TUGAS 9
PENGGUNAAN TRUCKS DAN HAULING EQUIPMENT PADA
PEKERJAAN LOW-RISE BUILDING
KELOMPOK 3
UNIVERSITAS MERCUBUANA
PROGRAM STUDI PASCA SARJANA
MAGISTER TEKNIK SIPIL
JAKARTA
2019
Abstract
Hauling trucks are important parts of equipment fleets for large earth moving
operations such as those encountered in dams and highway construction
projects. This paper presents an automated methodology for tracking and
estimating productivity of hauling trucks fleet operations in near-real-time.
Recent advancements in automated site data acquisition technologies made
their use in feasible tracking and monitoring of construction operations.
However, these technologies fail to track hauling truck fleets due to the
change in the cut and fill locations from one cycle to another; making tracking
and progress reporting difficult and inaccurate. In addition, there is very little
work done utilizing sensed data directly from equipment, for example sensing
when the dumping bed truck is raised during the dumping process.
Abstrak
Truk pengangkut adalah bagian penting dari armada peralatan untuk operasi
pemindahan tanah besar seperti yang ditemui di bendungan dan proyek
konstruksi jalan raya. Makalah ini menyajikan metodologi otomatis untuk
melacak dan memperkirakan produktivitas operasi armada truk angkut dalam
waktu yang hampir bersamaan. Kemajuan terbaru dalam teknologi akuisisi
data situs otomatis membuat penggunaannya dalam pelacakan dan
pemantauan operasi konstruksi yang layak. Namun, teknologi ini gagal
melacak armada truk pengangkut karena perubahan lokasi Cut and Fill dari
satu siklus ke siklus lainnya; membuat pelacakan dan pelaporan kemajuan
sulit dan tidak akurat. Selain itu, ada sangat sedikit pekerjaan yang dilakukan
dengan menggunakan data penginderaan langsung dari peralatan, misalnya
merasakan ketika truk bed dumping dinaikkan selama proses dumping.
ii
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur saya panjatkan kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa atas
limpahan rahmat dan hidayahnya, sehingga kami dapat menyelesaikan
makalah ini sesuai dengan yang diharapkan.
Dalam kesempatan ini tidak lupa kami mengucapkan terima kasih kepada
Pak Albert selaku dosen mata kuliah Metode dan Peralatan Konstruksi
serta semua pihak yang telah memberikan saran-saran kepada kami
dalam membuat makalah ini.
Dalam penyusunan makalah dengan judul “Trucks and hauling Equipment
in Low Rise Building”, kami menyadari bahwa makalah yang kami buat
masih jauh dari sempurna, walaupun kami berusaha dengan sekuat
tenaga. Maka, dengan segala kerendahan hati, kami mengharapkan saran
serta kritik yang menuju kearah perbaikan serta penyempurnaan makalah
ini dari para pembaca sekalian.
Semoga makalah ini dapat bermanfaat bagi para pembaca sekalian.
Kelompok III
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Bab 1 - Pendahuluan
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
Seiring perkembangan zaman, dunia industri khususnya alat berat dari waktu ke waktu
terus mengalami kemajuan yang sangat pesat. Berbagai produk – produk dengan berbagai
design telah banyak dikeluarkan oleh produsen- produsen dan bahkan telah merambah
keseluruh penjuru dunia, tak terkecuali indonesia. Indonesia yang saat ini masih sebagai
negara berkembang jelas sangat membutuhkan alat berat sebagai alat bantu dalam proyek
pengerjaan pembangunan infrastruktur sebagai sarana untuk memepercepat kemajuan
negeri. Truck merupakan salah satu jenis konstruksi alat berat yang berfungsi untuk loading
material lainnya.
Melihat kondisi saat ini dimana alat berat sangat memiliki peranan penting sebagai alat
bantu untuk mempermudah pekerjaan manusia, maka muncullah sebuah ide untuk membuat
simulasi alat sederhana yang dapat menjadi sarana penunjang pembelajaran alat berat bagi
mahasiswa agar lebih mudah memahami mekanisme alat berat. Simulasi ini berjudul
“ Penggunaan truck dan hauling equipment pada bangunan tingkat rendah (Low-rise
bulding) “.
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Bab 1 - Pendahuluan
1.4. Manfaat
Hasil penulisan ini diharapkan mempunyai manfaat antara lain :
1. Sebagai bahan pertimbangan bagi para engineer dibidang teknik sipil untuk
penerapan di lapangan khususnya pondasi pada tanah yang baik dan kurang baik.
3. Dapat mengetahui bagaimana mekanisme kerja truck dan hauling equipment dengan
sistem mekanis secara sederhana
4. Sebagai alat bantu pada proses pembelajaran bagi mahasiswa sehingga mahasiswa
lebih mudah memahami teori yang didapat
Adapun sistematika penulisan yang dipakai dalam penulisan laporan ini adalah sebagai
berikut :
1. Bab I Pendahuluan
Membahas tentang latar belakang penulisan, tujuan dan manfaat penulisan,
permasalahan yang diangkat, dan sistematika penulisan.
2. Bab II Tinjauan Pustaka
Membahas tentang pengertian truck dan hauling equipment, kegunaan, bagian – bagian
truck dan hauling equipment, jenis – jenis truck dan hauling equipment, sistem operasi
truck dan hauling equipment.
3. Bab III Pembahasan Jurnal
Membahas uraian tentang pembahasan jurnal
2
Bab 1 - Pendahuluan
3
Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
4
Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
5
Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
• Tenaga kerja
• Peralatan dan material
• Kegiatan Koordinasi
• Mengkoordinasikan seruh kegiatan pembangunan
• Mengkoordinasi para sub kontraktor
Pihak yang terlibat adalah Konsultan Pengawas dan atau Konsultan MK,
kontraktor, Sub Kontraktor, suplier dan instansi terkait.
2.2 EarthMoving
Earthmoving merupakan proses atau metode pemindahan material berupa tanah
atau batu dari 1 loksasi ke lokasi lainnya. Biasanya aktivitas earthmoving terkait
dengan beberapa pekerjaan konstruksi seperti penyiapan lahan, elevasi, kerapatan dan
moisture sebagai konten dari material tanah. Earthmoving terdiri atas beberapa sub
pekerjaan seperti:
Perpindahan merupakan hal yang sangat wajar di dunia konstruksi. Mulai dari
material, alat, tenaga kerja, semua melakukan perpindahan dan pergerakan. Tentunya
perpindahan tersebut memiliki maksud tujuan tertentu, salah satu metode perpindahan
material dalam dunia konstruksi disebut Earthmoving. Earthmoving merupakan
proses perpindahan tanah atau batu-batuan dari suatu lokasi ke lokasi lainnya untuk
tujuan tertentu, biasanya untuk memenuhi persyaratan atau kriteria dari lokasi
konstruksi yang diinginkan. Umumnya, berhubungan dengan elevasi tanah, massa
jenis, dan konten dari tanah tersebut. Peralatan yang baik dan berkualitas, serta
metode yang tepat dibutuhkan dalam proses earthmoving untuk menghasilkan
ketepatan dalam berbagai aspek. Memilih peralatan untuk melakukan earthmoving
merupakan hal yang fatal juga jika terjadi kesalahan atau ketidaktepatan pemilihan
alat.
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
Pemilihan alat ini akan sangat berhasil baik jika sudah diketahui tujuan jelas dari
pekerjaan earthmoving mulai dari tahap pertama hingga terakhir, sehingga setiap alat
akan bekerja secara maksimal. Dengan memilih alat-alat berat yang tepat, maka
pekerjaan konstruksi juga akan lebih hemat sekaligus menambah keuntungan, karena
tidak adanya peralatan yang disewa, namun tidak bekerja maksimum. Kehematan
yang besar akan tercapai bila biaya perunit produksi mencapai titik paling
rendah. Perencanaan merupakan bagian penting dari earthwork agar menghasilkan
konstruksi yang produktif dan hemat. Perencanaan ini dimaksudkan untuk; mengerti
tujuan proyek dan alat yang dibutuhkan, mengerti setiap aspek kerja, mengidentifikasi
kebutuhan dan sumberdaya, membuat lokasi konstruksi yang aman, menciptakan
efisiensi, dan mengkoordinasi setiap aktivitas sesuai jadwal yang telah ditetapkan.
2.3 Trucks
Truk adalah kendaraan angkutan jalan raya dengan spesifikasi tertentu yang
dipergunakan untuk mengangkut barang dalam ukuran besar dan berat.
2.3.1 Klasifikasi Truck
n Method of dumping the load
q Rear-dump
q Bottom-dump
q Side-dump
q Articulated dump truck
n Capacity
q Gravimetric: carried load expressed as weight in tons
q Volumetric/struck volume: carried load expressed as volumetric
amount in cubic meter/cubic yard
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
8
Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
𝑇𝐶𝑇
𝐿𝑇
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
Jika hasil perhitungan selesai maka output yang didapat berupa jumlah truk
yang dibutuhkan, produktivitas truk dalam 1 jam dan dapat dihitung juga dalam 1
hari. Terdapat parameter- parameter yang harus diperhatikan yang akan
mempengaruhi nilai efisiensi peralatan maupun kondisi proyek.
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
Ekonomis tidaknya scraper yang digunakan dalam pekerjaan cut and fill
sangat dipengarui oleh:
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Bab 2 – Tinjauan Pustaka
3. Underground Truck
Underground Truck merupakan salah satu jenis alat angkut yang
digunakan untuk mengangkut material tambang pada tambang bawah tanah.
Jenis dan mekanisme kerja hampir sama dengan truk tambang terbuka tapi
dalam bentuk yang lebih kecil karena disesuaikan dengan daerah operasinya.
Kelebihan menggunakan Underground Truck, yatitu ;
• Jarak angkut bias mencapai 2 km
• Fleksibel dalam menambah alat tanpa mengganggu produksi
• Kecepatan relative tinggi
Kekurangan menggunakan Underground Truck, yatitu ;
• Kondisi jalan harus baik dan tidak licin
• Jumlah operator banyak
• Ventialasi harus baik
• Jalan harus lebar dan tidak boleh menyudut
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
BAB III
1. Latar Belakang
Identifikasi aktivitas adalah langkah penting untuk mengukur dan memantau
kinerja operasi pemindahan tanah. Banyak metode berbasis visi yang secara
otomatis menangkap dan menjelaskan informasi aktivitas dari data gambar telah
dikembangkan dengan keunggulan ekonomi dan efisiensi analisis. Namun, metode
sebelumnya gagal untuk mempertimbangkan operasi interaktif di antara peralatan,
dan karenanya membatasi penerapan estimasi waktu operasi untuk analisis
produktivitas.
Previous Research
Methode Authors Kekurangan
Manual - M. Golparvar-Fard, A. mahal dan memakan waktu,
Heydarian, J.C. Niebles dan cenderung menghasilkan
set data yang tidak konsisten.
