Source Rock

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY (TKG-353) 1
Sarju Winardi, Dept. of Geological Engineering, Gadjah Mada University II. Hydrocarbon composition, genesis and source rocks analysis
2. HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION,
GENESIS AND SOURCE ROCK ANALYSIS
IstilahminyakbumidiIndonesiadahuludikenalsebagaiminyaktanah,yangberarti
minyakyangberasaldaritanah.DinegarabaratdikenalsebagaiPetroleum,yangdalam
bahasalatinOleumberartiminyakdanPetroberartibatu.Disebutjugasebagaiminyak
mentah (crude oil). Sedangkan istilah yang paling tepat adalah minyak bumi, karena
terdapatdidalambumi,bukandidalamtanah.
Gas bumi dalam bahasa Inggris yaitu Earth Gas atau natural gas (gasalam).
GasbumidalambahasaInggrisyaituEarthGas,ataunaturalgas (gas alam)
Minyakdangasbumitersusunolehpersenyawaanunsurhidrogen(H)dankarbon(C),
sehinggaseringdisebutsebagaisenyawahidrokarbon.Hidrokarbonakanberadadalam
fasegasapabilamempunyaikandunganunsurC1C4,sedangkankandunganunsurC515
akanmengakibatkanhidrokarbondalamkeadaancair(menjadiminyakbumi)danapabila
kandunganunsurCdiantara1570makahidrokarbonberadadalamkondisipadat.
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PETROLEUM VS HYDROCARBON
Petroleum : complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon
compounds found in rock. Petroleum can range from solid to gas, but
the term is generally used to refer to liquid crude oil. Impurities such
as sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are common in petroleum. There is
considerable variation in color, gravity, odor, sulfur content and
viscosity in petroleum from different areas.
Hydrocarbon : A naturally occurring organic compound comprising

hydrogen (+/- 87%) and carbon (+/-13%). Hydrocarbons can be as
simple as methane [CH4], but many are highly complex molecules,
and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The molecules can have the
shape of chains, branching chains, rings or other structures.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The most common
hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
(www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com)
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HC COMPOSITION-CLASSIFICATION
1. Alkanes or Paraffins
Saturated HC, open/linear single-chain of CnH2n+2.
Gas (C1 C4), liquid (C5 C15), solid (from C16).
Example :
CH4 (methane),
(methane) C2H6 (ethane),
(ethane) C3H8 (buthane),
(buthane) C4H10
(prophane)
C5H12 (penthane), C6H14 (hexane), C7H16 (hepthane)
C8H18 (octhane), C9H20 (nonane), C10H22 (decane).
Stable (no HC reaction without cut the chain).
High volatile, low specific gravity.
Residu is wax or paraffin.
Account for about 15-20 % of crude oils.
Ex. in Indonesia : SLC (Sumatran Light Crude, Minas).
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2. Naphtenes (cyclo-alkanes or cyclo-paraffins)

Saturated HC, single-closed chain of CnH2n.
Example :
Cycloprophane (C3H6).
Cyclobuthane (C4H8).
Cyclopenthane (C5H10), etc.
Volatile < alkanes, more heavier than alkanes.
Residu is asphalt
asphalt, proportion in crude oils is about 30%
30%.
3. Aromatics
Unsaturated HC, double-closed chain of CnH2n-6.
Example : C6H6 (benzene).
Unstable (easily to catch H), the most heaviest, 20-45% of crude oils.
Ex. In Indonesia : oil from Rantau (North Sumatra).
4. Monoolefine (CnH2n) with 1 double chain, product of crude distilation,
unstable.
5. Diolefine (CnH2n-2) with 2 double chain, unstable/very reactive, tend to make
polymers.
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COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL

Weight Weight
Molecular size Molecular type
(%) (%)
Gasoline (C4-C10) 31 Paraffins 30
Kerosene (C11-C12) 10 Naphthenes 49
Gas Oil (C13-C20) 15 Aromatics 15
Lubricating Oil (C20-C40) 20 Asphaltics 6
Residuum (C40+) 24
total 100 total 100

