inserting 1 for the intermediate index and
clearing of fractions if necessary. Faces in the vertical zone have Miller indices with k = ; h
and l are again given by the coordinatesof the next net point along the radius from 010.
In the case of triclinic crystals, the gnomonic projection is similar to Fig. 2-38g. The
projection elements are p0, q0, x0, y0, and v, and in the generally accepted setting for
triclinic crystals p0> q0 (001) lies in the front right quadrant; v maybe obtuse or acute. The
circle radius r0 is unity, but p0 and q0 of the polar elements in terms of r0 = 1 are smaller than
the values p0, q0 since the hight of the projection r0 along the perpendicular to (001) is
greater than the circle radius. This is true also of monoclinic crystals measured about the c
axis.
After indexing all the face poles in gnomonic projection, the V angles are converted to
angles with = 00 for (010), except for hexagonal crystals where = 0 0 for (1120), and
monoclinic crystals measured with the b axis

Vertical where = 00 for (100). The projection elements that are the constants in the
gnomonic projection for a given crystal are readily calculated from the and p angles. These
projection elements, which are the same as the polar elements except in monoclinic or
triclinic crystals, are related to the axial elements by the formulae in Table 2-III. For further
details and for formulae applicable to triclinic crystals the reader is referred to Danas System
of Mineralogy, Ed. 7, Volume 1 and to the Manual for Geometrical Crystallography by C. W.
Wolfe.

The Crystal Classes

In the discussion of crystal lattices and symmetry it was shown that only certain types of
translation lattice and certain symmetry operations are possible in three-dimensional
arrangements of points n space. There are seven types of lattice symmetry with the following
elements of symmetry: two, three, four, and sixfold rotation axes, mirror reflection planes,
and a center of symmetry. The center of symmetry is alternatively referred to as an axis of
onefold rotatory inversion; the mirror plane may alternatively be called an axis of twofold
rotary inversion. The threefold axis in the rhombohedral and isometric lattices is properly an
axis of threefold rotary inversion, since it is combined with a center of symmetry.
It was early noted that crystal show combinations of symmetry elements other than those
giver here for the lattices. As early as 1830, Hessel, a German minerlogist, predicted the
existence of thirty-two possible crystal classes with different arrangements of the symmetry
elements referred to above, with the addition of four and sixfold axes of rotary inversion, the
latter being equivalent to a threefold rotation axis perpendicular to a mirror plane. Of these,
one class has no symmetry whatsover. The limitation to thirty-two classes has been proved
graphically and mathematically.
The thirty-two classes are distributed among the six crystals systems, as shown in Table
2-IV. Crystals of any of the classes within system have one of the lattices characteristic of
that system. Crystals of all the classes in the orthorombic, tetragonal, and isometric systems
also have one or more symmetry elements in common. The hexagonal classes fall into two
groups: those with a sixfold vertical axis, and those in which the c axis is threefold. The class
in which the crystals have the same symmetry as the lattice is often called the holohedral
class of the system. Other classes in the system have somewhat fewer symmetry elements
and are referred to as merohedral classes. This result from the arrangement of atoms in
crystal of these classes. The array of atoms around a lattice point, which is repeated by
translation throughout the structure, may have less symmetry than the array of lattice points
themselves. If all the atoms are of one kind and occur at lattice points, the symmetry must be
that of the lattice of holohedral class.
The easiest examples to visualize are some structures in the isometric system. Native
copper crystallizes with a face-centered cubic lattice in which each lattice point may be
considered to be at the center of a copper atom (see Figs. 8-1, 8-2). Since the atoms are
considered as spheres, the symmetry of the atomic arrangements is the same as that of the
lattice. In rock salt (NaCl) or galena (PbS) one kind of atom with its translational equivlents
occupies the lattice points of a face-centered cubic lattice interpenetrating the first and
displaced by a/2 along one a direction. This structure also has normal cubic symmetry (Figs.
9-4 and 11-1).
In sphalerite (ZnS) the atom of one kind falls at the points of a face-centered cubic lattice,
and the atoms of a second kind are at the points of a second interpenetrating face-centered
cubic lattice which is displaced from the first by one-fourth the length of the body diagonal of
the cube of the first (Fig. 9-8). This structure, consequently, does not possess mirror planes
paralel to cube faces nor twofold axes parallel to face diagonals of the cube; there is no center
of symmetry, since an atom of the second kind on one side of any lattice point occupied by
the first kind is not also present at the same distance on the opposite side of the lattice point.

Sphalerite, then, belongs to the tetrahedral class with symmetry 4 3m.

In the following sections the features of some of the crystal classes will be discussed.
Only those classes that are represented by well-known minerals will be dealt with in details.
All classes are included in the acompanying tables, and in the stereographicc projections
displaying the symmetry. It is important here again to emphasize the meaning of the term
crystal form: those crystal faces that are equivalent in a particular symmetry class constitute
a crystal form. Under ideal condition, if one face of a certain crystal form develops in a
growing crystal, all the equivalent faces in the form should also develop. However, as
mentioned aerlier, many external factors influences the growth of acrystal, and it is quite
common to find the faces of a given form differing in size and in their distance from the
center of the crystal. In the case of forms represented by small faces, one or more faces may
not be present.
In the following discussion each crystal form is denoted by the Miller indices of one face

enclosed in braces: {hkl}. It is customary in describing crystals of a mineral to designate each

observed form by a letter, in addition to the Miller indices; for example m {110}. Lower case

italic letters are usually used, but where many forms are observed on crystals of a particular

mineral, upper case Italic and greek letters are also used. These letters are convenient in

designating the faces of the form on crystal drawings. According to general usage, certain
latters are used for certain form in all minerals. For example, in those crystal system with a c

axis the form that intersects the c axis and is parallel to the other axes of reference is

designatedc { 001 } or c { 0001 } ; in those systems with a, b, and c axes the form

intersecting a or b only are designated a { 100 } ,or b { 010 } , respectively. Beyoned this,

usage varies with individual authors of minerals description and with the crystal system.

In all crystal classes, any crystal form that intersects each of the three axes of

reference in different multiples of the unit lengths a, b, c- for example, { 321 } , or { 432 } -

is know as general form. In each class a general form has the largest number of equivalent

faces possible in the class. Crystal form comprising faces that cut the axes of reference in

special ways, such as { 010 } , { 011 } , { 011 } , etc., have fewer equvalent faces in most

crystal classes. In each crystal class the general form is diagnostic of the symmetry of the

class, whereas special forms may be identical in two or more classes of a system. The name

of the general form in each class is used also as the name of the class; these are given in Table

2-IV.

Crystal belonging to certain of the merohedral classes display some special features of

crystal form and physical properties. Those crystals on which different crystal forms be

found terminating one unique axis are described as hemmimorphic. Such crystals lack a

center of symmetry, a mirror plane perpendicular to the unique axis, and symmetry axes

perpendicular to the unique axis; they commonly display pryroelectricity and piezoelectricity

(p.205). Examples of hemmimorphic crystals are tourmaline, hemmimorphite, and zincite.