Radio Based - J.-W. Park, K. Kim, sinyal radio sering
Y.K. Cho mengalami kesulitan
- T. Omar, M.L. Nehdi mengidentifikasi jenis
- C. Zhang, A. Hammad, kegiatan secara tepat
S. Rodriguez
installment of - Z. Zhu, X. Ren, Z. Chen membuat pendekatan
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
2. Tujuan
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengisi kesenjangan pengetahuan yang ada ini.
a. studi ini mengkaji dan mengidentifikasi elemen-elemen penting untuk
memahami operasi interaktif excavator dan dump truck.
b. mengusulkan kerangka kerja berbasis visi untuk analisis aktivitas otomatis dari
alat berat melalui pertimbangan lebih lanjut dari elemen yang diidentifikasi.
c. kerangka kerja ini dapat memberikan informasi terus menerus untuk jenis
operasi peralatan, yang merupakan data dasar untuk menghitung waktu siklus
dan mengukur produktivitas peralatan.
Akhirnya, pendekatan ini diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kepraktisan analisis
aktivitas berbasis visi di lokasi pemindahan tanah yang sebenarnya.
3. Metode
Untuk mengatasi kelemahannya, penelitian ini mengembangkan kerangka
kerja identifikasi aktivitas berbasis visi yang mempertimbangkan operasi interaktif
peralatan pemindahan tanah. Gambar 1 mengilustrasikan konsep interaksi. Sebuah
excavator dan dump truck di sisi kanan Gambar. 1 bekerja bersama dengan
memuat dan membongkar tanah satu sama lain, meskipun dump truck ‘berhenti ’.
Jika tempat pembuangan lain tiba di area kerja seperti yang ditunjukkan di sisi kiri,
aktivitasnya harus dikategorikan sebagai 'indling', sesuai dengan status kerja
mereka secara bersamaan. Ini menunjukkan bahwa status aktivitas peralatan dapat
mempengaruhi dan dipengaruhi oleh peralatan lain.
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Pada penelitian ini, kerangka kerja berbasis visi digunakan untuk analisis aktivitas
otomatis dari alat berat melalui pertimbangan lebih lanjut dari elemen yang diidentifikasi.
Pertama, lokasi ekskavator dan dump truck dilacak dari waktu ke waktu untuk
mengumpulkan dua jenis data: jenis peralatan dan lintasannya. Kedua, aksi individu dari
objek yang dilacak diakui menggunakan penalaran spatio-temporal dan teknik pembedaan
gambar. Ketiga, interaksi antara excavator dan dump truck kemudian dianalisis berdasarkan
faktor-faktor seperti koeksistensi, kedekatan, dan konsistensi aksi. Akhirnya, post-
processing dilakukan untuk mengurangi kesalahan pengakuan dengan mempertimbangkan
kontinuitas kegiatan peralatan. Rincian setiap modul dijelaskan di bagian ini.
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Tujuan modul ini adalah untuk mendapatkan informasi tentang jenis dan lintasan
peralatan. Versi diperpanjang TLD (Tracking Learning-Detection), yang dikembangkan oleh
[59,60], diadaptasi dan disesuaikan dalam penelitian ini untuk melacak beberapa peralatan
konstruksi dalam jangka panjang. TLD terdiri dari dua proses utama: integrasi fungsional
dan pembelajaran online [61]. Gambar. 4 mengilustrasikan metodologi TLD yang
diadaptasi.
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
4. Hasil Percobaan
a. Data collection and description
Para penulis mengumpulkan data aliran video dari lima situs pemindahan
bumi dengan menggunakan CCTV dan smartphone. Data yang dikumpulkan
termasuk tidak hanya operasi interaktif antara dump truck dan excavator tetapi
juga operasi dalam kelompok beberapa dump truck yang bekerja secara
bersamaan (Gbr. 9). Untuk mewakili berbagai tampilan, aksi, dan aktivitas
peralatan konstruksi, kamera stasioner dipasang pada jarak 10 hingga 30 m,
ketinggian 0 hingga 3 m, dan sudut pandang yang berbeda (yaitu, depan,
belakang, samping, dan diagonal), 11 posisi berbeda secara keseluruhan. Total
11.513 bingkai foto, sekitar 150 menit operasi, dikumpulkan dengan 720 × 1280
dan 1080 × 1920 piksel. Data video juga termasuk beragam peralatan dengan
berbagai bentuk, warna, atau penampilan yang diproduksi oleh banyak
perusahaan seperti Caterpillar, Doosan, Hyundai, Scania, dan Volvo.
b. Performance metrics
Untuk mengukur kinerja identifikasi aktivitas, dua metrik dievaluasi: tingkat
presisi dan daya ingat. Ketepatan menunjukkan keandalan prediksi dan dihitung
oleh Persamaan. (6) Namun, meskipun hasil algoritma yang paling diprediksi
adalah benar (presisi tinggi), mungkin ada beberapa kejadian objek atau
aktivitas yang dihilangkan. Dengan demikian, penelitian ini juga mengevaluasi
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
dengan kerumitan tindakan individu karena dump truck memiliki kasus biner
sementara excavator memiliki satu tindakan individu lagi. Mengenai masalah ini,
kerangka kerja kadang-kadang mengalami kesulitan untuk lebih lanjut
mengklasifikasikan 'menyendok / memutar / menjatuhkan' dan 'berhenti'. Dapat
dijelaskan dengan efek dari teknik differencing gambar. Teknik ini mampu
mendeteksi perubahan dalam dua frame gambar berturut-turut dengan
mempertimbangkan ‘nilai piksel yang diubah’. Namun, semua piksel yang
berubah tidak dapat sepenuhnya dipertimbangkan jika bucket excavator tidak
dilacak. Itu terjadi ketika kotak pembatas objek excavator tidak menutupi lokasi
ember. Sebaliknya, noise (mis., Latar belakang clutters dan objek non-target)
juga memengaruhi kinerja pengenalan dengan perubahan gambar yang kurang
signifikan; misalnya, truk pengangkut bergerak di dalam kotak 'excavator' yang
berhenti. Meskipun ada keterbatasan teknis seperti itu, metode ini masih efektif
dalam mengenali tindakan individu. TLD berhasil melacak peralatan dengan
90,96% dan 92,23% dari rata-rata precision dan tingkat penarikan. Dengan
demikian, itu dapat mengurangi jumlah kotak pembatas yang berisik dan juga
untuk mendukung deteksi bentuk untuk excavator ‘scooping / rotating / dropping
'.
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
untuk 11.513 gambar yang diterapkan. Kasus dengan lebih dari 5 detik
menunjukkan kinerja yang buruk karena efek pencitraan yang melekat ketika
aktivitas A sudah beralih ke aktivitas lain B (mis., Status 'idling' terus dipantau
selama beberapa detik meskipun sudah mulai 'berfungsi'). Dengan demikian,
post-processing 5 memainkan peran penting untuk identifikasi aktivitas.
1. Kesimpulan
a. Hasil
• Hasil percobaan (sekitar 91,27% dari precision dan 92,42% dari tingkat
recall) mendukung tidak hanya kelayakan dari metode yang diusulkan
tetapi juga signifikansi statistik dari analisis interaksi.
• Berdasarkan hasil eksperimen dengan dan tanpa analisis interaksi,
tingkat precision dan recall meningkat masing-masing sebesar 5,59%
→ 16%, 17,70% → 18% ketika operasi interaktif terintegrasi.
b. Kelebihan
Studi ini memberikan kontribusi pada bidang teknologi yang ada dan
manajemen konstruksi.
1. mengidentifikasi elemen kritis dari operasi interaktif (mis.,
Koeksistensi, kedekatan, dan konsistensi tindakan).
2. Kerangka teknis untuk mendeteksi, mengklasifikasikan, dan
menganalisis fitur-fitur penting dari aliran video 2D.
3. Kerangka kerja jenis aktivitas yang diklasifikasi untuk mengukur
indikator kinerja (mis., Tingkat kerja langsung dan durasi siklus) alat
berat.
4. Mengembangkan kerangka kerja yang dapat meningkatkan praktisitas
dari identifikasi aktivitas otomatis pada situs pemindahan tanah yang
sebenarnya.
c. Kekurangan
1. kesalahan analisis interaksi. Dump truck mengambil tindakan 'berhenti'
dan ekskavator itu 'menyendok' tanah, yang berarti bahwa koeksistensi
dan konsistensi aksi terpenuhi. Selain itu, kedekatan mereka lebih
rendah dari nilai ambang jarak efektif. Kemungkinan efek samping ini
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
B. Review Jurnal 2
Judul : Identification of Invariant Average Weighted Haul
Distance to Simplify Earthmoving Simulation
Modeling in Planning Site Grading Operation
Jurnal : Construction Engineering and Management
Volume/Issue : 140/12
Penerbit : ASCE 2014
Penulis : David Morley, Ming Lu, Simaan AbouRizk
Latar Belakang
Selama bertahun tahun, berbagai metodologi telah berbeda diterapkan untuk
memberikan dukungan keputusan untuk operasi pemindahan tanah, Teori antrian
(Touran dan Taher 1988), sistem pakar (Christian dan Xie 1996), model
deterministik berdasarkan data dunia nyata (Gransberg 1996), jaringan saraf (Shi
1999; Schabowicz dan Hola 2007), regresi linier (Smith 1999), pengalaman
database (Kannan dan Vorster 2000), optimasi objektif tunggal menggunakan
algoritma genetika (Marzouk dan Moselhi 2002a; Tam et al. 2007; Limsiri 2011),
optimalisasi objektif tunggal menggunakan berbasis kendala algoritma genetika
(Marzouk dan Moselhi 2003a), multiobjective optimasi (Marzouk dan Moselhi
2004a), logika fuzzy (Marzouk dan Moselhi 2004b), aplikasi spreadsheet (Eldin
dan Mayfield 2005), regresi berganda (Han et al. 2008), optimasi kerumunan
partikel (Zhang 2008), gabungan algoritma genetika dan optimasi pemrograman
linier (Moselhi dan Alshibani 2009), efisien analisis perbatasan (Alshibani dan
Moselhi 2012), faktor pencocokan (Burt dan Caccetta 2007), metode heuristik
(Karshenas 1989), pakar sistem (Kirmanli dan Ercelebi 2009), dan simulasi (Shi
dan AbouRizk 1994; Smith et al. 1995; Hajjar dan AbouRizk 1997; Martinez 1998;
Shi dan AbouRizk 1998; Marzouk dan Moselhi 2002b, 2003b, 2004a; Cheng et al.
2011; Alshibani dan Moselhi 2012) semuanya telah diterapkan pada masalah
earthmoving.