NGL, LPG & LNG

Natural gas; HC which is not condensable at STP i.e. 20 deg C (68 deg
F) & atmospheric pressure. The gas is composed by C1 (methane)-C4
(butane). Methane is dry gas & the others are wet gas.
Natural gas could be;
By product of the generation of petroleum (associated &
nonassociated)
Coal
C l gas
Bacterial gas
NGL (Natural Gas Liquids); condensate (liquids at STP, pentane &
some butane), LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas, mostly propanes &
butanes, gaseous at STP but readily to liquefied).
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas); liquefied methane at -160 deg C &
atmospheric pressure. The volume reduced to more than 600, 1 kg LNG
represents about 1.5 cubic m ( 1 tonne equal to 53 Mcf).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES of HC
Density/specific gravity
Specific gravity = mass/volume in certain temperature
API gravity = (141.5/SG) 131.5
Viscosity (centipoise)
Water = 1 cp
Crude = 0.3 cp
Gas
G = 0.0019
0 0019 cp
Pour point, in Ind average 30o C.
Formation Volume Factor
Boi (RB/STB) > 1, oil shrinks factor (RB>STB)
Bgi (RCF/SCF) < 1, gas expansion factor (Surf vol > Res vol)
Bubble point pressure (Pb)
Gas oil ratio
Odor
Colour
Refractive index/optic, etc.
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GENESIS OF PETROLEUM
The series of facts related to hydrocarbon origin:
Geologic:
(1) Most hydrocarbon deposits occur in sedimentary rocks, most of the sedimentary rocks
with oil are marine.
(2) Many hydrocarbon deposits occur in porous and permeable sandstones and carbonate
rocks, which are totally enclosed in other impermeable rocks.
(3) Other minor geologic occurrences:
a) in basement rocks, not voluminous
b) igneous and metamorphic rocks, but commercial deposits are always laterally
continuous with sedimentary rocks
c) Traces of hydrocarbons occur in stony chondritic meteorites
Chemical:
(1) Differences between old and young oils:
a) Old oils contain more even-numbered chains than young oils (these tend to have odd
number chains).
b) Old oils contain more than 50% light hydrocarbons, which are rare in young
sediments.
(2) Similarities between crude oils and organically produced hydrocarbons
a) both have optical property of levorotation
b) Both contain specific complex organic molecules (porphyrins- containing a 5-member
ring with a N substituted for a carbon, and steroids- complex heavy hydrocarbons,
Typically C25)
c) There are biomarkers that can be identified in particular source beds and crude oils.
(3) Similar fingerprinting can be done using gas chromatography.
THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

Inorganic theory
Alkaline metal theory (Berthelot, 1866)
(Ca, Mg, Ba, K, Na) + CO2 ----- HC
Carbide theory (Mendeleyeff, 1877)
FeC2 +2H2O ------ C2H2 + Fe(OH)2
Organic theory
Animal origin theory (Engler, 1911)
Vegetable origin theory (Hofer)
Hydrogenation of coal or other carbonaceous materials
Duplex origin (combination), (Robert Robinson)

2Fe3O4 + H2O ------- 3Fe3O3 + H2
panas
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Amyx, et. al., 1960

a. Asal-usul Minyak Bumi

Dorsey Hager (1951), mengklasifikasikan mengenai asal-usul
minyak bumi menjadi 3 macam :
1. Teori anorganik
Teori ini mendasarkan bahwa minyak bumi berasal dari bahan
anorganik yang terbentuk melalui proses kimia tanpa bantuan
organisme
i hidup.
hid
2. Teori organik
Teori ini mendasarkan bahwa minyak bumi berasal dari zat organik,
yakni sisa tumbuh-tumbuhan dan hewan terutama organisme yang
hidup di laut dan sebagian kecil berasal dari daratan.
3. Teori kombinasi (duplex origin)
Teori ini mendasarkan bahwa minyak bumi berasal dari unsur-unsur
organik dan anorganik.
Perubahan bahan organik menjadi minyak bumi