 Those Crystals on which the general form, and in some instances other forms, may be

developed in two different ways on different crystals of the species, such that the general

form on one is the mirror image of the corresponding form on the other, are known

asenantiomorphic crystals. In this case the two crystals and the crystal forms are related as

are the right and the left hand; no operation of rotation can bring one into coincidence with

the other. The best example on this property in minerals is found in quartz.

There are a number of physical properties that give evidence of the right-or left-

handed character of enantiomorphic crystals. If a beam of plane polarized light (i.e., vibrating

in one plane parrallel to the beam) is passed parallelto the c axis through a crystal plate of

quartz, the plane of polarization of the light is rotated to the right or to the left during

transmission. The angle of rotation is proportional to the thickness of the quartz, and

inversely proportional to the wavelength of light. This property is also possessed by many

organic compounds in the crystalline state, such as many of the sugars that crystallize in the

monoclinic spehenoidal class with symmetry 2. With the organic compounds the property

persists in solutions of the compound and can be detected in an instrument called a

polarimeter or saccharimeter. It is possible to determine the concentration of sugar in such a

solution by the rotation of the plane of polarization of a know pathlenght of light in solution.

Crystals of enantiomorphic substances may also display pyroelectricity and

piezoelectricity. Enantiomorphic crystals are found in those crystal classes which lack mirror

planes and a center of symmetry.

Etch Figures and Solution Pits

Faceted crystals, when treated with suitable reagents, develop pits or etch figures on

some or all of the crystal faces after exposure to the reagent for a period on time. Generally

the pits enlarge with time, in some cases to the point where several pits may merge, leaving
residual hills. In general, the faces of different crystal forms are attacked at different rates,

and with some reagents the faces of some crystal forms are quite unaffected. Crystals of

minerals are often found with solution pits on certain faces which must have resulted from

etching by natural solutions. These solution pits on crystal faces often have geometrical form,

and the simmetry apparent in the pit is often found to be conssistent with the orientation of

simmetry elements in the whole crystal. The value of this fact lies in the possibility of using

information obtained from the shape of the etch figures on crystal faces of know orientation

to deduce the correct symmetry of the crystal. This is especially valuable in the study of

minerals which are not found in crystals showing the general crystal forms diagnostic of a

specific crystal class.

Fig. 2-39 Etch figures on crystals. (a) Pits formed on { 1010 } prism faces of apatite,

showing a horizontal symmetry plane but no vertical symmetry planes, consistent with the

symmetry 6/m. [ data givenby Honess ( 1927 ) . ] (b) Pits formed on { 1010 } prism faces of
nepheline, showing no symmetry planes, consistent with the symmetry 6.

Redrawn

[ Rogers , Introduction the study of minerals ]

There are numercus technical difficulties in the application of this method, and in

some cases anomalous results are obtained, but in many instances careful observations have

deduced a simmetry class for a crystal which has been later confirmed by detailed crystal

structure studies.

The mineral apatite is very commonly found in a simple habit with one haxagonal

prism and one pyramid or dypiramid-crystal forms which are appropriate to several crystal

classes. Etching by several different reagents produces pits on the prism face (1010) which

lack a symmetry plane parallel tho the c axis (Fig.2-39a) but show one perpendicular to c.

On other crystals the face (1120) shows similar pits also lacking a symmetry plane parallel

to c. Solution pits formed on the basalt pinacoid are hexagonal in shape but oriented with the

hexagonal edges parallel or perpendicular to the a axes. These pits thus display the simmetry

6/m, which well-developed apatite crystals exhibit (p. 453). On crystals of nepheline etch pits

on prism faces (Fig. 2-39b) fail to show a mirror plane perpendicular to the c axis, thus

indicating the symmetry 6 for nepheline (p. 492). A full discussion of the nature of etch

figures is given by Honess (1927).

Symmetry Operations

The Operation of two, three, four, and sixfold rottation axes of symmetry and of

mirror reflection planes in arrays of lattice points has been illustrated in Figs. 2-10 through 2-
13. The operation of a center os simmetry, symbol , has been described on p.29. Axes of

rotatory inversion with symbols 2, 3, 4, and 6 may also occur in certain crystal classes. The

effect of all the elements of symmetry in producing the equivalent faces of a crystal form are

shown in Figs.

Fig. 2-40 Rotation axes of symmetry perpendicular to the plane of a stereographic

projection, and the crystal form developed from one face not parallel to the axis by the

operation of the symmetry. Form names: (a) pedion, (b) dome, (c) trigonal pyramid, (d)

tetragonal pyramid, (e) hexagonal pyramid.

Fig. 2-41 Rotatory inversion axes of symmetry perpendicular to the plane of a

stereographic projection, and the crystal form developed from one face not parallel to the axis
by the operation of the symmetry. Form names: (a) pinacoid, (b) sphenoid, (c) rhombohedron,

(d) tetragonal disphenoid, (e) trigonal dipyramid.

Fig. 2-42 The crystal forms developed by (a) a mirror plane of symmetry parallel to the

vertical axis, (b) a twofold axis perpendicular to the vertical axis, (c) 2/m, (d) 4/m, (e) 6/m.

Each is shown with the symmetry axis vertical. Form names: (a) dome, (b) sphenoid, (c)

prism, (d) tetragonal dipyramid, (e) hexagonal dipyramid.

The face (0001) has one other equivalent face, (0001), resulting in a form again
referred to as the basal pinacoid. The faces, (1010) and (1120) give rise to hexagonal prism
with six faces each; these are commonly distinguished as I-order (1010) and II-order (1120).
The faces (1011) or any face (h0hl) will generate a dihexagonal prism with twelve face and a
dihexagonaldipyramid with 24 faces, respectively. (Figure 2-54). The dihexagonal prism
outline in a plane perpendicular to is twelve sides, but no combination of whole numbers for
h and k will give a regular dodecagon with interfacial angles are every pair of face. In the
dihexagonal outline alternate interfacial angles are equal, but no equal to the other set of
alternate angles. Beryl, a typical crystal of this class, is shown in figure 2-55d.
The hexagonal system is often divided into two subsystems: one, called hexagonal, include
those classes with a six fold rotation or rotatory inversion axis of symmetry in which the
lattice is always primitive; the other, usually called trigonal, is that in which the vertical axis
is a threefold rotation or rotatory inversion axis of symmetry. The latter crystals may have
either a primitive hexagonal lattice or a rhombohedral lattice. In this book the trigonal classes
will be considered as a subsystem within the hexagonal system since they and the hexagonal
classes have so many properties in common.

Since Cartesian coordinate are not applicable to more than three axis of reference, the third
axis, a3, is disregarded in dealing with zones in the hexagonal system. The face indices (hk.l)
and (hkl) are use in obtaining the zone symbol (uv.w), and the equation the zone control
(hu+kv+lw=0) is valid as in all other systems.