Pada kenyataannya, heuristik masih digunakan untuk pengambilan keputusan
mendukung para praktisi yang bekerja di tempat yang rumit, bergerak cepat bidang
konstruksi. Heuristik sering diberikan dalam bentuk aturan digeneralisasi dari
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
saat ini dan lokasi eksternal tidak dipertimbangkan dalam analisis yang
diusulkan upaya angkut dan jarak angkut rata-rata. Dengan demikian, dalam
hal bersih meminjam, pada awal operasi, volume pinjaman bersih
diasumsikan untuk ditimbun dalam sel tertentu di kisi situs dekat titik akses
situs. Sejauh menyangkut volume ekspor bersih, pada akhirnya operasi
volume ekspor bersih harus diasumsikan ditimbun dalam sel-sel tertentu
dalam kotak situs. Untuk spesifik yang diusulkan permukaan tanah dilapis
khusus yang dilucuti permukaan tanah, volume total yang akan dipindahkan
di situs yang seimbang dinyatakan sebagai Persamaan. (2)
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Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
dimana Vi,j = volume (meter kubik) antara P dan E untuk sel (i, j); G =
ukuran jarak kisi (meter); Ei,j = ketinggian permukaan tanah yang ada pada
titik (i, j); dan Pi,j = permukaan tanah yang diusulkan elevasi pada titik (i, j).
Algoritma memilih awal yang ditentukan titik, dimulai dengan mencari sel
isi terdekat, dan kemudian mengidentifikasi sel potong terdekat yang
tersedia terkait dengan sel isian yang diberikan. Jarak antara sel isi dan sel
potong dihitung sebagai Persamaan. (7)
Rumus juga bisa disempurnakan untuk menghitung jarak dari sel pengisi ke
sel potong, ketika jalur pengangkutan harus lewat melalui koordinat
tertentu, atau bahkan dapat mempertimbangkan kelas dan rolling resistance.
Jika beberapa sel yang terpotong sama jauhnya dari sel pengisi, algoritme
memilih sel yang terpotong dengan yang paling sedikit jumlah konflik.
Konflik primer didefinisikan sebagai jumlah mengisi sel yang terletak tepat
di samping sel yang terpotong, dan konflik sekunder didefinisikan sebagai
jumlah sel pengisi yang terletak langsung diagonal ke sel yang dipotong.
Jika volume sel yang dipotong lebih besar dari volume diperlukan oleh sel
isi, volume sel isi diperbarui ke nol dan volume sel yang dipotong
diperbarui ke volume asli minus volume dipindahkan ke sel isi. Sel isian
baru kemudian dipilih, bergerak ke arah yang ditentukan pengguna. Jika
volume sel yang dipotong lebih kecil dari volume yang dibutuhkan oleh sel
isian, volume sel potong diperbarui ke nol dan volume sel isi diperbarui ke
volume asli dikurangi volume pindah ke sel. Sel potong terbaik berikutnya
kemudian dipilih untuk diisi sel, dan proses berulang. Pada setiap langkah,
upaya angkut untuk itu pergerakan dihitung dan ditambahkan ke total upaya
angkut. Gambaran dari heuristik yang diusulkan diberikan pada Gambar. 2,
dengan detail untuk blok Inisialisasi & Persiapan, Loop Periksa Blok logika,
Pemilihan Cell Cut Current i, Fill Cell j block, dan Volume Pemrosesan
Volume Pemutakhiran & Upaya Pengangkutan Blok status diuraikan dalam
Gambar. 3–6, masing-masing.
31
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
32
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
33
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Jarak grid adalah 100 m kali 100 m. Pada Gambar. 7, ketinggian sudut kiri atas titik
masing-masing sel diberikan dalam sel, dengan nomor atas menunjukkan tanah
yang ada, dan angka dalam tanda kurung menunjukkan desain yang diusulkan.
Angka tebal di setiap sel mewakili volume pekerjaan tanah yang terkait dengan
34
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
setiap sel, dihitung menggunakan Persamaan. (6), dengan tanda negatif yang
menunjukkan pemotongan (diukur di bank meter kubik), dan tanda positif
menunjukkan isi (diukur dalam meter kubik dipadatkan). Perhatikan volume potong
dan isi menjadi dipindahkan di situs sudah seimbang, menghasilkan volume nol
bersih dipinjam atau diekspor di situs ke yang dipinjam atau diekspor materi di
situs yang akan dinilai.
Volume pemotongan umumnya diukur dalam meter kubik bank sedangkan
volume pengisian diukur dalam meter kubik bank yang dipadatkan. Untuk
menyeimbangkan volume pemotongan terhadap volume pengisian, atau untuk
menentukan pinjaman bersih atau volume ekspor, unit ukuran yang berbeda dapat
disatukan sebagai meter kubik bank dengan memfaktorkan persentase penyusutan
tanah, per Persamaan. (9) Perhatikan volume pemuatan truk secara umum diukur
dalam meter kubik longgar; Atau, volume yang dipotong dan volume isian juga
dapat dikonversi menjadi ukuran tanah yang longgar volume (longgar meter kubik).
Ketika volume isi yang dihitung awalnya dihitung dalam meter kubik yang
dipadatkan, maka mereka dapat diperbarui sebagai bank meter kubik (bm3) dengan
menerapkan persentase penyusutan 5%, per Persamaan. (9) (Peurifoy dan
Oberlender 2004)
35
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Dalam praktik penilaian situs, lebar kisi umumnya ditetapkan untuk mewakili
kompleksitas profil tanah yang ada dan desain penilaian situs. Dalam studi kasus,
situs dapat memadai diprofilkan menggunakan lebar kotak 100-m; di setiap kotak
100 × 100 m, bahan tanah yang akan ditangani diasumsikan berkonsentrasi di
tengah dari grid untuk menyederhanakan estimasi jarak angkut antara dua kisi yang
relevan. Berbeda dengan pusat massa analisis, tidak praktis untuk menerapkan grid
kecil tanpa batas memetakan area situs dan menentukan upaya angkut dengan
mengintegrasikan pekerjaan tanah. Jadi, variasi marginal pada rata-rata yang
dihasilkan jarak angkut yang mencerminkan ketepatan grid tidak dapat dihindari.
Menumpahkan pada stabilitas relatif jarak angkut rata-rata, yang para peneliti
membagi masing-masing sel 100 × 100 m menjadi empat subksel 50 × 50 m.
Volume bumi yang akan diproses di setiap sel 100 × 100 m juga terdistribusi secara
merata dalam empat subkunci. Operasi pemindahan tanah masih mengikuti
kombinasi sel isian yang identik seperti yang ditentukan sebelumnya untuk kasing
saat ini menggunakan lebar kisi 100 m. Catatan, jarak angkut ditentukan dengan
36
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
menghubungkan pusat dari dua subel yang terlibat. Total volume bumi yang
diproses tetap 402.941 bm3. Upaya total pengangkutan ditentukan sebagai
165.805.946 bm4, menghasilkan jarak angkut rata-rata tertimbang dari 411,5 m.
Dibandingkan dengan hasil yang diperoleh dalam kasus yang sama menerapkan
lebar grid 100 m, yaitu 413 m, perbedaan 1,5 m (atau 0,36 persen) diamati dalam
jarak angkut rata-rata. Perbedaan marjinal ini dapat dikaitkan dengan penggunaan
yang berbeda nilai jarak tempuh antara sel potong dan isi sebagai akibat dari
membagi kembali sel. Detail jarak angkut dan volume data bersama dengan
perhitungan angkut upaya diberikan dalam lampiran.
37
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Variasi pada total upaya angkut, dan, pada gilirannya, rata-rata jarak angkut
tertimbang dalam 100 simulasi termasuk dalam rentang yang dikenakan oleh batas
presisi dari data yang dimasukkan, seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Gambar. 8 dan
9. Karena permukaan tanah asli dibangun menggunakan 100 m grid, presisi
maksimum dari setiap jarak yang dihitung adalah 50 m. Oleh karena itu, variasi
pada jarak angkut rata-rata tertimbang berdasarkan percobaan simulasi terbatas
pada kisaran (413, 450 m) (Gbr. 9). Perhatikan bahwa 414 m yang dikembalikan
dari menjalankan algoritma heuristik yang diusulkan pada grid 100-m termasuk
dalam kisaran ini dan dekat dengan ujung bawah. Ini selanjutnya menguatkan
fakta-fakta berikut: (1) kinerja algoritma heuristik yang diusulkan memuaskan
dengan menghasilkan jarak angkut rata-rata yang lebih pendek; dan (2) argumen
kuantitatif yang dibuat sebelumnya rata-rata jarak angkut tertimbang untuk rencana
penilaian situs seimbang, seperti pusat massa untuk tubuh yang kaku, menunjukkan
variasi yang tidak signifikan dan dapat dianggap relatif stabil atau hampir tidak
berubah.
38
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Pemilihan Armada
Saat memperkirakan dan merencanakan proyek pemindahan tanah, berbagai
bagan tersedia untuk membantu pemilihan peralatan yang paling tepat untuk jarak
pengangkutan (Caterpillar Inc. 2011). Setelah mengidentifikasi konfigurasi
peralatan praktis, perlu dipertimbangkan apakah melakukan semua operasi di
tempat dengan satu armada, atau memecah proyek menjadi subhaul terpisah
dengan beberapa armada, adalah lebih hemat biaya dan hemat waktu. Keputusan ini
dapat didukung dengan memeriksa Gambar. 10.
39
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
40
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Untuk setiap kasus, durasi proyek dalam jam kerja lebih dari 10 simulasi berjalan.
Hasilnya disajikan dalam Tabel 2.
Karena sifat operasi pemindahan tanah, perbedaan kurang dari 4% pada rata-
rata durasi proyek dianggap tidak signifikan. Karena itu dapat disimpulkan bahwa
durasi proyek disediakan oleh model yang disederhanakan, hanya menggunakan
jarak angkut tertimbang rata-rata dan total volume pemotongan sebagai input,
adalah, untuk semua maksud dan tujuan, setara dengan durasi proyek yang
dihasilkan dari mitra model simulasi terperinci. Model simulasi terperinci,
sementara efektif untuk kasus ini, tidak fleksibel untuk disesuaikan dengan
skenario baru oleh seorang insinyur konstruksi yang tidak berpengalaman dalam
pengkodean tertentu bahasa atau alat simulasi. Selain itu, sebagai ukuran proyek
meningkat (lebih banyak gerakan), baik waktu pembuatan model dan simulasi run
time untuk simulasi detail akan meningkat secara substansial, sedangkan model
sederhana tetap relatif konstan. Biaya dengan cepat melebihi manfaatnya, yang
sebagian menyumbang mengapa itu menjadi tidak praktis, mahal, dan tidak realistis
untuk dilakukan simulasi terperinci dalam praktik. Meskipun demikian, yang
disederhanakan model simulasi berdasarkan penentuan bobot rata-rata jarak angkut
dapat mengatasi rintangan praktis seperti itu dalam waktu aplikasi dan biaya,
sambil tetap memberikan manfaat serupa.
41
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
pendek jarak angkut. Mengingat varians besar dalam jarak angkut, memanfaatkan
solusi armada tunggal akan menjadi kompromi di antaranya dua mode jarak angkut
atau ideal untuk satu mode tetapi tidak cocok ntuk yang lainnya. Dalam kedua
kasus, efisiensi pemindahan tanah operasi kemungkinan akan menderita.