Perubahan bahan organik menjadi minyak bumi antara lain
disebabkan oleh :
1. Panas dan Tekanan
2. Aksi bakteri
3.Reaksi katalisator
4. Tembakan Radioakif
Sumber & proses pengendapan bahan organik

Levorsen (1958) mengemukakan bahwa sumber bahan organik
berasal dari hewan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang diubah menjadi
protein, gemuk, asam gemuk, alkohol lilin dan resin. Bahan ini
dapat menghasilkan 5 50 % minyak bumi.
Bahan-bahan organik pada batuan

Parker Trask pada tahun 1926 1932 telah melakukan penyelidikan
pada sedimen Resen di Amerika yang menghasilkan kesimpulan :
1. Kadar organik sedimen sangat dipengaruhi oleh konfigurasi laut.
2. Kadar sedimen yang halus kandungan bahan organiknya cukup
banyak.
3. Kadar bahan organik resen berukuran halus tergantung pada
kehidupan plangton di atasnya.
4. Sedimen dekat pantai mengandung bahan organik lebih banyak
dibandingkan pada endapan samudera terbuka.
5. Kadar bahan organik di daerah pemunculan air laut-dalam ke
permukaan sangat besar.
What happens to all the organic matter (i.e. bug guts) as it gets buried?
Obviously it is subjected to higher pressure and temperatures. Three major
steps. Of course there are gradations between steps, like all things in geology:
(1) Diagenesis
Shallow subsurface. Includes biogenic decay (bacteria) and abiotic reactions.
Products include kerogen (the solid remaining) methane, carbon dioxide
(bicarbonate at most pH), water, H2S.The major change to the solid is that its
oxygen content is reduced, but the hydrogen/carbon ratio isn't changed greatly.
( ) Catagenesis
(2) C
Continued burial. Fluid hydrocarbons is released from the solid matter. Initially
liquids, and later at higher temperatures gas. The hydrogen/carbon ratio
decreases, but the O/C ratio doesn't change much.
(3) Metagenesis.
Continued burial, Pressure and temperatures approach metamorphic values.
Largely methane expelled at these T and P. The H/C ratio continues to decline in
the solid as the fluid H/C ratio increase. Remaining product is graphite.
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source rock
Mineral material 99% Organic material 1%
Kerogen 90% Bitumens 10%
Mature kerogen Crude oil
graphite methane
Losing hydrogen Gaining hydrogen

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As the kerogen is subjected to deeper burial and increased P and T, it

begins to release HC. The rate and types of hydrocarbons released
depend on the rate of heating and the length of time available for
heating.
Empirical evidence for the T for oil vs gas generation are:
Oil generation: 60 to 120C, called the "oil window"
Gas generation: 120 to 225 C, called the "gas window"
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Schematic Representation of the Mechanism

of Petroleum Generation and Destruction
urial and Heating
Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir
Kerogen Initial Bitumen

Progressive Bu
Catagenesis Thermal Degradation

Migration
Oil and Gas
Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon (modified from Tissot and Welte, 1984)
Diagenetic hydrocarbon formation occurs at shallow depths and relatively low formation
temperatures. During catagenesis, oil and wet gas forms, followed by dry gas and the
cracking of heavy hydrocarbons. When the metagenesis occurs, all heavy
hydrocarbons have been cracked, and methane and carbon are the end products.
KEROGEN TYPES
(1) Type I- Algal

Higher in H/O ratio than the other kerogens- typically 1.2 to 1.7. The
H/C ratio is 1.65 (note, these are all weight ratios). The organic
compounds are typically lipids (fats).
((2)) Type
yp II- combination algal
g and zooplankton
p and phytoplankton
p y p
Has intermediate H/C and H/O ratio to those of Type I and Type II
(3) Type III- generally from woody (land) plants- Humic material
Rich in aromatics, but low in aliphatic compounds. It has a very low
H/C ratio and higher H/O ratio. Generally undergoes diagenesis to form
coal- the only liquid hydrocarbon it produces is methane.
Thus, when evaluating an province it is important to determine the
amount, as well as the type of kerogen present.
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KEROGEN TYPES & VAN KREVELEN DIAGRAM