There are six classes with less symmetry than 6/m 2/m 2/m in the hexagonal subsystem. All
have a general rom (hkil) which characterizes the symmetry and which has one-half or one-
quarter the number of faces found in a dihexagonaldipyramid. In some classes, forms other
than (khil) differ from corresponding form in class 6/m 2/m 2/m. the classes fall naturally into
two groups: those with symmetry axes perpendicular to c or mirror planes parallel to c (table
2-viii), and those with no symmetry of this short (table 2-ix). In the first group there are three
lasses 622, 6mm, 6m2. These classes are represented in a few minerals of which crystals are
rarely seen. The hexagonal forms of zinc shulpide (wurtzite) and zinc oxcide (zincite)
crystallize with symmetry 6mm. this class is hermimorphic and the c axis may be terminated
at the upper and lower ends by different crystal forms. Crystals of beta-quartz, formed at
temperatures above 573C, have the symmetry 622. Crystal of his form of silica usually
shown only the hexagonal dipyramid; the hexagonal trapezohedron, typical of this class, has
not been observed physical properties, such as rotation of the plane of polarized light,
indicating enantiomorphism. This enantiomorphism and the structural relationship with alfa-
quartz establishes 622 as the correct class for beta-quartz.
The first class of the second type is that with symmetry 6/m, and it is represented by crystals
of apatite (figure 2-55a,b,c,e). The forms (hkl0) and (hkli) are iii-order hexagonal prisms and
dipyramids (table 2-ix). It is important to emphasize that the recognition of a iii-order form is
necessary to establish the symmetry of crystals in this class from the morphology. These form
have more complex indices and smaller spacing in the lattice than do the I and II-oder forms,
and therefore less likely to be developed. The commonest forms in apatite are (1010) and
(1011); II and III-order forms are found only in exceptionally well-developed crystals. The
crystal class with symmetry 6 is represented by nepheline, but crystals displaying this
symmetry are not found. The correctness of this class for nepheline has been established by
etching tests on simple crystals and confirmed by a detailed analysis of the arrangement of
the atoms based on x-ray diffraction studies.
TRIGONAL SUBSYSTEM. There are five crystal classes in which the vertical axis c is
either a threefold rotation or rotatory inversion axis, and he lattice may be either hexagonal
(primitive) or rhombohedral(table 2-x and 2-x1). The lattice is rhomohedral for many
minerals on these classes, but for alfa-quart (stable at room temperature up to 573C), as an
example, the lattice is hexagonal.

A large number of well-known substance, including calcite, hematite, and antimony,

crystallize in what might be called the holohedral class of this subsystem with symmetry 3
2/m, the symmetry of the rhomoedral lattice. The unique axis c, normal to the hexa-net, is 3,
and the three a axes of the het have twofold symmetry perpendicular to the three mirror
planes (1120), (1210), (2110). The distribution of the symmetry is shown on the stereogram
(Figure 2-56). As noted in the Table 2-VIII, the lattice rows (21.0) may have twofold
symmetry instead of the alfa axes, and/or the planes (1010) may be mirror planes instead of
(1120). If this is the case the symmetry symbols become 312/m, 312, and 31m, and the
character of the (h0- -) and (hh- -) form are transposed. The two types of forms, (h0hl) and
(hkil) (Figure 2-59), distinguish this class from the class 6/m 2/m 2/m. he form (h0hl) is a
positive rhombohedron, and (0hhl) is a negative rhombohedron, both with axis faces. Positive
and negative rhombohedrons with the same indice (1011), (0111) ( Figure 2-57a,b) are
geometrically indistinguishable; i.e., when one is turned 60 it is precisely like the other. The
forms (hkil) and (khil) are positive and negative trigonalscalenohedrons with twelve faces
each. In cross-section the scalenohedrons are ditrigonal, not hexagonal.
The rhombohedral centering of the lattice affects the expected order of form importance
according t the Law of Bravais, for the rhombohedral lattice. Those lattice planes whose
spacings (between identical planes, of a set) are reduced by one-third,due to the centering, are
moved down the list of expected crystal faces to the position indicated by the new spacing.
Therefore {0001}for which the lattice spacing is divided by three is much less likely to occur
on a crystal, and is in fact rarely observed on calcite. The planes (1011), (1101), (0111) (the
upper faces of a positive rhombohedron) do not have their spacing so reduced, whereas
(0111), (1011), and (1101) (the upper faces of a negative rhombohedron) do have their lattice
spacing divided by three. As one would expect from this, the positive rhombohedronr {1001}
which is parallel to the principal planes of the rhombohedral cell is an important crystal form,
but the negative rhombohedrone {0111} is rarely observed. On the other hand, the negative
rhombohedrone {0112} and f {0221}, whose lattice plane spacing is note reduced by
centering, do occur prominently on calcite crystal, and the corresponding positive
rhomohedrons are rarely observed. As a general rule, if h I + t = 3n or zero, the lattice
plane spacing is not divided by three, due to rhombohedral centering. Thus, v {2131} and not
{1231} would be expected to occure on rhombohedral crystals, and such is the case with
calcite. Also, the positive rhombohedron {4041} is more likely to be found than {2021} or
{3031}. Crystals of calcite are good examples of this development (Fig. 2-57).

Class 32.Quartz crystallizes in the crystal class 32, if formed below 573 oC. The
symmetry distribution is readily shown on the stereogram (Fig. 2-56), if one realizes that the
threefold axis is vertical and there must be three twofold axes normal to it and parallel to the
a axes. In this class the basal pinocoid {0001} and the I-order hexagonal prism m{1010} are
normal hexagonal forms. Thus, quartz crystals displaying m {1010} as the prism almost
exclusively are hexagonal in cross-section. The two prism {1120} trigonal and {hkt0}
ditrogonal are very rarely observed on quartz.

The forms {h0ht}snf {0hht} are positive and negative rhombohedrons as in calcite,
but since the lattice is not rhombohedral in quartz the lattice plane spacings for the negative
rhomohedron {0111} are not reduced by one-third. Quartz crystals may display both
rhomohedronsr{1011} and z{0111} in about equal development, (Fig. 15-6), but usually the
positive rhomohedron faces are distinctly larger than those of the negative form, and not
uncommonly the negative form is not developed. The faces {1011} and (0111) will be
inclined to the prism faces (1010) and (0110) at the same angle. The two forms r{1011} and z
{0111}, when equally developed, will together simulate a I-order hexagonal dipyramid.

The forms {hh2ht} comprise six faces forming a trigonaldipyramid which may be
positive or negative. None of the special forms so far mentioned serve to distinguish
unambiguously the correct symmetry of quartz, although the combination of a rhombohedron
{1011} with a trgonaldipyramid {1121} is diagnostic of this class. It should be noted that the
occurrence of striations on the faces of s{1121} or s{2111} parallel to the edge with r{1011}
serve to distinguish the positive and negative trigonaldipyramids on quartz crystals.