42
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Armada terbaik untuk kasus ini diidentifikasi sebagai delapan truk kerikil
ditambah empat excavator CAT 336, yang menghasilkan biaya terendah $ 232.410
dan durasi proyek 75,34 jam. Selanjutnya, durasi proyek untuk konfigurasi armada
optimal lebih lanjut diverifikasi menggunakan kode simulasi terperinci yang ditulis
dalam MATLAB, yang mempertimbangkan jarak grid-ke-grid yang tepat untuk
menentukan jarak perjalanan dan waktu sebuah truk di setiap earthmoving
pekerjaan. Model simulasi terperinci dijalankan selama 10 kali, menghasilkan
durasi rata-rata 74,68 jam dengan standar deviasi 0,0306 jam. Di singkatnya, durasi
proyek yang dihasilkan dari pemodelan yang disederhanakan pendekatan
berdasarkan jarak angkut rata-rata (mis., 75,34 jam) erat kecocokan yang diperoleh
dari model simulasi terperinci (74,68 jam).
Validasi Model
Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menghasilkan yang relevan dan kuantitatif
dukungan keputusan berdasarkan data dan informasi terbatas yang tersedia pada
desain penilaian situs atau tahap perencanaan proyek awal. Sebenarnya survei tanah
dan data desain umumnya tersedia, menyediakan masukan informasi untuk
menentukan jumlah pemindahan tanah bekerja dan memperbaiki posisi sumber
(potong) dan tujuan (isi) untuk pekerjaan earthmoving. Meskipun demikian, banyak
faktor lapangan yang sebenarnya belum diketahui secara jelas dalam fase ini,
misalnya armada yang sebenarnya alat berat yang tersedia di lapangan, dan
pengangkutan sementara jalan yang benar-benar akan ditata di lapangan. Adapun
armada, seperti dipraktikkan dalam estimasi sipil yang berat, Kinerja Caterpillar
43
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
Handbook (Caterpillar Inc. 2011) secara umum menyediakan data yang dapat
diandalkan untuk kapasitas peralatan dan waktu siklus. Adapun jalan angkut, yang
asumsi yang dibuat dalam penelitian ini adalah untuk mengambil centroid-to-
centroid jarak garis lurus antara sel yang dipotong dan sel isi sebagai jaraknya jarak
untuk pekerjaan pemindahan tanah tertentu. Dengan demikian, data armada dan
desain jalan angkut yang dipertimbangkan dalam studi kasus mungkin berbeda
dari operasi lapangan yang sebenarnya.
Alih-alih perbandingan dengan durasi proyek aktual sebagai validasi silang,
penelitian ini kontras dengan pendekatan yang disederhanakan berdasarkan jarak
angkut rata-rata yang invarian terhadap pendekatan simulasi operasi terperinci yang
biasa diterapkan dalam penelitian operasi earthmoving. Kedua pendekatan tersebut
menerapkan peristiwa diskrit yang sama metodologi simulasi untuk memodelkan
operasi armada pada situs untuk menangani beberapa pekerjaan pemindahan tanah,
masing-masing memiliki jarak angkut tertentu. Perlu dicatat bahwa yang signifikan
dan unik perbedaan model simulasi yang dihasilkan dari yang disederhanakan
pendekatan yang diusulkan adalah bahwa ia menggantikan satu rata-rata yang unik
jarak angkut tertimbang untuk jarak angkut multipel antara banyak sel potong dan
isi dalam sistem grid situs sebagai input. Armada yang sama peralatan diterapkan
untuk keduanya. Jadi, pertanyaan validasi menyangkut apakah model yang
disederhanakan masih mempertahankan akurasi dari model rinci.
Desain Jarak Grid
Untuk mengatasi variasi dan kompleksitas topologi dalam desain teknik pekerjaan
tanah, jarak grid yang besar (seperti 100 m) adalah tidak cukup dan harus
dikurangi (seperti 5 × 5 m, atau bahkan 1 × 1 m). Ini dapat dengan mudah
diotomatisasi oleh desain sipil utama perangkat lunak, yang menerapkan algoritma
interpolasi canggih. Spasi kotak kecil juga meningkatkan akurasi dan kuantitas
desain akurasi lepas landas.
Meskipun demikian, perlu dicatat bahwa desain spasi grid yang tepat tergantung
pada tujuan aplikasi tertentu. Yang diusulkan penelitian dimaksudkan untuk
mencapai efektivitas dan efisiensi biaya operasi konstruksi sehubungan dengan
terwujudnya Desain. Mempertimbangkan ukuran dan pergerakan alat berat biasa
digunakan di lapangan (mis., truk CAT 775, di antaranya kapasitas volume sekitar
44
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
45,8 m3, mengangkut tanah dari sel yang dipotong ke sel fill), disarankan untuk
menerapkan jarak grid tidak kurang dari 50 m, untuk memperkirakan secara wajar
jarak angkut truk antara dua sel yang relevan.
Jika situs rumit dengan perubahan ketinggian yang tajam, lebih kecil penempatan
grid (mis., 5 × 5 m) harus diterapkan untuk mendesain pekerjaan tanah. Meskipun
demikian, disarankan sistem desain grid dengan spasi grid kecil (mis., 5 × 5 m)
diganti dengan sistem grid konstruksi di mana jarak grid jauh lebih besar (mis., 50
× 50 m), sedangkan volume material di setiap sel desain sistem grid dikumpulkan
untuk mendapatkan volume di setiap sel dari sistem grid konstruksi. Ini
memfasilitasi analisis jarak angkut rata-rata dan desain operasi armada yang efisien
secara praktis mode. Transformasi grid antara dua sistem yang berbeda juga bisa
mudah diotomatisasi oleh perangkat lunak desain sipil utama. Pendeknya,
pendekatan yang diusulkan juga berlaku untuk proyek yang lebih rumit asalkan
jarak grid yang sesuai dikenakan untuk pekerjaan tanah desain dan konstruksi,
masing-masing.
Kesimpulan
Dalam meninjau penelitian sebelumnya, popularitas, kesuksesan, dan umur
panjang menggunakan simulasi untuk membantu dalam proses dukungan keputusan
untuk operasi pemindahan tanah sudah jelas. Untuk menerapkan uang muka pada
optimisasi simulasi dikembangkan di dunia akademik ke industri pengerjaan tanah,
perbaikan diperlukan untuk merampingkan tuntutan sumber daya, baik dalam
waktu dan keahlian, dari simulasi saat praktek ini, sambil mempertahankan akurasi.
Mengingat kompleksitas dan perubahan konstan dalam operasi lapangan, para
peneliti mengidentifikasi satu hambatan utama untuk mengadopsi pemodelan
simulasi dalam berat dan bidang konstruksi sipil: jarang menemukan personil di
industri ini yang memiliki pengetahuan simulasi dan yang diperlukan pengalaman
lapangan, yang juga memiliki waktu yang cukup untuk mengimplementasikan
pemodelan simulasi sebagai alat pendukung keputusan yang efektif diberikan
periode waktu terbatas yang tersedia untuk memperkirakan dan merencanakan
operasi pemindahan tanah. Ini menjelaskan pengamatan para peneliti simulasi itu
sangat diinginkan tetapi tidak sering diterapkan di lapangan.
Makalah ini menyajikan aturan meta-level baru untuk membantu dalam
45
Bab 3 – Hasil dan Pembahasan
simulasi operasi pemindahan tanah. Jelas ditunjukkan bahwa rata-rata jarak angkut
tertimbang dapat digunakan sebagai input penting untuk bangunan model simulasi
yang disederhanakan, sebagai pengganti simulasi yang terperinci model yang
mempertimbangkan pola gerakan bumi tertentu, sementara masih menghasilkan
output dengan akurasi yang sebanding. Rata-rata tertimbang jarak angkut
ditunjukkan dengan bentuk yang sama dengan pusat massa untuk seperangkat
partikel yang kaku, dan dipastikan tidak invarian untuk diberikan ketinggian tanah
yang ada dan yang diusulkan berdasarkan simulasi percobaan pada kasus uji. Selain
itu, jarak angkut rata-rata dapat digunakan untuk memberikan dukungan keputusan
dalam menentukan apakah untuk melakukan semua operasi pekerjaan tanah dengan
satu armada, atau apakah bagi proyek akan menjadi subhaul dengan beberapa
armada unik. Ini memungkinkan manfaat simulasi dicapai tanpa menimbulkan
waktu pemodelan yang panjang dan biaya aplikasi yang tinggi terkait dengan
pembangunan model simulasi terperinci.
Teknologi GPS dan pengumpulan data waktu-nyata adalah alat yang berharga
untuk operasi pemindahan tanah. Dalam tahap perencanaan dan estimasi dari
proyek pemindahan tanah, praktik saat ini umumnya mengumpulkan data
ketinggian tanah asli yang digunakan untuk desain perataan lokasi dengan
memanfaatkan teknologi survei GPS kinematika waktu-nyata. Teknologi ini
menyediakan titik koordinat pada tata letak kisi situs untuk desain berikutnya dan
analisis konstruksi. Pendekatan baru yang diusulkan dimaksudkan untuk
menambah teknologi survei GPS dengan analisis terintegrasi desain situs dan
desain metode, membantu insinyur konstruksi di analisis konstruksi dan penentuan
pemilihan armada, perencanaan pelaksanaan proyek, durasi proyek, atau biaya
proyek.
Penggunaan jarak angkut tertimbang rata-rata dapat dipandang sebagai langkah
menuju meta-modelling untuk operasi pemindahan tanah. Seperti yang ditunjukkan
dalam kasus uji dan kasus dunia nyata, kekuatan simulasi lebih mudah diakses dan
metode yang diusulkan memungkinkan lebih banyak aplikasi yang cepat dan
mudah, sebagai kebutuhan untuk spesifik simulasi pengetahuan dan pelatihan
menjadi lebih sedikit hambatan kepada personil industri. Biaya melakukan simulasi
berkurang sedangkan manfaat yang diberikannya sebagian besar dipertahankan.
46
Bab 4 – Kesimpulan
BAB IV
KESIMPULAN
A. Kesimpulan
Studi Jurnal 1 ini memberikan kontribusi pada bidang teknologi yang ada dan
manajemen konstruksi.
47
Bab 4 – Kesimpulan
ditunjukkan dalam kasus uji dan kasus dunia nyata, kekuatan simulasi lebih
mudah diakses dan metode yang diusulkan memungkinkan lebih banyak aplikasi
yang cepat dan mudah, sebagai kebutuhan untuk spesifik simulasi pengetahuan
dan pelatihan.
48
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Alkass, S. and Harris, F., “Expert System for Earthmoving Equipment Selection in Road
Construction”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol.
114(3), pp. 426–440, 1988.
Grau, D. and Caldas, C., “Methodology for Automating the Identification and
Localization of Construction Components on Industrial Projects”, Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 23(1), pp. 3- 13, 2009.
Hajjar, D., and AbouRizk, S., “Symphony: an Environment for Building Special Purpose
Simulation”, 31st Winter Simulation Conference, ASCE, Phoenix, AZ, USA, pp. 998–
1006, 1999.