Kerogen Types
As Determined by Visual Kerogen Analysis, Origin, and HC Potential
Depositional Other Palynology Kerogen Kerogen Hydrocarbon
Environment System Form Type Potential
Lacustrine Lacustrine Algal Alginite I Oil
Sapropel (Plankton)
Fluorescing Fluorescing I or II Oil
Amorphous Amorphous
Herbaceous Exinite II Oil/Condensate
Aquatic Marine " Resinite II "
Sapropel " Liptinite II "
(typically " Suberinite II "
marine) " Sporinite II "
" Cutinite II "
Non-fluorescing Non-fluorescing III or IV Gas or None
Amorphous Amorphous
III Gas mainly.
May have some
Terrestrial Humic Woody Vitrinite oil potential,
Cellulose especially in
SE Asia if
"HI" is > 150.
Coaly Inertinite IV Dead Carbon
No Potential
(after Merril, 1991; Cornford, 1990)

THE SOURCE ROCK

Definition : effective source rock is a rock that has actually
generated & expelled hydrocarbons, usually fine grain
sediment rocks (Tissot & Welte, 84 vide Peter & Casa 94) .
Major types of source rock : shale, marl, carbonate, coal.
Organic
g matters come from :
Terrestrial (subaerial) : woody & higher animals.
Subaqueous (lacustrine, swamp, marine) : phytoplankton
(algae, diatomae, dinoflagelata), zooplankton & bigger
fish.
Thermal maturation depends on:
TEMPERATURE (125oC-170oC)
TIME (Western Ind : Paleogen, Eastern Ind : Triassic)
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IDENTIFIKASI BATUAN INDUK

1. TOC (Total Organic Carbon)
2. EOM (Extractable Organic Matter)
3. CPI (Carbon Preferance Index)
4. CIR (Carbon Isotop Ratio)
5. LOM (Level Of thermal Maturity)
TRANSFORMASI BAHAN ORGANIK

Levorsen & Russell (1958) :
1. Panas dan tekanan
2. Reaksi katalisator
3. Aksi bakteri
4. Radiasi unsur-unsur radioaktif
KEMATANGAN TERMAL BATUAN INDUK (LOM)

1. Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) / Index Pengubahan Termal
2. Vitrinite Reflectance (VR) / Reflektansi Vitrinit
3. Fixed Carbon Ratio (FCR) / Perbandingan Karbon Terikat
SOURCE ROCK CAPACITY

Determined from :
TOC (Total Organic Carbon), ex. by Leco Carbon Analyzer.
Thickness.
Lateral distribution/area.
Need sample to analyse or estimates from logs.
Also analogue from adjacent basin.
Assumpted from dep env of shaleshale.
at least 1% TOC
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Total Organic Carbon
LECO CARBON ANALYZER

%TOC Grade
< 0.5 Very Poor
0.5 1.0 Poor
102
1.0 2.0
0 Fair
2.0 4.0 Good
4.0 12.0 Excellent
> 12.0 Oil Shale / Coal
(Rating of source rocks after Cornford, 1990).
SOURCE ROCK MATURITY

Dependent on temperature, pressure and time.
Estimates by LOM (Level of Organic Maturity)
analysis:
Ro (Vitrinite reflectance)
Pyrolisis
TAI (Thermal Alteration Index) from spores
&ppollen.
TTI-burial history (geomodelling)
Coal rank
Find oil window or gas window.
ANALYSIS OF VITRINITE REFLECTANCE