The face (hkil) develops into a general form with only six faces; this is called a
trigonaltrapezohedron (Fig 2-58). Since there are 24 possible crystal faces parallel to lattice
planes {2131} there must be four distinct forms in this class: {2131}, {3121} are right- and
left-handed enantiomorphic pairs; {3211}, {1231} are also right- and left-handed pairs. The
two right-handed forms are not separately distinguishable, one turned 60 o being identical with
the other. The same is true of the two left-handed forms, ut no rotation will bring a right-
handed form into coincidence with a left-handed form. The two rightrigonaltrapezohedrons
combined would simulate the right hexagonal trapezohedron.

The right- and the left-handed character (enantiomorphism) can be traced back to the
structur of quartz whre it is seen that she SiO, tetrahedral are grouped about the vertical axis
like the steps on a spiral staircase (Fig, 2-59). The spiral arrangement may form as either a
right- or left-handed spiral in the arrangement of the SiO 4tethrahedra. The presence of right-
or left-handed trigonaltrapezohedra, or the striations on s{1121} or s{2111}, give visual
evidence as to the right- or left-handed character of given crystal of quartz (Fig. 15-6).
Physical properties such as a rotation the plane of polarization of a beam of light are
characteristic of enantiomorphic substances. (p. 82). Crystals of quartz, and other
nonconducting crystals of enantiomorphic character, are also pyroelectric and piezoelectric
(these terms explained on p. 205). In quartz the a axes are polar in character, and the opposite
ends become oppositely carged; right- and left-handed crystals give opposite results under the
same conditions.

Fig. 2-59The structure of low quartz, SiO2, shown as SiO4tetrahedra with a small silicon atom
at the center of a group of four oxygens in tetrahedral coordination. Each tetrahedron shares a
corner (oxygen) with an adjoining tetrahedron. For simplicity mos of the tetrahedrons are
shown without the circles representing oxygen. The screw axis symmetry (threefold) of the c
axis Is shown by the dot-dash line, repeating eachtetraedron with a rotation of 120 o and a
translation of c/3. Two units of structure along c are shown.
Fig. 2-60 Some typical crystals of tourmaline, showing the hemimorphic character of class
3m and the forms m{1010}, a{1120}, -m{0110}, r{1011}, o{0221}, u{3251}, c{0001},
e{1012}, r{0111}. Figure 15-41 shows another habit in which m is the dominant prism.

Class 3m.the mineral tourmaline crystallizes in the ditrigonal pyramidal class 3m. The
symmetry is illustrated on the stereogram (Fig 2-56) with the threefold axis vertical and the
m planes normal to each aaxis, in the same orientation as in the class 3 2/m. this class is
hemimorphic in character since it lacks any axes or planes of symmetry perpendicular to c,
the threefold axis. Crystals of tourmaline, when sufficiently developed, will display different
crysltal forms at opposite ends of the c axis (Figs. 2-60, 15-41). The form c{0001} is a
pedion, and all forms {h0ht}, {hh2ht}, {hkit} are pyramids, not dipyramids. The nature of the
prisms also leads to a diagnostic character for tourmaline crystals. The most commonly
observed prism to appear on crystals, m{1010}, is a trigonal prism with three faces; thus
tourmaline crystals often are needles or thins prisms, commonly showing a nearly equilateral
triangular outline (Fig. 15-42). When the hexagonal prism a{1120} and ditrigonal prism
{hki0} are present they modify these trigonal prisms, often producing an irregular prism,
deeply striated parallel to the c axis, but still generally trigonal in outline.
 The hemimorphic character of tourmaline is evident sometimes in a change of color
along the length of the c axis, indicating that the crystal grew along the c axis largely in one
direction. It has been shown that later growth on old grains of tourmaline, found in sediments,
favors one end of the c axis.

In tourmaline the caxis is the polar axis, and under changes of heat or pressure
opposite electric charges develop at opposite ends of the c axis. Because of its piezoelectric
character, tourmaline finds important use in pressure gauges.

The remaining two classes of the trigonal subsystem have the symmetry 3 and 3. The
first is important because includes the minerals dolomite and ilmenite. In crystal form and
cleavage dolomite appears to be like calcite, however, very rarely are crystals found on which
it is clear that the general form (hkil) is rhombohedral in character instead of scalenohedral as
in calcite. This symmetry of dolomite has been confirmed by etch figures and by the
determination of the atomic structure of the mineral. Ilmenite shows a similar relation to
hematite.

TETRAGONAL SYSTEM. All crystals classified in the tetragonal system have either a
primitive or body-centered tetragonal lattie with a1 = a2 c and the interaxial angles equal to
90o. on the basis of symmetry, however, tetragonal crystals may belong to one of seven
crystals classes. All these classes have a fourfold rotation or fourfold rotatory inversion axis
of symmetry, perpendicular to the square net of the lattice, that is chosen as the c axis. In the
holohedral class the symmetry identical to that of the lattice 4/m 2/m 2/m (Fig. 2-8c) where 4
is parallel to c and perpendicular to a mirror plane parallel to the square net; the first 2 applies
to the a1and a2axes, each edge of the square net tively; the second 2 applies to the two
diagonals of the square, each perpendicular to a mirror plane parallel to the other diagonal
and c. in crystals of the six classes with less symmetry than 4/m 2/m 2/m the atomic
arrangement lacks symmetry about one or more of the axes of planes referred to above,
except for the c axis, which is always 4 or 4.

DitetragonalDypyramid Class. This class is kown as the holohedral class, since it has the full
symmetry of the lattice 4/m 2/m 2/m. the distribution of symmetry is shown in the stereogram
(Fig. 2-61) with the c the fourfold axis, vertical and intersecting the center of the projection.
The pole of (010) intersects the primitive on the east and coincides with the a2axis (twofold),
and the pole of (100) intersects the primitive on the south and coincides with the a1axis
(twofold).
 The crystal forms developed by the operation of this symmetry are shown in Table 2-
XII. The face (001) is repeated by the symmetry in the face (001); thus the form {001} is a
basal pinacoid. The faces (100) and (110) both result in forms with four symmetrically
equivalent faces. These forms are called tetragonal prisms because of their square cross-
section, and all faces are parallel to the c axis. Since these two tetragonal prisms {100} and
{110} are identical in form, it is usual to distinguish them by referring to them as II-order or
I-order, respectively. Alternatively, the Miller indices clearly define the two prisms.

The face (210) requires seven other equivalent faces, resulting in a ditetragonal prism
{210} or {hk0}. The ditetragonal prism has eight faces, but it is not a regular otagon in cross-
section. No combination of simple whole numbers for h and k will result in a regular octagon
with exactly 45o as the polar angle between adjacent faces. The foru alternate angles are equal
but never identical with the other four alternate angles.

The face (111), by the operation of this symmetry, results in a form {111} with eight
faces, called a tetragonal dipyramid. This form is square in any cross-section perpendicular to
the c axis. Any face with indices of the type (hhl) will also result in an eight-faced tetragonal
dipyramid differing only in the slope of the pyramid face; the faces are always isosceles
triangles in ideal development. All poles of indices (hhl) lie on the vertical great circles that
coincide with the vertical diagonal mirror planes. These dipyramids are of I-order type.