Montaser, A., Bakry, I., Alshibani, A. and Moselhi, O., “Estimating Productivity of
Earthmoving Operations Using Spatial Technologies”, 3rd International/9th
Construction Specialty Conference, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, June 14-17, Vol. 3, pp.
2318-2327, 2011.
Montaser, A., Bakry, I., Alshibani, A. and Moselhi, O., “Estimating Productivity of
Earthmoving Operations Using Spatial Technologies”, Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 39, pp.1072–1082, 2012.
49
Oglesby, H., Parker, W. and Howell, A., Productivity Improvement in Construction,
McGraw Hill Companies, New York, NY, USA, 1989.
Rezazadeh Azar, E. and McCabe, B., “Automated Visual Recognition of Dump Trucks in
Construction Videos”, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, Vol. 26(6), pp.
769–781, 2012.
Shi, J., and AbouRizk, S., “An Optimization Method for Simulating Large Complex
System”, Engineering Optimization, Vol. 25(3), pp. 213-229, 1995
50
Automation in Construction 87 (2018) 297–308
Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Activity identification is an essential step to measure and monitor the performance of earthmoving operations.
Vision-based Many vision-based methods that automatically capture and explain activity information from image data have
Activity identification been developed with economic advantages and analysis efficiency. However, the previous methods failed to
Interaction consider the interactive operations among equipment, and thus limited the applicability to the operation time
Earthmoving operatrion
estimation for productivity analysis. To address the drawback, this research developed a vision-based activity
Excavator
identification framework that incorporates interactive aspects of earthmoving equipment's operation. This fra-
Dump truck
mework included four main processes: equipment tracking, action recognition of individual equipment, inter-
action analysis, and post-processing. The interactions between excavators and dump trucks were examined due
to its significant impacts on earthmoving operations. TLD (Tracking-Learning-Detection) was adapted to track
the heavy equipment. Spatio-temporal reasoning and image differencing techniques were then implemented to
categorize individual actions. Third, interactions were interpreted based on a knowledge-based system that
evaluates equipment actions and proximity between operating equipment. Lastly, outliers or noisy results were
filtered out considering work continuity. To validate the proposed framework, two experiments were performed:
one with the interaction analysis and the other without the analysis. 11,513 image frames from actual earth-
moving sites in total were tested. The consequent average precision of activity analysis was enhanced from
75.68% to 91.27% after the interaction analysis was applied. In conclusion, this research contributes to iden-
tifying critical elements that explain interactive operations, characterize the vision-based activity identification
framework, and improve the applicability of the vision-based method for the automated equipment operations
analysis.
⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-Ro, Gwanak-Gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
E-mail addresses: jinwoo92@snu.ac.kr (J. Kim), shchi@snu.ac.kr (S. Chi), jseo@hanyang.ac.kr (J. Seo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2017.12.016
Received 9 May 2017; Received in revised form 5 November 2017; Accepted 7 December 2017
Available online 02 January 2018
0926-5805/ © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
J. Kim et al. Automation in Construction 87 (2018) 297–308
Unload soil to
Swing bucket Move to
dump truck
other sites
Travel
One-to-one interaction (Move)
Work Idle
(Move & Stop) (Stop)
Fill soil Travel to
Dump truck
298
J. Kim et al. Automation in Construction 87 (2018) 297–308
‘working’ and the other is ‘idling’. One crucial nature of dump trucks' value color spaces. Kinematic features were also used to identify ex-
operational move is that their ‘working’ status can be both sedentary cavator's activities by representing articulated shapes of the excavator
and mobile. Unlike excavators, traveling of dump trucks falls under [28]. The study determined activity types by analyzing distance and
‘working’ category since dump trucks travel to relocate loads of soil elevation changes of the detected parts (e.g., bucket, body, and joint) of
[35]. The working process of dump trucks is composed of specific ac- the excavator. Gong and Caldas [56] analyzed cycle time of concrete
tions such as filling, traveling, and dumping [5,30–31,36]. In case of placement operations by detecting a concrete bucket and tracking its
filling and dumping, trucks are ‘stopping’. In other words, when they movement. Working cycle of tower crane was also investigated by [57],
are ‘working’, it can either be ‘moving’ (for traveling) or ‘stopping’ (for through tracking three dimensional locations of its jibs and body. On
filling and dumping) [37]. However, dump trucks also may take the other hand, machine learning based methods (e.g., Bags-of-Fea-
‘stopping’ actions when its activity status shifts to ‘idling’ [38]; this tures) were implemented by [58,5] for the purpose of recognizing
could happen when they wait for the next soil filling order, when other equipment's individual actions. The methods, however, required a large
excavators and dump trucks are busy (Figs. 1, 2). This implies that amount of training datasets in order to learn robust action recognizers
dump trucks' ‘stopping’ motion may occasionally indicate ‘idling’ status for various operation types. For analyzing the interactions between
instead of ‘working’. heavy machinery, Azar et al. [10] developed a vision-based approach to
Actions and activities of excavators and dump trucks also imply that estimate the dirt-loading cycle of an excavator and a dump truck by
there are significant amount of interactions between those two types of detecting one-to-one interactions. However, they faced difficulties not
equipment. When excavators are ‘working’, particularly interacting only in continuously identifying the types of equipment operations but
with dump trucks, they unload soil to dump trucks. Likewise, dump also in recognizing group interactions between multiple equipment.
trucks also fill soil from excavators when they are ‘working’. Both Recently, Bugler et al. [25] proposed an automated productivity as-
equipment is able to fully perform their tasks with those one-to-one sessment method of earthmoving operations through photogrammetry
interactions [39–40]. In case that excavators and dump trucks co-exist, and video analysis. It determined activity types by considering the
their individual actions are also consistent that the excavator is proximity between equipment and their actions; nonetheless, ex-
‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ and the dump truck is ‘stopping’; to put it cavator's ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ actions, which are fundamental
differently, action consistency between equipment needs to be met in information for classifying ‘working’ excavators even though their
this case for explaining filling operations. When action inconsistency center of gravity is in the fixed position, were not able to be explained.
happens, (e.g., both excavator and dump truck are stopping), this action The aforementioned research showed promising results for the
is classified as ‘idling’. In addition to the consistency factor, another key construction applications and built up strong foundations for auto-
concept to illustrate the interaction is the proximity between equip- mated activity analysis based on vision techniques. In the early stage,
ment. This means that excavators and dump trucks should stand within the researchers had attention to identifying actions of single equipment
the effective distance of excavators to hand over soil (i.e., arm's length). such as excavators and tower cranes. Currently, many researchers have
This aspect enables to filter out the unrealistic case; for example, made efforts to analyze site productivity based on the identified in-
‘stopping’ dump trucks are 30 m apart from ‘scooping/rotating/drop- formation of equipment's actions. However, challenging issues still re-
ping’ excavators although their actions are consistent. In addition to main on the classification of equipment operations in complex, real-
these one-to-one interactions, group interactions can also occur among world working environments. One major issue is that most previous
more than three equipment involved in the operation process. When studies mainly focused on individual characteristics (e.g., equipment
two dump trucks keep ‘stopping’ nearby an excavator, one of them is shapes, orientations, and locations) of single equipment, but did not
normally filled with soil. In this case, the two dump trucks take same fully consider the interactions among earthmoving equipment for the
actions (‘stopping’); however, their activities are different (‘working’ analysis. This issue limits the applicability of the previous findings to
and ‘idling’) as shown in Fig. 1. the actual construction context, since interactive aspects (e.g., co-ex-
To summarize, excavators perform three operation types of istence, proximity, and action consistency between equipment) as well
‘working’, ‘idling’, and ‘traveling’, while dump trucks performs two as individual features (e.g., object types, locations, and actions) col-
operation types of ‘working’ and ‘idling’. Those activities for each lectively function as significant cues for activity identification. For in-
equipment type are performed through diverse individual actions and stance, without the interaction analysis, it is difficult to explain whether
through one-to-one or group interactions within the working area a ‘stopped’ dump truck is ‘working’ (filling soil from an excavator) or
[36,41–44]. Under the interactive operations, types of equipment ac- ‘idling’ (waiting for the next soil filling order due to excavator-to-dump
tivities can be effectively inferred using both individual aspects (i.e., truck interaction). Such limitations have led previous studies to make
object type, location, and individual action) and interactive character- only partial technical advancements.
istics (i.e., co-existence, proximity, and action consistency).
Numerous computer vision techniques have been developed in The research framework in Fig. 3 highlights the interaction analysis
order to accurately recognize target object's actions and activities. to classify types of equipment activities. The framework includes four
There are three main categories: space-time, shape-based, and rule- main modules: equipment tracking, action recognition of individual
based approaches [45]. Space-time approaches recognize actions by equipment, interaction analysis, and post-processing. First, the loca-
using spatio-temporal features such as optical flows and trajectory tions of excavators and dump trucks are tracked over time to collect two
changes within consecutive image frames [46–48]. Shape-based ap- types of data: equipment types and their trajectories. Second, individual
proaches determine actions by applying gesture/appearance-based actions of the tracked objects are recognized using the spatio-temporal
features such as oriented histogram, bags-of-rectangles, and skeleton reasoning and the image differencing technique. Third, interactions of
models [49–53]. Lastly, rule-based approaches utilize pre-defined excavators and dump trucks are then analyzed based on the factors such
knowledge of behaviors (i.e., a set of if-then rules) and recognize ac- as co-existence, proximity, and action consistency. Finally, post-pro-
tions [54–55]. cessing is conducted to reduce recognition errors by considering con-
Many researchers have made efforts to apply such computer vision tinuity of equipment activities. Details of each module are described in
approaches to construction sites, especially for equipment action and this section.
activity recognition. Zou and Kim [33], for instance, proposed a method
to calculate hydraulic excavator's idle time using hue, saturation, and
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Action Recognition of
Equipment Tracking Interaction Analysis Post-processing
Individual Equipment
&
Online
Learning Proximity
Tracking Detection
Results Results
Functional &
Integration Positive Negative
- = Action consistency
3.1. Construction equipment tracking impacts to recognition; hence, the tracker can easily miss target objects
without re-tracking. Such failures can be counterbalanced with the
The purpose of this module is to obtain information of equipment detector's strengths which are robustness to abrupt changes and dy-
types and trajectories. An extended version of TLD (Tracking-Learning- namic movements.