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VITRINITE REFLECTANCE (Ro)
% Ro
< 0.5 0.7 % Diagenesis
0.7 1.3% Katagenesis (oil window)
1.3 2.0 % Katagenesis Akhir(Zona utama gas)
> 2.0 % Metagenesis
PYROLISIS
ROC EVAL-PYROLYZER
ROCK-EVAL PYROLYSIS
S3 = carbon dioxide given
Tmax off by the kerogen
S2 = HC generated from
the kerogen by thermal
decomposition (420 - 460C)
S1 = HC already present (250C)
250-550C
After Waples, 1985

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1. S1 : mengukur kandungan free hydrocarbon yang terbentuk in-situ, hasil

migrasi hidrokarbon, atau yang berasal dari kontaminasi. Jika S1
merupakan hasil pembentukan in-situ, dan nilainya lebih kecil daripada
0.2, batuan induk dianggap miskin, sedangkan jika S1 > 1.6 dikategorikan
sebagai excellent source rocks.
2. Parameter S2 menunjukkan jumlah hidrokarbon hasil konversi kerogen di
dalam batuan yang digenerasikan melalui proses thermal secara alamiah.
Nilai S2 < 1 dianggap sebagai miskin, dan jika S2 > 10 menunjukkan
bahwa batuan tersebut sangat berpotensi. Satuan harga S1 dan S2 diukur
dalam mg hidrokarbon/ gram conto batuan
3. Parameter S3 yang dihasilkan oleh Rock Eval pyrolysis Menunjukkan
jumlah kandungan CO2 yang hadir di dalam conto batuan.
4. Parameter Tmax mengukur temperatur maksimum yang dicapai untuk
menggenerasikan hidrokarbon di dalam proses Rock-Eval pyrolysis,
besaran ini ditunjukkan oleh grafik pengukuran S2, yang d ipakai sebagai
penunjuk tingkat kematangan batuan induk. Tmax < 430OC dianggap
sebagai belum matang (immature), sedangkan Tmax > 460O C
menunjukkan kondisi yang overmature. Harga Tmax yang terekam sangat
dipengaruhi oleh jenis organic matter , seperti kerogen tipe I akan
membentuk hidrokarbon lebih belakangan daripada tipe III pada kondisi
temperatur yang sama.
1. S1 + S2, menunjukkan jumlah hidrokarbon yang hadir sebagai

komponen volatile dan kerogen, atau menunjukkan genetik potential
(potential yield). Satuan ini juga dapat dipakai sebagai semi-
quantitative evaluation dari potensi batuan induk, sebagai penunjuk
jumlah total hidrokarbon yang dilepaskan selama proses
pematangan batuan induk.
2. Production Index (PI) atau S1/(S1 + S2) menunjukkan jumlah

hidrokarbon y
yangg tergenerasikan
g relative terhadap
p jjumlah total
hidrokarbon yang hadir. Nilai parameter ini dipakai sebagai indikator
tingkat kematangan, misalnya harga 0.1 - 0.4 diidentifikasikan
sebagai onset to peak oil generation.
3. Dua buah parameter hasil pengukuran lainnya dikenal sebagai

hydrogen index (HI) dan oxygen index (OI) yang merupakan
parameter qualitative. HI merupakan hasil dari S2 x 100/TOC, dan
OI adalah S3 x 100/TOC. Kedua parameter ini harganya akan
berkurang dengan naiknya tingkat kematangan. Harga HI yang
tinggi menunjukkan indikasi sedimen didominasi oleh oil-prone,
sedangkan OI tinggi berindikasi sebagai gas-prone.
Indicator Notation Definition Equation Rating

