Education :
MD Medical School, Atma Jaya, Jakarta, Indonesia
Internal Med Medical School, Sam Ratulangi, Manado, Indonesia
Pulmonology Consultant Collegiums of Internal Medicine, Indonesia
Occupation :
Staf of Respirology Division & Critical Care Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Universitas Kriten Krida Wacana,
Indonesia
Organization :
Indonesian Doctor’s Association, - Indonesia
Society of Internal Medicine Jakarta, - Indonesia
Society of Respirologi Indonesia (PERPARI)
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
Status Asmatikus
Syok Anafilaktik
• Kriteria Berlin 2011, tidak lagi menggunakan ALI dikelompokkan menjadi tiga,
yaitu ringan (PaO2/FiO2 201-300 mmHg dengan positive end-expiratory pressure
atau PEEP ≥5 cmH2O), sedang (PaO2/FiO2 101-200 mmHg dengan PEEP ≥5 cmH2O)
& berat (PaO2/FiO2 <100 mmHg dengan PEEP ≥5 cmH2O)
• terjadinya gagal napas akut pada ARDS yaitu terkena faktor risiko yang diketahui /
terjadinya perburukan dari gejala pernapasan dalam satu minggu
Epidemiologi
• pertama kali digambarkan sebagai sindrom klinis pada tahun
1967
• mortalitasnya 50 %
Infeksi Nosokomial
Displasia Bronkopulmoner
Perdarahan Pulmoner
Infeksi nosokomial
• Bagi pasien yang terpasang ventilator dengan ARDS akan
sangat rentan terkena infeksi nosokomial (infeksi yang
diperoleh dari rumah sakit
ARDS berat
umumnya
meninggal karena
Infeksi Sepsis (adanya gagal organ
(ARDS>biasa bakteri di dalam multiple bkn
bakteri) aliran darah) karena ARDS saja
tp sdh menjadi
sepsis & akhirnya
> MOF
Kebocoran udara (pneumothoraks)
Terkadang Terdapatnya
Tekanan positif
Menyebabkan dapat terjadi fistula pada
pada ventilator
tekanan di Terjadi tension emfisema ARDS
diteruskan ke
dalam pleura pneumothorax subkutan yang merupakan
dalam pleura
menjadi positif mengikuti komplikasi
melalui fistula
pneumotoraks yang serius
Ketidakseimbangan Asam Basa
• Asidosis respiratorik yg merupakan akibat tidak adekuatnya
ekskresi CO2 krn tidak adekuatnya ventilasi, sehingga
mengakibatkan kenaikan kadar co2 plasma
Displasia Bronkopulmoner
• Cedera pada paru-paru akibat terapi oksigen konsentrasi tinggi
& pemakaian ventilator
• Biasanya pada pemakaian lebih dari 1 minggu
Perdarahan pulmoner
Menyebabkan
sembab cairan Akan
yang menimbulkan
Kenaikan Peningkatan mengandung gangguan
tekanan permeabilitas protein tinggi pertukaran gas
sirkulasi mikrovaskular & kolapsnya &
pulmonal paru rongga mekanik paru
alveolar, yang (perdarahan
dijumpai pada pulmoner)
ARDS
Prognosis ards
Peningkatan
Psikologis
Produksi
dan Alergi
Mokus
Kontraksi
Otot Bronkus
Perubahan Struktur pada Airway
Remodeling dan Konsekuensi Klinis
Mekanisme Dasar Kelainan Asma
Manifestasi Klinis
Manifestasi klinik pada pasien asmatikus adalah :
• Batuk
• Dyspnoe
• Wheezing
Banyak berkeringat, bila kulit kering Pada awalnya kesadaran cukup baik
menunjukkan kegawatan sebab lambat laun dapat memburuk diawali
penderita sudah jatuh dalam dehidrasi rasa cemas, gelisah kemudian jatuh ke
berat dalam koma
Pemeriksaan Penunjang
a. Spirometri (pengukuran kapasitas udara paru) : Untuk menunjukkan adanya obstruksi jalan
nafas
g. Pemeriksaan sputum
KOMPLIKASI
• Atelektasis
• Hipoksemia
• Pneumotoraks Ventil
• Emfisema
• Gagal nafas
Penanganan
• ICU
• Monitoring
b. Albuterol-continuous aerosol
ii. May be effective if intermittent aerosols are not, / may allow the patient to “rest.”