Detection), developed by [59,60], was adapted and customized in this Along with functional integration, online learning is also a key
research to track multiple construction equipment in the long term. TLD process for long-term tracking of construction equipment [61]. It is one
consists of two main processes: functional integration and online of potential machine learning techniques to generate and reinforce a
learning [61]. Fig. 4 illustrates the methodology of the adapted TLD. detector with sequentially updated training data [66–67]. To track
Functional integration localizes target objects using both a pre- construction objects using a detector, major challenging issue is to
trained detector and a tracker that analyzes sequential images. This collect high quality training datasets that covers high interclass/in-
aspect enables to track construction equipment with dynamic move- traclass variations [61]. In this study, the training data was newly
ments and high interclass/intraclass variations. The detector learned generated on site through the functional integration process, in attempt
from a well-developed training data enables to manage sudden changes to address this challenge. To be specific, false positive and false nega-
of objects and environments, since it independently detects and tracks tive errors of the detector were added onto training data as negative
target objects in each frame [62–64]. Therefore, long-term tracking of samples to prevent the occurrence of similar errors. On the other hand,
equipment becomes possible even though construction equipment in- true positive results were added as positive samples with higher weights
volves series of abrupt characteristic changes in terms of colors, shapes, for recognition.
orientations, and velocities. However, it is very difficult to pre-develop In sum, the functional integration enhances the detection and
high quality training datasets [65]. Once new or unexpected events that tracking performance by compensating weaknesses of a detector and a
are not part of a training data arise, detection errors may occur. On the tracker. The online learning trains and customizes a detector, and de-
other hand, the tracker analyzing sequential image frames can com- velops and updates training data in real time without pre-works. Based
pensate such detector errors since the sequential analysis localizes the on the two processes, TLD is able to recognize and track construction
most similar region among the consecutive motion-based and feature- equipment that has dynamic motion changes and various character-
representation-based images. In this way, the tracker is able to adapt to istics (e.g., shapes, colors, and textures). Since it was originally devel-
gradual changes of object characteristics; hence, possible detection oped for flat objects such as human eyes or license plates in less
failures can be prevented by the adaptation of the tracker. Reversely, changeable environments, the authors customized it to improve its
the tracker has also shortcomings that can be mediated by the detector; practical applicability to the construction site. The technical details of
it is sensitive to sudden changes of object's movements and shapes. the customization can be found from the authors' other publication:
Since the sequential analysis is based on similarity of object's motion Kim and Chi [61].
and representation, noise (e.g., background shadow) brings negative
Learning
Tracker Detector
Positive Negative
Integrated Results
Training Datasets
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Object type?
No
Perform image
differencing
Yes No
Scoop/
Move Stop Rotate/ Stop Move
Drop
3.2. Action recognition of individual equipment relationship between the global coordination and the local (image)
coordination (Eq. (2.1)).
This module recognizes individual actions of construction equip-
ment using spatio-temporal reasoning and image differencing (Fig. 5). x ⎡X⎤
⎡ ⎤ Y
For spatio-temporal reasoning, object's centroid is compared within s ⎢ y⎥ = T ⎢ ⎥
⎢Z⎥
sequential images to classify ‘moving’ or ‘non-moving’ actions. Image ⎣1⎦ ⎢
⎣1⎥ ⎦ (2.1)
differencing is then performed to detect shape changes of excavators
and classify ‘non-moving’ actions further into sub-action categories: where,
‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ and ‘stopping’.
The centroid change between image frames can be calculated based s: scale factor; T: transformation matrix; [x, y]: pixel coordination;
on the tracking results (locations over times). The centroid indicates [X, Y, Z]: world coordination.
that the center point of a 2D bounding box of an object and its change
ratio is calculated by Eq. (1) to consider bi-directional movements. The equation explains that 3D global point P(X, Y, Z) can be
Additionally, in order to reduce the scale dependency on the equip- transformed to the point p(x, y) in the image plane by the transfor-
ment-to-camera distances, the centroid's coordination change is divided mation matrix T. With the decomposition of T, Eq. (2.1) can be for-
by the diagonal length of the bounding box for tracking (Eq. (1)). mulated as below (Eq. (2.2)).
r r12 r13 tx
2 (x i + 1 − x i )2 + (yi + 1 − yi )2 x ⎡ X ⎤ ⎡ fx 0 cx ⎤ 1 0 0 0 ⎡ 11 ty
⎤⎡ X ⎤
Centroid change ratio = ⎡ y⎤ ⎢ Y⎥ ⎢ ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ r21 r22 r23 ⎥⎢Y ⎥
s ⎢ ⎥ = KTpers (1)[R | t ] = 0 fy cy ⎥ ⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ r r32 r33 ⎥⎢ Z ⎥
Li (1) ⎢Z⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 31 tz
⎣1⎦ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦ 0 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣1⎥ ⎦ ⎣0 0 1⎦ ⎢
⎣
0 0 1 1
⎦⎣ ⎦
⎥
where,
(2.2)
xi: the x-axis position of centroid at i-th tracking result; yi: the y-axis where,
position of centroid at i-th tracking result; Li: the diagonal length of
i-th tracking result. [R| t]: rigid project matrix; Tpers(1): normalization matrix;
K: transformation matrix of normalized coordination to pixel co-
Pre-defined threshold value then determines whether the tracked ordination.
object is ‘moving’ or ‘non-moving’ by comparing calculated centroid fx, fy: focal length at each direction; cx,cy: principal point at each
change ratio. The threshold value is defined based on the geometric direction;
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J. Kim et al. Automation in Construction 87 (2018) 297–308
rij: rotated angle at i-j direction; tx, ty, tz: translation at each direc- 3.3. Interaction analysis
tion.
Using the extracted information of object types, locations, and in-
By integrating Tpers(1) and [R | t], Eq. (2.2) is expressed as Eq. (2.3). dividual actions, this module analyzes interactions among equipment.
The knowledge (rule)-based decision making was used to analyze both
x ⎡X⎤ one-to-one and group interactions. In recognition of such interactive
⎡ y⎤ Y
s ⎢ ⎥ = K [R | t ] ⎢ ⎥ nature, factors such as the co-existence, proximity, and action con-
⎢ Z⎥
⎣1⎦ ⎢ sistency between excavators and dump trucks were investigated and
⎣1⎥ ⎦ (2.3)
adopted during the classification of equipment activity types. As a re-
where, sult, more precise performance indicators (e.g., cycle time and direct
work rates) can be obtained; for instance, interaction information can
K: intrinsic parameter; [R| t]: extrinsic parameter. clearly distinguish whether excavators work ‘alone’ or ‘together’ with
dump trucks.
Finally, 3D global coordination is transformed to the local image Fig. 7 illustrates the process of activity recognition. In case of
coordination using camera's intrinsic and extrinsic parameters, which ‘moving’ and ‘stopping’ of an excavator, it is defined as ‘traveling’ and
can be obtained during calibration. According to the official equipment ‘idling’ respectively (Fig. 7); it is because excavators' individual action
specifications of Hyundai, Volvo, and Doosan manufacturers, the ex- varies according to each activity. However, for actions such as
cavator's minimum moving speed and average diagonal length are as- ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’, the interaction analysis enables an ac-
sumed as 3 km/h and 4–7 m; the range of threshold value can be cal- tivity identification system to decide whether the excavators are
culated by using Eqs. (1) and (2.3). The 10% per frame was finally ‘working’ alone (e.g., soil preparation and excavation) or together (i.e.,
optimized after the experiment with 11,513 images, given two frames loading soil to dump trucks). When the excavators and the dump trucks
per second. This frame rate suits well not only for tracking actions of are ‘working’ together, they should both be placed within the operating
the excavator (e.g., moving and non-moving) working with the velocity boundary of the excavators (i.e., arm's length). If there exists at least
of 3 km/h but also for increasing computational efficiency for the real- one dump truck within the same image frame, the distances between
time processing. After the spatio-temporal reasoning, image differen- centroids of the excavator and all the dump truck are computed (Eq.
cing is applied to further classify ‘non-moving’ into ‘scooping/rotating/ (4)). Based on the distances, the nearest dump truck to the excavator is
dropping’ or ‘stopping’. The shapes of excavators are changing during selected.
‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ while the shapes do not change in case of
‘stopping’. The image differencing can detect such shape changes be- Distance = 2 (x exc . − x dump )2 + (yexc . − ydump )2 (4)
tween consecutive image frames by calculating the sum of pixel value
differences from the absolute differences (Eq. (3)). Fig. 6 also explains where,
this calculation process. To eliminate effects of different scales, the size
of each image is resized to the size of previous image first. xobject type: the x-axis position of centroids of each object type;
yobject type: the y-axis position of centroids of each object type.
i+1 i
∑j ∑k pjk − pjk
The threshold proximity was optimized as 150 and 200 pixels after
Sum ratio of absolute diffrences = the experiments with 11,513 images. The previous Eqs. (2.1)–(2.3) also
Ai (3)
required the threshold values for the camera's intrinsic and extrinsic
where, parameters and the average length of excavator's arms were between 8
and 15 m. The action consistency should also be considered since the
pjki: the pixel value at j row and k column in bounding box for i-th co-existence and proximity alone are insufficient evidence to guarantee
tracking image; Ai: the area of bounding box at i-th tracking result. the interactions. Even if excavators are ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’,
dump trucks can ‘move’; in this case, no interaction took place between
Dump trucks have two individual action types: ‘moving’ and ‘stop- two equipment. Excavators and dump trucks are ‘working’ together
ping’. In this study, it was assumed that there is no critical shape change only when they show action consistency for filling soil within the ef-
of the dump truck during ‘stopping’, thus the analysis focused on the fective distance; in other words, excavators are ‘scooping/rotating/
spatio-temporal reasoning. The centroid change rate is calculated and dropping’ while dump trucks are ‘stopping’ for interaction. Based on
compared to the pre-defined threshold value of 20% per frame for two this principle, the proposed framework can confidently decide whether
frames per second (Eqs. (1) and (2.3)) under the consideration of dump ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ excavator is interacting with a dump
truck's velocity (6 km/h). truck or working alone (e.g., soil preparation).
‘Moving’ dump trucks can be classified as ‘working’. Yet, ‘stopping’
dump trucks can either be classified as ‘working’ or ‘idling’ according to
the interaction with excavators. Similar to the interaction analysis of
excavators, the co-existence, proximity, and action consistency are ex-
amined in order. When an excavator is not captured in the same image,
‘stopping’ dump trucks should be ‘idling’. Otherwise, the distances be-
tween the dump trucks and existing excavators are calculated in 2D
images (Eq. (4)). The distances are used to select the nearest dump
truck within the operating boundary of each excavator. Only after se-
lecting nearest and ‘stopping’ dump truck, excavators' individual ac-
tions can be accurately confirmed. If all the conditions are met, the
‘stopping’ dump trucks are then classified as ‘working’ and vice versa.
- = These processes enable the research framework to identify ‘working’
dump trucks interacting with excavators (one-to-one interactions) and
‘idling’ dump trucks waiting for its filling order due to the already in-
Fig. 6. Image differencing processes.
teracting couple (group interactions).
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J. Kim et al. Automation in Construction 87 (2018) 297–308
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
The excavator is
The dump truck is
scooping/rotating/dropping?
stopping?