The face (101), or any face (h0l), also results in an eight-faced tetragonal dipyramid
which is of II-order type. Again the faces are ideally isosceles triangles whose slope depends
on the a:c ratio and the indies (h0l). poles of faces (h0l) are always located on the north-south
vertical great circle of the projection parallel to the a1c mirror plane. It is important to note
that the symmetry requires these o be exactly equivalent to faces (0hl) whose poles lie on the
east-west vertical great circle parallel to the a2cmirror plane.

Any face (hkl) that might included (211) as well as (321) will fall in the open
triangular area of the projection between the trace of the mirror planes. The form {hkl}
developed by a face of this type is a ditetragonaldipyramid with sixteen faces. Any cross-
section perpendicular to the c axis is ditetragonal, as is characteristic of the prisms (hk0) (Fig.
2-62). Crystals of zircon, apophyllite (Fig. 2-63), rutile (Fig. 10-11), and cassiterite (Fig. 10-
14) display the symmetry of this class.

Tetragonal Scalenohedral Class. In this class with symmetry 42m, the basal pinacoid {001}
and the three types of prism {110}, {100}, and {hk0} are identical
tical to the corresponding forms in the normal class. The forms {h0l}, if the a1, and a2axes are
the symmetry axes as shown by the symbol, are also like the normal class forms. The forms
{hhl}, however, have only four faces; this form is called a tetragonal disphenoid and may
occur as either a positive form {hhl} or a negative form {hhl}. If the a:cratio of the crystal is
close to 1:1, the tetragonal
Fig. 2-62 Type forms in the ditetragonal dipyramidal class. (a) Ditetragonal dipyramid, (b) I-ordcr
tetragonal dipyramid, (c) II-ordcr tetragonal dipyramid, (d) ditetragoal prism, (e)I-order
tetragonal prism, (f) Il-order tetragonal prism, (g) basal pinacoid.

Fig. 2-63 (a) Typical zirconcrystal with a{100}, p{101}, u{301}. (b) Typical crystal of
apophyllite with c{001}, p{101}, m{110}, y{210}. disphenoid {111} will approximate an
isometric tetrahedron (Fig. 2-69a) in appearance. The faces of an ideal form {hhl}
(Fig. 2-64a) are always isosceles triangles, whereas they are equilateral in outline on
a tetrahedron. The most commonly observed form on chalcopyrite crystals is a
tetragonal disphenoid {112} which approximates a tetrahedron in appearance
because the axial ratio of chalcopyrite is a:c = 1:1.97. The general form
{hkl}consists of eight faces (Fig. 2-64b), and is known as a tetragonal scalenohedron
(the faces arc scalene triangles in outline). This form is occasionally observed on
chalcopyrite crystals.
Fig. 2-64 (a) Tetragonal disphenoid { 111}with a:c = 1:1.645. (b) Tetragonal scalenohedron {322}
with a:c = 1:0.833.

An alternative setting of crystals of this symmetry is possible and results in the

symmetry symbol 4m2. In this orientation the diagonals of the square net, rather than the
edges, arc fwofold axes. It is equivalent to turning the symmetry stereogram 45. In this
case the form {101} or {h0l} is a tetragonal disphenoid, and {111} or {hhl}is a I-order
tetragonal dipyramid. There is no change in the other forms.
Tetragonal Dipyramidal Class. In this class the a axes and the diagonal axes in the
square mesh are not symmetry axes, nor are the planes (100), (010), (110), and (110)
symmetry planes. The crystal forms {001}, {100}, {110}, {h0l}, {hhl} are identical to
those of the same indices in the holohedral class (Table 2-XIII).
The forms {hk0} and {hkl} now have only four and eight faces, respectively, and are
called tetragonal prisms and tetragonal dipyramids (Figs. 2-65a,b). The fourfold
symmetry axis requires a square cross-section for both. For this reason they are
indistinguishable individually in form from the I- and II-order tetragonal prisms (Fig. 2-
65c) and dipyramids and are commonly designated III-order forms.

120 Concepts PART 1

Table 2-XIII Tetragonal system *

Lattices P( = C), or I( = F); Axes a1 = a2 c; Axial angles all 90

NAME TETRAGONAL TETRAGONAL TETRAGONAL
DIPYRAMIDAL DIPYRAMIDAL DIPYRAMIDAL
(HEMIMORIIIC)
International
symmetry symbol 4/m 4 4
{001} pinacoid 2 pedion 1 Pinacoid 2
{001} pedion 1
{100} tctragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4
{110} tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4
{hk0} {210} tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4
{hk0} {120} tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4 tetragonal prism 4
{h0l} {101} tetragonal dipyramid 8 tetragonal pyramid 4 +tetragonal disphcnoid 4
{h0l} {101} tetragonal pyramid 4
{0hl} {011} -tetragonal disphcnoid
{hhl} {111} tetragonal dipyrarnid 8 tetragonal pyramid 4 +tetragonal dbphcnoid 4
{hhl} {111} tetragonal pyramid 4
{hhl} {111} -tetragonal disphcnoid 4
{hkl} {211} tetragonal dipyramid 8 tetragonal pyramid 4 tetragonal disphcnoid 4
{hkl} {211} tetragonal dipyramid 8 tetragonal pyramid 4 tetragonal disphcnoid 4
{hkl} {211} tetragonal pyramid 4 tetragonal disphcnoid 4
{hkl} {211} tetragonal pyramid 4 tetragonal disphcnoid 4
Minerals scapolite wulfenite nagyagite?

* Stereographic projections are shown in Fig. 2-61.

Fig. 2-65 (a) Ill-Order tetragonal prism {120}, (b) III-Order tetragonal dipyramid
{12l}, (c) Relation of III-order prism {120} to I-order {110} and ll-ordcr {100},
(d) Typical crystal of scapolite with a{100}, m{110}, r{101}, z{211}.

It must be emphasized here that to prove that crystals of any mineral such
as scapolite (Fig. 2-65d) belong in this class it is necessary to identify one of
these III-order forms. However, the forms with the simple indices {001}, {100},
{110}, {101}, and {111}, none of which are diagnostic of this class, are more
likely to appear on the crystals. Commonly, crystals of scapolite show the I- and II-
order forms, and few crystals show faces of a III-order prism or dipyramid.
The other classes of the tetragonal system are of rather rare occurrence in
minerals, and they will not be dealt with m detail here.

ISOMETRIC SYSTEM. Hexoctahedral Class. The arrangement of symmetry

elements in the normal class of the isometric system is shown in the
stereographic projection (Fig. 2-66). If one starts with any possible crystal face,
located on the stereogram, by operation of the symmetry elements the location
and number of equivalent faces can be found, giving the number of faces in a
particular form. Thus, starting with the face (010) we find that five other poles

Fig.2-66Stereographic projection of seven type forms in the hexoctahedarl class

4/m3 2 m (Table 2-XIV). The small stereograms show one general form {321}
and the forms {100}, {110}, {111} in each merohedral class, 432, 43m, 2/m3,
and 23 (Tables 2-XIV and 2-XV).
Fig. 2-67 The fixed isometric forms cube a{100}, dodecahedron d{110},
octahedron o{111}, and various combinations of two or three of them, as
found in the hexoctahedral class.