Amount of S1 HC exp <0.1 = Immature
TRANSFORMATION TR kerogen trans- _______ 0.1 - 0.4 = Oil
RATIO formed to HC S1o + S2o > 0.4 = Gas
Amount of HC S1
PRODUCTION PI available for _______
INDEX production S1 + S2
(S2x100) mg/g < 150: Gas
HYDROGEN HI Hydrogen __________ 150 - 300: Mixed (RO = 0.6%)
INDEX Content % TOC > 300: Oil
<40 mg/g
low HI=land derived OM and/or mature
OXYGEN OI Oxygen (S3x 100)mg/g
00) g/g high HI
HI=good
good to excellent source potential
INDEX Content ___________ >40 mg/g
% TOC low HI=gas-prone OM,generally immature
high HI=good oil source, gen. immature
POTENTIAL YIELD Potential Yield <2 mg/g Poor
OR HYDROCARBON PY (assuming im- (S1+S2) mg/g 2-6 mg/g Fair
SOURCE mature >6 mg/g Very Good
POTENTIAL sample)
S2 <3: Gas Prone
KEROGEN TYPE Kerogen Type _______ 3-5: Mixed
S3 >5: Oil Prone
Temperature at Measured <430: Immature
THERMAL TMAX Peak Temperature at 430-460: Oil Generation
MATURITY Generation S2 (in deg C) >460: Gas Generation or destruction
INDICATIONS OF
MIGRATED (1) HIGH S1 (2) LOW Tmax (3) HIGH S1/%TOC (4) HIGH S1/(S1 +S2)
HYDROCARBONS
After Merrill, 1991
Petroleum Organic Matter Bitumen Hydrocarbons

Potential Rock Eval Pyrolysis
TOC (wt. %) S1 S2 Wt % ppm ppm
Poor 0 0.5 0 0.5 0 2.5 0 0.05 0 - 500 0 - 300
Fair 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 0.05 0.10 500 1000 300 600
Good 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 0.10 0.20 1000 2000 600 1200
Very Good 2.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 10.0 20.0 0.20 0.40 2000 4000 1200 2400
Excellent > 4.0 > 4.0 > 20.0 > 0.40 > 4000 > 2400
Stage of Thermal Maturation Generation

Maturity for Oil
o
Ro (%) Tmax ( C) TAI Bitumen/TOC Bitumen PI
(mg/g Rock) (S1/(S1+S2)
Immature 0.2 0.6 < 435 1.5 2.6 < 0.05 < 50 < 0.10
M t
Mature
Early 0.60 0.65 435 445 2.60 2.70 0.05 0.10 50 100 0.10 0.15
Peak 0.65 0.90 445 450 2.70 2.90 0.15 0.25 150 250 0.25 0.40
Late 0.90 1.35 450 470 2.90 3.30 - - > 0.40
Post Mature > 1.35 > 470 > 3.30 - - -
Kerogen Hydrogen S2/S3 Atomic H/C Main Product

(Quality) Index at Peak Maturity
I > 600 > 15 > 1.5 Oil

II 300-600 10-15 1.2-1.5 Oil
II/III 200-300 5-10 1 - 1.2 Oil/Gas
III 50 - 200 1-5 0.7 - 1.0 Gas
IV < 50 <1 < 0.7 None
TIME-TEMPERATURE INDEX
Complex formulation to calculate a value of TTI that is based on values for E, A,
and T and t for the amount of time that organic matter stays within a 10C
window. There is also a second relationship to calculate the value of TTI for
sediment that resides for a certain time at a certain temperature
These equations are solved for each type of kerogen (different values of E and
A)) and then p
plotted g
graphically
p y to simplify
p y their calculations.
The next step is to sum up all values of TTI for each 10C window or for periods
of constant temperature. This provides a value of STTI, which is related to the %
oil generated by:
x% = [1-exp(-STTI/100)]*100
The importance of using this type of calculations is that it takes into account the
kinetics of oil generation from kerogen. Because activation energy is so variable
for each type of kerogen it is important to account for it.
BUILD A BURIAL HISTORY

Example of Burial History Model

( After Terres & Mertani, 1987)

Oil generation: 60 to 120C, called the "oil window"

Gas generation: 120 to 225 C, called the "gas window"
% Ro
< 0.5 0.7 % Diagenesis
0.7 1.3 % Katagenesis (oil window)
1.3 2.0 % Katagenesis Akhir
Zona utama gas
> 2.0 % Metagenesis
Relationship of Transformation Ratio, TMAX, and %Ro to Kerogen Type
Bordenave, M., 1992, (ed.), Applied Petroleum Geochemistry