No No
Yes
Work Work
(alone) (inter- Idle
acting)
The post-processing is designed to filter out noise or other kinds of 4.1. Data collection and description
outliers from the analyzed results. The activities at each frame are
classified independently by the previous modules. However, it is ob- The authors collected video stream data from five earthmoving sites
vious that construction equipment works continuously over time, which by using CCTVs and smartphones. The collected data included not only
means that one activity takes place for certain duration. Majority voting interactive operations among dump trucks and excavators but also
of classified activity types (Eq. (5)) was applied every 5 s to compensate operations in a group of multiple dump trucks working simultaneously
misclassification errors due to real-time discrete analysis and optimize (Fig. 9). To represent various appearances, actions, and activities of
classification results (Fig. 8). construction equipment, the stationary cameras were installed at 10 to
30 m distances, 0 to 3 m heights, and different viewpoints (i.e., front,
Post S = mode (S, t ) (5)
back, side, and diagonal), 11 different positions in total. The total of
where 11,513 image frames, approximately 150 min of operation, was col-
lected with 720 × 1280 and 1080 × 1920 pixels. The video data also
S: pre-classified activity state for all frames; t: time interval for post- included diverse equipment with different shapes, colors, or appear-
processing. ances manufactured by multiple corporations such as Caterpillar,
Doosan, Hyundai, Scania, and Volvo.
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study also evaluated the recall rate (Eq. (7)) to check the stability of the the development of module 1 and MATLAB 2014b was implemented for
proposed framework. Furthermore, the estimated working, traveling, the development of module 2, 3, and 4. A desktop computer [Intel i7-
and idling times were compared with the actual operation time. 4790 CPU @ 3.60 GHz, 32.0 GB RAM, Windows 7, 64 bit] was used for
True Positive the series of experiments. Two main experiments with and without the
Precision = interaction analysis were performed to investigate the advancement of
True Positive + False Positive (6)
the proposed solution. Additionally, individual action recognition and
True Positive post-processing impacts were also analyzed.
Recall rate =
True Positive + False Negative (7)
(a)
(b)
T=9 T = 103
(c)
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Table 1
Experimental results for performance metrics.
Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate
Idling 86.70 93.87 88.49 93.10 86.70 93.89 38.91 91.03 85.50 92.18 85.72 88.38
Traveling 93.12 89.97 – 93.12 89.97 – 83.82 83.36 –
Working 88.26 92.05 97.88 92.64 88.26 92.05 85.10 23.92 83.91 87.19 95.03 89.56
Average 89.36 91.96 93.19 92.87 89.36 91.96 62.01 57.48 84.41 87.58 90.38 88.97
Table 3
Table 2 Experimental results for individual action recognition.
Performance evaluation of each module.
(%) Action recognition of individual equipment
(%) The proposed Without interaction Without post-processing
framework analysis Excavator Dump truck
(A)
Performance A–B Performance (C) A–C Precision Recall rate Precision Recall rate
(B)
Stopping 86.70 93.87 93.29 97.47
Precision 91.27 75.68 15.59 87.39 3.88 Moving 93.12 89.97 94.3 92.18
Recall rate 92.42 74.72 17.70 88.27 4.15 Scooping/rotating/dropping 88.26 92.05 –
Average 89.36 91.96 93.80 94.83
object. The responses were displayed for each bounding box. The per-
formance metrics were discovered with the average precisions and re- 4.4.3. Performance of the equipment tracking and individual action
call rates of 91.27% and 92.42% respectively (Tables 1, 2). The preci- recognition
sion results indicated that 91 classifications out of 100 responses were Since individual actions are one of vital factors for activity identifi-
correct. Besides, the results of the recall rates meant that the im- cation, its accuracy is important to determine the classification perfor-
plemented framework accurately classified 92 cases out of 100 actual mance of operation types. Table 3 shows the experimental results for
occurrences for each activity type. Considering that the average pro- module 2: 91.58% of the average precision and 93.39% of the average
cessing time required for single frame analysis was 0.1 to 0.3 s while recall rate. The results implied that the module worked properly for re-
satisfying real-time applications. Moreover, the average error rate of cognizing individual actions. It was also observed that the precisions for
estimated time for each activity was 5.4% compared to the original dump trucks were larger than those of excavators. This was consistent with
operation time; in other words, the model estimated 94.6 min as the complicatedness of individual actions since dump trucks had binary
‘working’ and 5.4 min as ‘idling’ when the equipment were actually cases while excavators had one more individual action. Regarding to this
‘working’ for 100 min. issue, the framework occasionally experienced a difficulty to further
classify ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’ and ‘stopping’. It can be explained
with the effects of the image differencing technique. The technique was
4.4.2. Performance without the interaction analysis able to detect change in two consecutive image frames by considering the
In addition to the validity, significant impacts of the interactive ‘changed pixel values’. However, all changing pixels were not able to be
operations were also observed. For representing the classification fully considered if the excavator's bucket was not tracked. It occurred
without the interaction analysis, module 3 was opted out from the when the bounding box of the excavator object did not cover the location
framework. In this case, ‘stopping’ dump trucks are regarded as ‘idling’ of the bucket. Reversely, noise (e.g., background clutters and non-target
(Fig. 11). Without the interaction analysis, the average precision was objects) also affected the recognition performance with less significant
75.68% dropped by 15.59%, whereas the average recall rate was change in image; for instance, dump trucks moved within the bounding
74.72% decreased by 17.70% (Table 2). The performance loss was box of ‘stopping’ excavators. Despite such technical limitations, the
salient with dump trucks; the interpretation errors of ‘idling’ increased method was still effective in recognizing individual actions. TLD success-
remarkably for the dump trucks. Therefore, the recall rates for dump fully tracked equipment with 90.96% and 92.23% of the average preci-
trucks were dropped by 38.91% and the ‘idling’ time was estimated sions and recall rates. Thus, it was able to reduce the number of noisy
with 41% error rates. On the other hand, the precisions and recall rates bounding boxes and also to support the shape detections for the ‘scooping/
were not decreased for excavators. rotating/dropping’ excavators.
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Acknowledgements 1016/j.autcon.2012.06.001.
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This research was supported by a grant (14SCIP-B079691-01) from http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CP.1943-5487.0000602.
the Smart Civil Infrastructure Research Program and a grant (16CTAP- [23] M. Memarzadeh, M. Golparvar-Fard, J.C. Niebles, Automated 2D detection of
C114956-01) from the Technology Advancement Research Program, construction equipment and workers from site video streams using histograms of
oriented gradients and colors, Autom. Constr. 32 (2013) 24–37, http://dx.doi.org/
funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) of 10.1016/j.autcon.2012.12.002.
the Korean Government and the Korea Agency for Infrastructure [24] Korea Construction Technology Promotion Act, Enforcement decree article 98 and
Technology Advancement (KAIA), and Seoul National University Big 99, statutes of the Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea 2016, Available at http://
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Data Institute through the Data Science Research Project 2017.
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308
Identification of Invariant Average Weighted Haul Distance
to Simplify Earthmoving Simulation Modeling in Planning
Site Grading Operations
David Morley 1; Ming Lu, M.ASCE 2; and Simaan AbouRizk, M.ASCE 3
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by New York University on 05/16/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Abstract: This research is intended to generate relevant and quantitative decision support based on limited data and information available in
the context of planning earthmoving operations at the site-grading design or early project planning stage. The researchers apply and extend
the concept of haul effort in a two-axis grid. This enables calculation of the average weighted haul distance, which is shown to be invariant by
conducting simulation experiments using a heuristic algorithm and making a quantitative comparison to the center of mass for a rigid body.
This research applies the discrete event simulation approach commonly used to model the handling of multiple earthmoving jobs in a grading
site, each job having a particular haul distance. The significant and unique contribution that has been made in this research is to substitute one
unique average weighted haul distance for multiple haul distances between numerous cut and fill cells in the site grid system as simulation
modeling input. When the same fleet is applied in both detailed and simplified simulation models, the question of validation concerns whether
the simplified model still maintains the accuracy of the detailed model. Using a simple test problem and a real-world case, the researchers
validate the proposed method and demonstrate the benefits of applying simulation for construction planning without incurring the previously
necessary and prohibitively high cost associated with constructing detailed simulation models. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862
.0000907. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Earthmoving; Earthwork; Simulation; Estimation; Planning; Simulation models; Project planning and design.
Introduction 2002b, 2003b, 2004a; Cheng et al. 2011; Alshibani and Moselhi
2012) have all been applied to the earthmoving problem.
Throughout the years, numerous different methodologies have been In reality, heuristics are still predominantly used for decision
applied to provide decision support to earthmoving operations. support to practitioners working in the complicated, fast-moving
Queuing theory (Touran and Taher 1988), expert systems (Christian construction field. Heuristics are often given in the form of rules
and Xie 1996), deterministic models based on real-world data generalized from the common wisdom of domain experts, lending
(Gransberg 1996), neural networks (Shi 1999; Schabowicz and straightforward, experience-based guidance in problem solving.
Hola 2007), linear regression (Smith 1999), experience databases For example, when browsing handbooks from equipment manufac-
(Kannan and Vorster 2000), single objective optimization using turers or browsing classical textbooks, one is presented with the
genetic algorithms (Marzouk and Moselhi 2002a; Tam et al. 2007; rule of thumb that for best results, considering output and economy,
Limsiri 2011), single objective optimization using constraint-based the hauling unit should be selected in order to be filled in “four to
genetic algorithms (Marzouk and Moselhi 2003a), multiobjective six passes” of the excavator (Peurifoy and Oberlender 2004).
optimization (Marzouk and Moselhi 2004a), fuzzy logic (Marzouk Discrete-event simulation is a powerful method to imitate the
and Moselhi 2004b), spreadsheet applications (Eldin and Mayfield behavior of a real-world system over time by modeling repetitive
2005), multiple regression (Han et al. 2008), particle swarm opti- processes in which durations of operations are stochastic and many
mization (Zhang 2008), combined genetic algorithm and linear pro- resources interact (Law and Kelton 2000). Simulation keeps track
gramming optimization (Moselhi and Alshibani 2009), efficient of the changes of the state of a system occurring at discrete points of
frontier analysis (Alshibani and Moselhi 2012), match factor (Burt time and builds a logical model of a system for experimenting on a
and Caccetta 2007), heuristic methods (Karshenas 1989), expert computer (Pritsker 1986). The statistical data generated from the
systems (Kirmanli and Ercelebi 2009), and simulation (Shi and experiments provide modelers with insight into system’s resource
AbouRizk 1994; Smith et al. 1995; Hajjar and AbouRizk 1997; application, interactions, and constraints. The simulation method-
Martinez 1998; Shi and AbouRizk 1998; Marzouk and Moselhi ology of activity cycle diagrams (ACD) lends itself well to model-
ing construction operations. ACD-based construction simulation
1
M.Sc. Student, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of tools have evolved from the original CYCLONE methodology
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: dmorley@ualberta.ca (Halpin 1977) to the programmable STROBOSCOPE (Martinez
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1996). However, the use of simulation in construction practices
Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2 (corresponding has generally been random and sporadic, and numerous attempts
author). E-mail: mlu6@ualberta.ca to interest major construction companies in simulation as a produc-
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of
tivity-enhancing means have proved unsuccessful (Halpin 1998).