(100), (100), (010), (001), (001) are required to complete a crystal formthe
cube {100} (Fig. 2-67a)which will show the full symmetry of this class, the
poles coinciding with the fourfold symmetry axes; {111} , which has eight
faces for which the poles coincide with the threefold axes, is called an
octahedron (Fig. 2-67b), and {110} with twelve faces for which the poles
coincide with twofold axes is called a dodecahedron (Fig. 2-67c). These
forms, cube, octahedron, and dodecahedron, are called fixed form since they
are, ideally, invariable in shape. The face (210) is repeated 24 times to
produce a pattern of poles on the projection in accordance with the
symmetry. This form {210) is called a tetrahexahedron (Fig. 2-68a), due to
the distribution of four poles near each cube-face pole, resulting in a form with
a four-faced pyramid in place of each cube-face. This type of form also results
from any face symbol of the type (hk0), i.e.,(310), (320), (410), (430); thus
the form may occur with different interfacial angles, in agreement with the
Law of Rational Intercepts. The general shape of the faces remains the same,
and the poles fall on the same arcs of great circles (coinciding with the
principal mirror planes) between the poles of the "fixed forms" {100} and
{110}. Similarly, the faces (211) and (221) result in 24-faced forms, culled
the trapezohedron and trisoctahedron (Figs. 2-68b,c), respectively. These
forms (Table 2-XIV) may vary within the limits indicated by the general
symbols (hkk) and (hhk), respectively, where h>k and the face poles remain
on the arcs of great circles (coinciding with the diagonal mirror planes)
between the fixed forms {100}, {100}, and {111}. One other type of

Fig. 2-68 Crystal forms of the hexoctahedral class, (a) Tetrahexahedron e{210}, (b)
trisoctahedron p{221},(c) trapezohedron n{211},(d) hexoctahcdron s{321}, (e)
octahedron and trapezohedron, (f) dodecahedron and trapezohedron, (g) cube and
trinsoctahedron. (h) cube and hexoctahedron, (i) dodecahedron, trapezohedron,
and hexoctahedron.
Table 2-XIV Isometric system *

(Lattices P, I, or F; Axes a1 = a2= a3; Axial angles all 90)

NAME HEXOCTRAHEDRAL GYROIDAL HEXTETRAHEDRAL
(ENANTIOMORPHIC) (TETRAHEDRAL)

International
symmetry symbol 4/m 3 2/m 432 43m
{100} Cube 6 cube 6 Cube 6
{110} dodecahedron 12 dodecahedron 12 dodecahedron 12
(rhombie) (rhombie) (rhombie)
{111} octahedron 8 octahedron 8 +tetrahedron 4
{111} -tetrahedron 4
{hk0} {210} tetrahexahedron 24 tetrahexahedron 24 tetrahexahedron 24
{hhk} {221} trisoctahedron 24 trisoctahedron 24 +deltohedron 12
{hhk} {221} -deltohedron 12
{hkk} {211} trapezohedron 24 trapezohedron 24 +tritetrahedron 12
{hkk} {211} -tritetrahedron 12
{hkl} {321} hexoctrahedron 24 right gyroid 24 +hextetrahedron 24
{hkl} {321} lift gyroid 24 -hextetrahedron 24
Minerals galena, cuprite? sphalerite,
flourite tetrahedrite
* Stereographic projections are shown in Fig. 2-66.

form, the general form with indices {321} or {hkl} (i.e., all indices different) is
found on isometric crystals. This form has 48 equivalent planes in this symmetry
class, and is called a hexoctahedron (Fig. 2-68d), since there are six faces in each
octant. This form may vary, providing the indices of any plane are three different
whole numbers (hkl). The pole always fall in the open triangular area on the
projection between a principal mirror plane and two diagonal mirror planes.
This form is called the general form because it has the largest number of
equivalent planes, and their poles fall in "general" positions on the projection
rather than in special positions as do the poles of the faces in the other six forms.
It is the only form that requires all of the symmetrv, 4/m 3 2/m, to generate it from
one of its faces. It is completely diagnostic of this crystal class; hence it leads to a
distinctive name for the class, the hexoctaherdral.
It may be seen in Tables 2-XIV and 2-XV that the six special forms ma
occur in one or more of the other four classes of the isometric system. The
laws of crystallography indicate that, as a general rule, the form {321} will be
less likely to occur than {211} or {221}, whereas {100}, {110}, {111} will
normally be most likely to occur on isometric crystals.
Table 2-XV Isometric system *

(Lattices P, I, or F; Axes a1 = a2= a3; Axial angles all 90)

NAME DIPLOIDAL TETAROIDAL
(PYRITOHEDRAL) (ENANTIOMORPHIC)

International
symmetry symbol 2/m 3 23
{100} cube 6 cube 6
{110} dodecahedron 12 dodecahedron 12
(rhombie) (rhombie)
{111} octahedron 8 +tetrahedron 4
{111} -tetrahedron 4
{hk0} {210} +pyritohedron 12 +pyritohedron 12
{kh0} {120} -pyritohedron 12 -pyritohedron 12
{hhk} {221} trisoctahedron 24 +deltohedron 12
{hhk} {221} -deltrohedron 12
{hkk} {211} trapezohedron 24 +tristetrahedron 12
{hkk} {211} -tristetrahedron 12
{hkl} {321} +diploid 24 +right tetartoid 12
{hkl} {321} -lift tetartoid 12
{khl} {231} -diploid 24 +lift tetartoid 12
{khl} {231} -right tetartoid 12
Minerals Pyrite, ullmannite
cobaltite
* Stereographic projections are shown in Fig. 2-66.
 Hextetrahedral or Tttrahedral Class. In this class the symmetry symbol
indicates a fourfold rotatory inversion axis parallel to each a axis, a threefold
rotation axis parallel to each cube body diagonal, and a mirror plane parallel
to each lattice plane {110}. This results in the symmetry stereogram shown in
Fig. 2-66. In this class it can be seen that forms {100}, {110}, {hk0} are
required by the symmetry to have the same number of faces as in the
hexoctahedral class (Table 2-XIV). The face (111) is repeated by the 4 axes
as four

Fig. 2-69 Crystal forms of the hextetrahedral class 43m. (a) Positive tetrahedron
0{111}; (b) negative tetrahedron 0{111}; (c) relation of positive tetrahedron to
octahedron; (d) positive and negative tetrahedrons; (e), (f) cube and positive
tetrahedron; (g) positive deltohedron {221}; (h) positive tristetrahedron { 2 11} ;
(i) positive hcxtetrahedron {321}.