iv. If delivered oxygen (10L) is insufficient to meet the demands of the patient, more O2 can
be provided with a nasal canula / extra O2 yed in at the mask
c. Other aerosolized beta-agonists: occasionally a patient will fail to improve with albuterol, but
will respond to another beta-agonist. Why this occurs is not clear. Other agents which can be
used include terbutaline (0.5-1.0 mg/3ccNS) & isoproterenol (0.5 cc/3ccNS)
d. Helium
i. Helium is an inert gas with a density lower than oxygen / air. Helium reduces
the resistance to airflow by increasing the proportion of laminar to turbulent
flow
iii. Helium may be delivered via a non-rebreather mask / via the ventilator circuit
for intubated asthmatics
iv. There is some data to suggest that helium improves the deposition of inhaled
particles to the distal bronchioles, hence may improve the distribution of
inhaled beta-agonists when given concomitantly
ii. It produces less (but not zero) respiratory depression than most other
anesthetics
iv. Other side effects include increased secretions & emergence phenomena
(hallucinations upon emergence)
vi. Usual dose is 0.5-1.0 mg/kg. Continuous infusion 0.5-1.0 mg/kg/hour, titrated
carefully to effect (sedation & bronchodilation)
g. Inhalational Anesthetic-Isofluorane
iv. Issues related to risk (hypotension in the patient, scavenging the gas
from the environment) vs. benefit (bronchodilation) make its use
somewhat controversial, & it is generally reserved for the
mostsevere asthmatics
h. Magnesium
• Oxygen is a drug
• Supplemental oxygen can elevate the pO2, but because of the shape of the
oxy-hemoglobin dissociation curve, it may be difficult to reach full O2
saturation if the V/Q mismatch is severe, & full saturation is not necessary
• Oxygen is directly toxic to the lung in high concentrations (>50-60% for >24
hours), & can lead to resorbtion atelectasis (replaces nitrogen in the alveolus,
oxygen is absorbed into the blood, & the alveolus collapses)
j. Terbutaline-intravenous terbutaline has become widely used in treating the moderate to severe asthma
exacerbation, in which frequent / continuous aerosols have been ineffective, or which is especially severe
on initial presentation. It is easily titrated and has a short half life if untoward side effects are encountered.
It has almost entirely relaced isoproterenol for use in particularly severe asthmatics
ii. Maintenance dose-start at 0.4-1.0 mcg/kg/min. Increase the dose in increments of 0.2-0.4
mcg/kg/min, assessing for effect & sideeffects. Dose can be titrated up quickly if the patient is not
excessively tachycardiac. Maximum dose is unknown (probably 4 mcg/kg/min is “usual” maximum
dose. It has been used in doses up to 20 mcg/kg/min rarely without adverse effect.)
iii. Side effects include tachycardia (most common), hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, worse hypoxia (due to
increased V/Q mismatch with infusion), rhabdomyolysis. Monitor HR closely, watch for S-T changes
if patient is severe and particularly tachycardic
iv. The implications of elevated CPK levels in the asthmatic who does not have EKG changes are unclear.
Occasionally there will be impressive elevations, almost always of the MM fraction
v. There have been no controlled studies looking at the safety of combining intravenous terbutaline with
theophylline. Generally we do not use both, as the tachycardia and resulting cardiac toxicity could
theoretically be synergistic
vi. Intravenous terbutaline can be used in combination with aerosolized beta agonists. Watch for
excessive tachycardia. When the patient improves, wean the terbutaline before weaning the
aerosols
k. Theophylline: The use of theophylline in the treatment of an acute asthma
exacerbation has become controversial in recent years, as there is evidence that it
is not helpful during an acute attack. There remain, however, some patients who
are maintained on chronic theophylline or who respond particularly well to
theophylline, in whom one might want to continue treatment during an acute
exacerbation. One could either continue the oral theophylline preparation, or
begin an aminophylline infusion
iii. Theraeutic level 10-20 mg/l. Levels >20 are toxic, though some patients will
display side effects (nausea, tachycardia, anxiety, jitteriness) at lower levels.