Comparison of Several Commonly Used Maturity Techniques

and Their Correlation to Oil and Gas Generation Limits
0.2 65 1
on in Kerogen
0.3 70
ctance (Ro) %
n Index (SCI)
2
0.4
max (C)
0.5 75
Incipient Oil Generation 3
0.6 430
0.7 80
sT
0.8 4
Max Oil Generated
Max.
Spore Coloration
Weight % Carbo
09
0.9 OIL
Pyrolysis
Vitrinite Reflec
85 5 450
1.0
1.2 Wet 6
1.3 Gas 7 465
Oil Floor Dry 90 8
Gas Max. Dry Gas 9
2.0 10
Wet Gas Floor Generated
3.0
4.0
Dry Gas Floor
95
(modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991, after Dow and OConner, 1982)
Relation of thermal maturity to hydrocarbon generation. Various thermal

maturation indices may be used to assess the thermal maturity of source rocks
and the remaining hydrocarbon potential.
DISCUSSION
What are impacts of different HC composition on
production?
What are specific gravity of HC influence the reservoir
condition?
Why do we just find oil or gas in certain field?
Why do we find oil and gas in same field?
Why do we find no HC in a field with potential source rocks?

EXERCISES-1
S1 S2 S3 PY
Sample Tmax
TOC (%) S2/S3 PI PC HI OI
No. (0C)
mg/g
1 0.58 0.15 0.08 0.27 0.23 0.30 0.65 0.02 - 14 46

2 8.46 2.32 9.91 7.67 12.23 1.29 0.19 1.02 422 117 91
3 1.78 0.18 0.81 0.91 0.99 0.89 0.18 0.08 420 45 51
4 0.80 0.05 0.08 0.47 0.13 0.17 0.38 0.01 NDP 10 59
5 26.14 1.28 7.44 14.69 8.72 0.51 0.15 0.72 396 28 56
6 0.54 0.32 0.09 0.08 0.41 1.13 0.78 0.04 399 17 15
7 2.64 0.40 0.93 1.52 1.33 0.61 0.30 0.11 400 35 58
8 0.92 0.86 0.51 0.37 1.37 1.38 0.63 0.08 407 55 40
9 0.81 0.33 0.43 0.30 0.76 1.43 0.43 0.03 403 53 37
10 0.86 0.11 0.45 0.38 0.56 1.18 0.20 0.01 408 52 44
EXERCISES-2
Tmax vs HI
1000
HI (mg HC/g TOC)

0.6 iso-ref lect ance
900
Legends
WONOSARI FM .
800 SENTOLO FM .
NAM POL FM .
T IP E I WUNI FM
SEM ILIR FM .
700 JATEN FM .
TOTOGAN FM .
KEBO BUTAK FM .
NANGGULAN FM .
600 KARANG SAM BUNG FM .
WUNGKAL FM
500
400 T IP E II
300
1.2
200
100
T IP E III
0
390 405 420 435 450 465 480 495 510 525
Tm ax (0C)
Im m a t ure O il Z o ne G a s Z o ne
EXERCISES-3
Tmax vs Ro%
2.00
Legends
1.80 WONOSARI FM .
Over Mature
SENTOLO FM .
NAM POL FM .
1.60 WUNI FM
SEM ILIR FM .
JATEN FM .
TOTOGAN FM .
1.40
KEBO BUTAK FM .
NANGGULAN FM .
1.20 KARANG SAM BUNG FM .
WUNGKAL FM
Ro %
Mature
1.00
0.80
0.60
Immature
0.40
0.20
0.00
390 405 420 435 450 465 480 495
Immature Mature Over Mature