equivalent faces instead of eight in the hexoctahedral class, and is called a

tetrahedron (Fig. 2-69). If one started with (111) as the initial pole, the symmetry
would require, in addition, (111), (111), and (111), again four faces and a
tetrahedron. These two tetrahedra are geometrically identical but are not
equivalent to each other in the symmetry of this class. To distinguish between them
they are arbitrarily designated positive tetrahedron { 111 } and negative
tetrahedron {111}. The fundamental difference between these two forms may be
appreciated if we examine the structures of galena and sphalerite.
In the galena structure (Fig. 9-4) each lead atom is coordinated t o six
sulphurs, phurs. three above and three below, located at the corners of a
regular octahedron with lead at the center. Although there is no mirror
reflection plane perpendicular to the [111] axis, the arrangement of atoms
presents the same view whichever way we look along the [111] axis.
There are three other axes in the structure that are indistinguishable from
this particular [111]. The opposite ends of these axes are identical.
The structure of sphalerite is shown with [111] vertical in Fig. 9-8. It is
pointed out in the description of sphalerite that the structure consists of
tetrahedra of four sulphurs, with one zinc at the center, and similar tetrahedra
of four zinc atoms with a sulphur at the center. The faces of these tetrahedra
are parallel to {111} planes, and the perpendicular to each face is parallel to
a [111] axis. All the tetrahedra of one kind "point" in the same direction
along a particular [111] axis. Therefore the opposite ends of each [111] axis
have different character; also the parallel and opposite faces (111) and (111)
are different. This can occur only in one way in the cubic system where all
four [[111]] axes must be identical and where one face of a pair of opposite
(111) faces is equivalent to one from the other three pairs. These four
equivalent faces combined form a positive tetrahedron, +{111}, and the other
four a negative tetrahedron,-{111}. Each form must possess the symmetry
43m.
From the projection of Fig. 2-66 we can see also that the forms {hkk},
{hhk}, and {hkl} are present as either a positive or negative form, with half the
number of faces as found for the same Miller indices in the hexoctahedral
class. The names of these forms are given in Table 2-X1V. The hextetrahedron
is the general form; having the largest number of faces and being completely
diagnostic of this class. The full name of the class is hextetrahedral, from this
general form. The tetrahedron is more often recognized and does distinguish
this class from the commonly occurring classes but not from the very rare class
with symmetry 23. The class name then is often shortened to tetrahedral. As
mentioned earlier, the complex forms {321}, {221}, {211} will be less likely
to occur on crystals than the simple forms {100}, {110}, {111}.
Some crystal forms in this class, {100}, {110}, {210}, are
indistinguishable, individually, from the same form on crystals of symmetry
4/m 3 2/m. Thus, crystals of sphalerite showing only the cube or
dodecahedron could not be identified as belonging to the hextetrahedral class.
If both hemihedral forms, positive tetrahedron and negative tetrahedron, occur
on a crystal, one will commonly be represented by larger faces than will the
other, or by faces of different surface quality. If a crystal displays both forms in
about equal development, it will not be distinguishable from a crystal of higher
symmetry, and thus displays pscudosymmctry. In this case ii is desirable to
examine a large number of crystals from a wide variety of occurrences before
making a conclusion as to the symmetry class. It must be emphasized that
positive evidence of the presence of a merohedral form is necessary to establish
the correct symmetry for a crystal. If this is not possible, etch tests or some
physical tests which will help distinguish the symmetry class may be applied.
Isometric Diploidal (Pyritohedral} Class. This class is represented by the
common mineral pyrite, and on this account is almost universally known as the
pyritohedral class. It is very important to note here that the symmetry symbol
indicates that the cube edges or a axes of the lattice have only twofold sym-
metry and arc perpendicular to the principal mirror planes. The cube body
diagonals arc threefold rotatory inversion axes. The face-diagonal directions
[[110]] have no symmetry in this class. By trial with the stereogram (Fig. 2-66)
showing the symmetry elements of this class it can be readily seen that the
forms {100}, {110}, {111}, {211}, {221} are identical to forms of the same
indices in the holohedral class (Table 2-XV). Forms {hkl} and {hk0} have half
the number of equivalent faces in this class. The forms {210} (Fig. 2-70a) and
{120} (Fig. 2-70b) are known as positive pyritohedron and negative
pyritohedron; they are also known as pentagonal dodecahedra, since they
possess twelve faces of pentagonal outline. The forms {321} (Fig. 2-70c) and
{321} are positive diploid and negative diploid, each with 24 faces. The diploid
is the general form and lends its name to the generally accepted name of the
class. It

Fig. 2-70 Crystal forms of the diploidal (pyritohedral) class 2m3 . (a) Positive
pyritohedron o{210}; (b) negative pyritohedron {120}; (c) positive pyritohedron
{321}; (d) cube and pyritohedron; (e), (f) octahedron and pyritohedron. Form (f)
approximates a regular 20-faced forms; o and e faces are not identical in shape.

must be emphasized again that it is necessary to identify one of the two

types of merohedral forms in order to correctly identify the symmetry in this
case. The pyritohedron with simpler indices and fewer faces is the form more
likely to be observed on these crystals. Crystals of pyrite are often found as
cubes, octahedrons, or with these two forms combined; these will not, in
outward form, display the correct symmetry of pyrite. Pyrite is also found as
pyritoheclrons or as combinations of the cube and pyritohedron, or octahedron
and pyritohedron (Fig. 2-70d,e,f), cube faces of pyrite, however, are very
commonly striated, as noted below. The diploid is not of common occurrence
and is represented usually as small faces, as would be expected from its
relatively complex indices. The common pyritohedron is {210}, and the negative
form {120} is virtually never observed. The cube and pyritohedron often
develop together on crystals in oscillatory combination. Instead of forming in
such a way that each face (100) and (210) is represented on the crystal as a
single face, the two faces occur as narrow sections alternating with each other.
If the sections are very narrow, appearing as a thin line to the unaided vision,
the result will be a striated surface. When cube faces predominate in the
striations, the result is a rough cube with striated faces. Only the faces (210)
and (2l0) will form striations on (100), (102) and (102) on (001), (021) and
(021) on (010); thus each opposite pair of cube faces is striated in one direction
only and perpendicular to the direction of striations on adjoining cube faces
(Figs. 9-21, 9-22). If the pyritohedron faces are more prominent in the step-like
faces, the cube faces will be almost cylindrical with the cylinder axis parallel to
the striations.
The two classes of crystals in the isometric system with symmetry 432
and 23 are represented very rarely among minerals; consequently we shall not
discuss them in this book.