Check levels after the bolus, at 4 hours, and at steady state (12-16 hours)
iv. Medications that increase theophylline metabolism (& thus lower the level):
barbiturates, phenytoin, isoproterenol
v. Medications that decrease theophylline metabolism (& thus increase the level):
allopurinol, cimetidine, erythromycin, propranolol, oral contraceptives
l. Steroids:
• Indications: There are no widely agreed upon guidelines for when asthmatics
require intubation. Intubation & mechanical ventilation are difficult & dangerous
for the asthmatic, hence are avoided if at all possible. The difficulty arises as to
when it is or is not possible.
• Relative indications:
iii. Severe hypoxia despite supplemental O2 via 100% non-rebreather mask. Look
also for evidence of impaired O2 delivery, i.e., presence or worsening of
metabolic acidosis
i. Do not try to normalize the pCO2. Tolerate hypercapnia, & use pharmacologic buffering agents if necessary to increase the
pH to >7.2. How high a pCO2 you need to tolerate depends on the pressures needed to ventilate the patient
ii. Try to keep plateau (alveolar) pressures <30-35 cm H20. Peak pressures may be higher than this due to increased airways
resistance.
iii. Small tidal volumes are usually needed due to high resistance & propensity for air trapping. 5-7 cc/kg is a reasonable
place to start
iv. Rate should be low and expiratory time long, inspiratory time relatively short. The idea is to leave as much time as
possible for expiration, without causing the inspiratory pressure to be too high because you are trying to get the gas in
over too short a period. Rates of 10-14 & I:E ratios of 1:4 to 1:6 are typical
v. Volume cycled or pressure cycled ventilation can be used. If using volume cycled ventilation, be sure to watch the
pressures generated carefully. If using pressure cycled, the ventilator will usually not reach “plateau” / no flow, & you need
to watch the volumes delivered. Frequent reassessment is crucial
vi. If you encounter difficulty with oxygenation or just cannot move the chest, manually bag the patient & reassess therapy &
ventilator strategy
vii. There has been some success (case series and anecdote) with the use of pressure support ventilation in the sedated, but
not paralysed, intubated asthmatic. Its routine use has not been subjuected to controlled trials
General management issues
a. Fluids/electrolytes. The asthmatic admitted to the ICU for worsening respiratory distress
must be kept NPO until such time as you are quite comfortable that he/she is improving, that
the risk of deterioration requiring intubation is past, and that the patient will be able to
eat/drink & breathe at the same time. Until then, maintain hydration with IV fluids. You may
see hyperglycemia / hypokalemia due to your therapy. Generally it is not of sufficient degree
to warrant any additional therapy. Remember that with tachypnea the patient may have
excessive fluid losses, or may have been dehydrated on admission due to poor PO intake
when ill
b. GI prophylaxis: The asthmatic in the ICU is usually on relatively large doses of steroids & is
NPO. It is appropriate to treat with an H2 blocker or sucralfate/carafate
c. Antibiotics: Use antibiotics if you suspect a bacterial pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis, / other
bacterial infection as the cause of the patient’s asthma exacerbation
d. Chest physiotherapy: use during an acute simple asthma exacerbation is quite controversial.
If used, you should evaluate your patient before & after treatments. PD often creates more
wheezing immediately, but may be neccessary if there is considerable atelectasis or mucous
plugging
SYOK ANAFILAKTIK
Definisi
• Anafilaksis berasal dari bahasa Yunani yaitu:
Ana = melawan
Philaksis = perlindungan
• syok anafilaktik merupakan tipe paling berat dari reaksi anafilaksis, bisa
menyebabkan kematian dalam hitungan menit jika tidak segera ditangani
Definisi????
Degranulasi
- Histamin
- PAF
-Vasodilatasi - Prostaglandin
- Permeabilitas - Leukotrien
- Bronchokontriksi - Adenosin
- Serotonin
PATHWAY
• Reaksi anafilaktoid
- Reaksi Ag-Ab tanpa IgE
- Hasil degranulasi = sama
- Efek = sama
- Klinis = sama
Manifestasi Klinis
Derajat • kesemutan perifer, sensasi hangat, rasa sesak di mulut & tenggorok.