0
Tmax ( C)
SUMMARY
HC types : paraffins, naphtene, aromatics.
HC origin theories : inorganic, organic, combination.
HC generation : diagenesis, metagenesis, catagenesis.
The "oil window" : 60 to 120 C.
The "gas window : 120 to 225 C.
Kerogen
g types:
yp I-algal
g ((oil p
prone, S2/S3 >5),
) II-mix ((S2/S3 3-5),
) III-
woody (gas prone, S2/S3 <3), IV-inert.
Potential source rock has > 1% TOC.
Ro for mature oil is > 0.7 and for gas is > 1.3
Mature oil, PI 0.1-0.4
Gas has low HI while oil has high HI.
Potential source rock has > 2 mg/g of PY.
Tmax for oil generation (pyrolisis) is 430-460 deg C.
FURTHER READING
North, F.K., 1985, Petroleum Geology, Allen & Unwin Inc., London; Part
II: The Nature and Origin of Petroleum, p.27-112.
Waples, D.W., 1985, Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration, IHRD
Corp., Boston; p.31-154.

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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY (TKG-353) 1

Hydrocarbon : A naturally occurring organic compound comprising

2. Naphtenes (cyclo-alkanes or cyclo-paraffins)

COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL

Kerosene (C11-C12) 10 Naphthenes 49

Gas Oil (C13-C20) 15 Aromatics 15

Lubricating Oil (C20-C40) 20 Asphaltics 6

total 100 total 100

NGL, LPG & LNG

THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

Duplex origin (combination), (Robert Robinson)

Amyx, et. al., 1960

a. Asal-usul Minyak Bumi

Perubahan bahan organik menjadi minyak bumi

Sumber & proses pengendapan bahan organik

Bahan-bahan organik pada batuan

Mineral material 99% Organic material 1%

Kerogen 90% Bitumens 10%

Mature kerogen Crude oil

Losing hydrogen Gaining hydrogen

As the kerogen is subjected to deeper burial and increased P and T, it

Schematic Representation of the Mechanism

Kerogen Initial Bitumen

Catagenesis Thermal Degradation

(1) Type I- Algal

KEROGEN TYPES & VAN KREVELEN DIAGRAM

(after Merril, 1991; Cornford, 1990)

THE SOURCE ROCK

IDENTIFIKASI BATUAN INDUK

TRANSFORMASI BAHAN ORGANIK

KEMATANGAN TERMAL BATUAN INDUK (LOM)

SOURCE ROCK CAPACITY

Total Organic Carbon

LECO CARBON ANALYZER

SOURCE ROCK MATURITY

ANALYSIS OF VITRINITE REFLECTANCE

VITRINITE REFLECTANCE (Ro)

S1 = HC already present (250C)

After Waples, 1985

1. S1 : mengukur kandungan free hydrocarbon yang terbentuk in-situ, hasil

1. S1 + S2, menunjukkan jumlah hidrokarbon yang hadir sebagai

2. Production Index (PI) atau S1/(S1 + S2) menunjukkan jumlah

3. Dua buah parameter hasil pengukuran lainnya dikenal sebagai

Indicator Notation Definition Equation Rating

Petroleum Organic Matter Bitumen Hydrocarbons

Stage of Thermal Maturation Generation

Kerogen Hydrogen S2/S3 Atomic H/C Main Product

I > 600 > 15 > 1.5 Oil

BUILD A BURIAL HISTORY

Example of Burial History Model

( After Terres & Mertani, 1987)

Oil generation: 60 to 120C, called the "oil window"

Relationship of Transformation Ratio, TMAX, and %Ro to Kerogen Type

Bordenave, M., 1992, (ed.), Applied Petroleum Geochemistry

Comparison of Several Commonly Used Maturity Techniques

Relation of thermal maturity to hydrocarbon generation. Various thermal

Why do we find oil and gas in same field?

Why do we find no HC in a field with potential source rocks?

1 0.58 0.15 0.08 0.27 0.23 0.30 0.65 0.02 - 14 46

HI (mg HC/g TOC)

Immature Mature Over Mature

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