Aggregates of Crystals
The greater part of the rocks, and the masses of minerals in veins and peg -
matites that occur in the earth's crust, may be described as aggregates of crys-
talline grains of minerals. These grains may have no outward crystal form, but
their crystalline character is evident from visible cleavage planes, from certain
optical properties, or from x-ray diffraction studies. Internally these grains
have the same regular crystalline character as the well-formed crystal found
protruding from the wall of a vug or cavity in the rock. They range in size from
individual grains often smaller than can be resolved in an optical microscope
with 1000x magnification, as found in serpentines, cherts, or clays, to the large
grains or crystals often measuring many feet in length, as found in pegmatite
dykes. In most cases the separate individual crystals of a mineral are oriented
completely at random in relation to one another. In other cases they are related
in various ways that are sometimes controlled by cryslallographic properties. The
terms used to describe the different ways in which one or more minerals are
aggregated are explained in the chapter on determinative mineralogy (Chapter
6).

Twinned Crystals
Composite crystals of a single substance, in which the individual parts are
related to one another in a definite crystallographic manner, arc known as
twinned crystals.. The nature of the relation between the parts of the twinned
crystal is expressed in a twin law. Twin laws are often given specific names,
which are related to the characteristic shape of the twin or to a certain locality
where such twin crystals were first found; others are named for the mineral
which commonly displays the particular twin law. Many important rock-
forming minerals such as orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, and calcite com-
monly occur as twinned crystals.
In seme twinned crystals the orientation of one crystal individual is related
to the other (or others) by a rotation of 360/n, where n is usually 2, about some
rational lattice row in either orientation. This lattice row is termed the twin axis.
The twin axis is usually a lattice row of simple indices. In other cases the
orientation of two individuals of the twinned crystal may be related by reflection
across a lattice plane common to both individual orientations and usually of
simple indices. This lattice plane is called a twin plane. In some twin crystals,
especially those with nonorthogonal lattices, the perpendicular to the twin plane
appears as a twin axis, but it is not a lattice row and cannot be defined in terms of
rational indices. Therefore some twin laws are described by defining the twin
axis, and others by defining the twin plane. If the two individuals of the twin
meet along a plane, this plane is referred to as the composition plane. It may or may
not be the twin plane. The twin plane is always a lattice plane, hence a possible
crystal face, but never a plane of symmetry in the single crystal. The twin axis
cannot coincide with a two, four, or sixfold axis of symmetry in the single crystal.
Twinned crystals arc described as: simple twins if composed of two parts in
related orientation; multifile twins if more than two orientations are present;
contact twins if a definite composition plane is present; penetration twins if two or
more parts of a crystal appear to interpenetrate each other, the surface between the
parts being indefinable and irregular. Both contact and penetration twins may be
multiple as well as simple. If three or more individuals are repeated alternately on
the same twin plane (that is, if all twin planes are parallel in the twinned crystal),
the result is a polysynthetic twin. If the individuals of the polysynthetic twin are
thin plates, the twinning is called lamellar. In plagioclase
132 Concepts
PART 1
feldspar, lamellar twinning is very commonly developed with individuals varying
in thickness from a large fraction of an inch down to 0.0001 inch. The thinner
types are barely discernible with an optical microscope.
If the individuals of the multiple twin are related by twin planes that are
different planes of the same crystal form, a cyclic twin results. Multiple pene-
tration twins may also result if two equivalent lattice rows act as twin axes
simultaneously; these twins are also cyclic in form, as found in aragonite.

Effects of Twinning in Crystals

Twinning, especially on a microscopic scale, may obscure the true
symmetry of the crystal. In twinned crystals the action of the twin plane is that of
mirror reflection, and in the resulting twin crystal one individual is the mirror
reflection of the other. This has led to the statement that twinning apparently in-
creases the symmetry of a crystal. This is not true, in the sense that we use the
term symmetry in regard to crystals, because the new "symmetry" plane is at the
twin plane only, whereas a true crystallographic symmetry plane parallel to a
certain set of lattice planes occurs at every lattice plane in the set. A true
crystallographic symmetry plane, parallel to (010), for example, coincides with
each lattice plane of the set (010) in the structure and is not confined to one
plane only in a set (Fig. 2-71).
Orthoclase Albite
Fig. 2-71 Sections through the lattice of orthoclase and albite perpendicular to a. Part
(c) shows the effect of the albite twin law. See Fig. 15-16.

The twin plane repeats the orientation of the original across the lattice
plane that occurs at the twin plane. In perfect crystals and models the twin
plain-appears to divide the object into two equal parts, each of which is the
exact reflection of the other, just as does a symmetry plane in a single crystal.
This is the geometric rather than the crystallographic view of symmetrv, and it
requires perfect geometric form in equivalence of dimensions as well as
angles. It is as rare to find the two parts of a twin crystal exactly the same size
as it is to find single crystals with perfect geometrical symmetry.
On many twin crystals corresponding crystal faces on opposite parts of the
twin meet in re-entrant angles, i.e., interior angles greater than 180 (Fig. 2-73). If
the twinning is polysynthetic and lamellar, these re-entrant angles across an edge
alternate with a normal angle over the next edge, resulting in striations (Fig. 15-
16). The striations on the {001} cleavage of plagioclase are due to lamellar
twinning with {010} as the twin plane. Such striations on cleavage faces of
calcite (Figs. 12-5, 12-6), dolomite, galena, and sphalerite are also indicative of
lamellar twinning. We have seen that re-entrant angles may also result in a single
crystal by oscillatory development of two crystal faces (Fig. 9-21). Striations on a
cleavage plane, however, arc a clear indication of twinning, as shown by
plagioclase and calcite. Striations due to oscillatory development, as found in
pyrite, are a surface phenomena, and they may occur on homogeneous single
crystals.
Many substances tend to break readily alone the twin plane. This is one of
the causes of parting in crystals, and it simulates; cleavage in appearance. The
mineral corundum shows no cleavage in untwinned crystals, but crystals which
are twinned polysynthetically show a very ready parting on {0001} and {1011}
(Fig. 10-7b). Some varieties of pyroxene show marked parting along {001}, due
to lamellar twinning (Fig. 15-37).

Causes of Twinning in Crystals

Some minerals are found as twinned crystals or grains in most occurrences,
whereas other minerals rarely display twinning. It has been suggested by some
authorities that the occurrence of twinning in a crystal depends on the dimen-
sional properties of the lattice. This view is supported by the common occur -
rence of twinning in the orthorhombic carbonates (aragonite group) where the
prism angle (110)(110) 63 is close to 60, and where multiple twinning
results in the well-known pseudohexagonal twin crystals. It has also been
demonstrated that twinning is more common in the intermediate plagioclase
feldspars than in albite and anorthite; in this composition range the triclinic
lattice shows the least divergence from the monoclinic lattice of orthoclase.
M. J. Buerger has recently proposed a rational approach to the problem of
the cause of twinning, based on consideration of the crystal structure. A single
crystal represents the least energy state of a collection of atoms, in which each
atom is surrounded by a number of other atoms whose centers fall on the surface of
a sphere whose radius is close to the radius sum of the central atom and one of
the coordinated atoms. This smallest coordination sphere includes the closest
neighbors of a central atom and may be thought of as being most effective in
reducing the energy state of the central atom. However, other atoms in the
structure may be thought of as falling on coordination spheres of larger radius about
the particular central atom, and they may be thought of as less important