Dapat juga terjadi kongesti hidung, pembengkakan periorbital,
pruritus, bersin-bersin & mata berair
• Kebanyakan reaksi terjadi dalan beberapa menit, jarang reaksi terjadi lebih
lambat dari onset
• Waktu onset reaksi anfilaksis tergantung tipe trigger. Trigger intravena akan
lebih cepat onsetnya daripada sengatan & cenderung disebabkan lebih cepat
onsetnya dari trigger ingesti oral
Airway Problem :
• Suara Hoarse
• Stridor, tingginya suara inspirasi karena saluran nafas atas yang mengalami obstruksi
Breathing Problems :
• Nafas pendek, pengingkatan frekuensi nafas
• Wheezing
• Pasien menjadi lelah
• Kebingungan karena hipoksia
• Sianosis (muncul biru), ini biasanya pada late sign
• Respiratory arrest
Circulation problem
• Tanda syok, pucat, berkeringat.
• Peningkatan frekuensi nadi (takikardi)
• Tekanan darah rendah (hipotensi), merasa ingin jatuh (dizziness), kolaps.
• Penurunan tingkat kesadaran atau kehilangan kesadaran
• Anafilaksi dapat menyebabkan iskemik myokardial dan ECG berubah walaupun individu dengan
normal arteri kononer.
• Cardiac arrest
3. Perubahan Kulit dan/atau Mukosa
• Sering muncul gambaran pertama dan muncul lebih dari 80% dari reaksi anafilaksis.
• Mungkin urtikaria yang muncul dimana saja pada tubuh, berwarna pucar, merah muda / merah &
mungkin menunjukan seperti sengatan
• Angioedema mungkin seperti urtikaria tetapi termasuk pada jaringan lebih dalam sering pada
kelopak mata & bibir, kadang pada mulut & tenggorokan
C. PENATALAKSANAAN
• Ingat :
* Waktu untuk diagnosis sangat pendek
* Tujuan utama :
- Ventilasi adekuat
- Sirkulasi adekuat
Dibagi 3
1. Tindakan segera
a. Hentikan prosedur
b. Penderita tidur terlentang,
kaki naik 30 derajad
- O2 100%
- Airway
Tripple airway manuever
- Breathing
Bila henti napas
Napas buatan
b. Raba nadi karotis
- Circulation
RJP
Tak bernapas : Bernapas
- Napas buatan 30 : 2 ( ACLS )
- O2 100%
12 x/menit Adrenalin 1 mg
- Observasi ketat
- Intubasi DC Shock
Tabel 3
Terapi Reaksi Anafilaktik dan Anafilaktoid
Jamin jalan napas bebas
Lokasikan tempat yang kena racun
Pasang ikatan proksimal bila tempat tsb
suatu ekstremitas
Adrenalin 0,3 – 0,5 ml lar 1 : 1000 lokal
RINGAN
ke dalam tempat tsb
Tambahkan oksigen SEDANG
Adrenalin 0,3 – 0,5 ml lar 1 : 1000 subkutan (ringan) atau intravena
(berat)
Aminofilin 5 – 6 mg / kg iv dosis pertama, kemudian :
0,4 – 0,9 mg/kg jam iv (untuk bronkospasme yang menetap)
Pertahankan kadar serum pada 10-20 mcg/kg BERAT
Cairan (gunakan derajat hemokonsentrasi sebagai penutntun)
Cairan
Pengobatan inotropik positif menurut variabel hemodinamik
Zat vasoaktif
Bantuan hidup dasar dan lanjut sesuai metoda dan pengobatan konvensional
Henti Jantung Paru (standar ACLS )
Tabel 4
Obat – obat yang bermanfaat dalam terapi anafilaksis
Isoproterenol Dilatasi bronkus & stimulasi Meninggikan 1,0 mg dalam 1000 ml Dapat dipakai
betaagonis jantung inotropik cAMP 5% dekstrosa pada
HCL dalam air lewat hipotensi
tetesan IV + normovolemi
k (perlu
pantauan
jantung
Noradrenalin Dilatasi bronkus & stimulasi Menurunkan 4,0 ml lar 0,2% dalam Hipotensi berat
alfaagonis jantung inotropik cAMP 1000 ml 5%
dekstrosa dalam
air lewat tetesan
IV
Metaraminol Meninggikan ta-hanan 100 mg da-lam 1000 ml Hipotensi
alfaagonis bitartrat vaskular periferi 5% dekstrosa dalam air
le-wat tetesan IV +
Efedrin alfaagonis Sama dengan adrenalin 25 mg per oral tiap 6 jam Reaksi yang ber-
sulfat kepanjangan yang
memerlukan pemakaian
kontinyu betaagonis
Betaagonis
2. Bronkospasme persisten