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2. E-mail: abourizk@ualberta.ca
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 21, 2013; approved on When reviewing past research, the popularity, success, and lon-
June 6, 2014; published online on July 7, 2014. Discussion period open gevity of using simulation to aid in the decision support process for
until December 7, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted for indi- earthmoving operations is obvious. This can be attributed to the fact
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineer- that all other methods fail to consider uncertainty in the duration of
ing and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/04014057(11)/$25.00. activity times, and, thus, results obtained through use of simulation
Distance = 2100m
Distance jumping from one cell to another in the site grid. To address this
Distance = 2500m concern and to produce a reasonable material movement plan, a
heuristic algorithm, inspired by the popular computer game Mine-
sweeper, is first proposed and later implemented in simulation ex-
periments on a test case. The algorithm applies a greedy approach
to choose the most appropriate fill cell destination for the material
Fig. 1. Mass-haul diagram excavated from a current cut cell, as per the balanced site-grading
design.
As input, the algorithm takes a volume matrix, created from a
volume in cell l (bank cubic meters). This allows the average proposed elevation matrix (P) and an existing elevation matrix (E)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by New York University on 05/16/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
weighted haul distance to be calculated as Eq. (3) calculated by Eq. (6), from Yi and Chelberg (1993)
Pm Pn G2
H V ij Dij V ði;jÞ ¼ f½Eði;jÞ þ Eðiþ1;jÞ þ Eði;jþ1Þ þ Eðiþ1;jþ1Þ
D ¼ effort ¼
i¼1 j¼1
ð3Þ 4
V V − ½Pði;jÞ þ Pðiþ1;jÞ þ Pði;jþ1Þ þ Pðiþ1;jþ1Þ g ð6Þ
and can be expressed as Eq. (4) where V ði;jÞ = volume (cubic meters) between P and E for cell (i, j);
G = size of the grid spacing (meters); Eði;jÞ = existing ground sur-
1Xmn face elevation at point (i, j); and Pði;jÞ = proposed ground surface
D¼ V D ð4Þ elevation at point (i, j). The algorithm selects a specified starting
V α¼1 α α
point, begins with searching the closest fill cell, and then identifies
the closest available cut cell(s) in relation to the given fill cell.
where D = average weighted haul distance (meters). Haul effort The distance between a fill cell and a cut cell is calculated as
has been long applied by construction practitioners when analyzing Eq. (7)
operations in linear earthworks, such as road construction (Peurifoy qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
and Oberlender 2004). On such linear earthwork operations, the D ¼ G ðxf − xc Þ2 þ ðyf − yc Þ2 ð7Þ
mass-haul diagram shown in Fig. 1 can be readily applied to
determine the total cut and fill volumes, the amount of earth moved
where G = size of the grid spacing (meters); xf = x-
and the average haul distance over which a certain amount of
coordinate of the fill cell; xc = x-coordinate of the cut cell; yf =
specific material travels.
y-coordinate of the fill cell; and yc = y-coordinate of the cut cell.
This is the approach used in this paper; however, where traveling
Comparison to the Center of Mass directly across the cell on site is not permissible, the distance
between a fill cell and a cut cell can also be calculated as the travel
For a system of particles, each with mass mi and position ri , the distance in both directions, as in Eq. (8), which is longer than the
coordinates R of the center of mass can be fixed by the following diagonal distance
Eq. (5):
D ¼ G½jxf − xc j þ jyf − yc j ð8Þ
1X n
R¼ mr ð5Þ
M i¼1 i i Note the formula can also be refined to calculate the distance
from the fill cell to the cut cell, when the hauling path must pass
through certain coordinates, or can even consider the grade and
M in Eq. (5) is the sum of the masses of all the particles. This equa- rolling resistance in the site space. If multiple cut cells are equidis-
tion has the same form as Eq. (4), which defines the average tant from the fill cell, the algorithm selects the cut cell with the least
weighted haul distance, D. For a rigid body, the center of mass number of conflicts. Primary conflicts are defined as the number of
is fixed (Taylor 2005), thus, R is constant, and, therefore, for a fill cells located directly beside the cut cell, and secondary conflicts
fixed, balanced site-grading plan, it can be inferred that D can are defined as the number of fill cells located directly diagonal to
be approximated as constant as well. Given a fixed, balanced site, the cut cell. If the volume of the cut cell is larger than the volume
the original ground elevation is known and the proposed design required by the fill cell, the volume of the fill cell is updated to zero
elevation has been set; thus, the specific cut/fill areas and a fixed and the volume of the cut cell is updated to the original volume
mass distribution can be calculated, which results in the zero net minus the volume moved to the fill cell. A new fill cell is then
import/export of material. Common practice in industry is to min- chosen, moving in a user-specified direction. If the volume of
imize importation/exportation of material, as the cost of over-the- the cut cell is smaller than the volume required by the fill cell,
road trucking of material can add a significant amount to the total the volume of the cut cell is updated to zero and the volume of
project cost. This inference is further corroborated through simu- the fill cell is updated to the original volume minus the volume
lation experiments on a test case, which is shown and discussed in moved into the cell. The next best cut cell is then chosen to fill
the ensuing sections. Therefore, application of a heuristic approach the cell, and the process repeats. At every step, the haul effort
that calculates only one specific material movement pattern is jus- for that movement is calculated and added to the total haul effort.
tified, because regardless of the selected starting point or particular The overview of the proposed heuristics is given in Fig. 2, with
cut-to-fill movement patterns among individual cells, the returned details for the Initialization & Preparation block, the Check Loop
average weighted haul distance remains constant. Logic block, the Selecting Current Cut Cell i, Fill Cell j block, and
Nc x Nf = 0 Yes Quit
No
Start
Fig. 5. Flowchart for selecting cut cell and fill cell by proposed
Fig. 3. Initialization and preparation for earthworks processing heuristic algorithm
Fig. 7. 100 × 100 m grid system setup for the test case
surface model, factoring in (1) grading requirements for effective Grid Spacing Design
drainage and erosion prevention (18 slopes were considered), and In order to cope with topological variation and complexity in earth-
(2) engineering constraints for positioning different geotechnical works engineering design, the large grid spacing (such as 100 m) is
structures at different locations on site (e.g., the floor slab eleva- insufficient and should be reduced (such as 5 × 5 m, or even
tion). Because the topology is more complex than the previous test 1 × 1 m). This can be readily automated by mainstream civil design
case, 5-m grid spacing was applied for earthworks design while software, which applies sophisticated interpolation algorithms.
50-m grid width was used for calculating earth volumes and deter- Small grid spacing also enhances design accuracy and quantity
mining the average haul distance. The total volume of earth moved takeoff accuracy.
(from cut to fill) is 81,632 bm3 . By applying the proposed ap- Nonetheless, it should be noted that proper design of grid spac-
proach, the average haul distance is determined as 192.29 m. ing depends on the particular application purpose. The proposed
Utilizing the average haul distance and the most likely research is intended to achieve cost-effectiveness and efficiency
cycle time data of relevant equipment found in the Caterpillar of construction operations in connection with materializing the
Performance Handbook Ed. 41 (Caterpillar Inc. 2011), simplified design. Considering the size and movement of heavy equipment
simulation models were rapidly built and executed. The possible commonly utilized in the field (e.g., a CAT 775 truck, of which
single-fleet provision scenarios were evaluated based on simulation the volume capacity is about 45.8 m3 , hauls the soil from a cut cell
results (Table 3). The best fleet for the present case is identified as to a fill cell), it is advisable to apply grid spacing no less than 50 m,
eight gravel trucks plus four CAT 336 excavators, which yields the in order to reasonably estimate the truck haul distance between two
lowest cost of $232,410 and project duration of 75.34 h. Next, the relevant cells.
project duration for the optimum fleet configuration was further If the site is complicated with sharp elevation changes, smaller
verified using a detailed simulation code written in MATLAB, grid spacing (e.g., 5 × 5 m) should be applied in order to design
which considered the exact grid-to-grid distances in order to deter- the earthworks. Nonetheless, it is advisable a design grid system
mine the travel distance and time of a truck in each earthmoving with a small grid spacing (e.g., 5 × 5 m) be replaced with a
job. The detailed simulation model was run for 10 runs, returning a construction grid system in which the grid spacing is much larger
mean duration of 74.68 h with a standard deviation of 0.0306 h. In (e.g., 50 × 50 m), while the volumes of materials in each cell of the
short, the project duration resulting from the simplified modeling design grid system are aggregated to obtain the volumes in each cell
approach based on the average haul distance (i.e., 75.34 h) closely of the construction grid system. This facilitates average haul dis-
matches that obtained from the detailed simulation model (74.68 h). tance analysis and efficient fleet operations design in a practical
fashion. The grid transform between two different systems can also
Model Validation be readily automated by mainstream civil design software. In short,
the proposed approach is also applicable to more complicated proj-
This research is intended to generate relevant and quantitative ects as long as suitable grid spacing is imposed for earthworks
decision support based on limited data and information available design and construction, respectively.
at the site-grading design or early project planning stage. Actual
ground survey and design data are generally available, providing
input information for determining the quantity of earthmoving Conclusions
work and fixing positions of sources (cut) and destinations (fill)
for earthmoving jobs. Nonetheless, many actual field factors are In reviewing past research, the popularity, success, and longevity of
not yet clearly known in this phase, for example, the actual fleet using simulation to aid in the decision support process for earth-
of heavy equipment available to the field, and the temporary haul moving operations is obvious. In order to apply the advances in
roads that will be actually laid out in the field. As for the fleet, as simulation optimization developed in the academic world to the
practiced in heavy civil estimating, the Caterpillar Performance earthmoving industry, improvements are needed to streamline re-
Handbook (Caterpillar Inc. 2011) in general provides reliable data source demands, both in time and expertise, of current simulation
for equipment capacity and cycle times. As for the haul roads, the practices, while maintaining accuracy. Given the complexities and
assumption made in this research is to take the centroid-to-centroid constant changes in field operations, the researchers identify one
straight-line distance between a cut cell and a fill cell as the haul major bottleneck to adopting simulation modeling in the heavy
distance for a particular earthmoving job. Thus, the fleet data and and civil construction field: it is rare to find personnel in this
given existing and proposed ground elevations based on simulation 2 12 7 5 2,397 430.1163 1,030,988.7
experiments on a test case. Additionally, the average haul distance 2 11 7 5 1,818 390.5125 709,951.7
2 11 6 4 4,989 403.1129 2,011,130.2
can be used to provide decision support in determining whether
2 11 5 3 4,989 427.2002 2,131,301.7
to perform all earthwork operations with one fleet, or whether to 2 11 10 8 4,831 427.2002 2,063,804.1
divide the project into subhauls with multiple unique fleets. This 3 12 10 8 577 403.1129 232,596.14
allows the benefits of simulation to be achieved without incurring 3 12 10 7 4,437 430.1163 1,908,425.9
the long modeling time and high application cost associated with 3 12 9 6 8,512 424.2641 3,611,335.8
the construction of a detailed simulation model. 3 11 10 7 971 403.1129 391,422.61
GPS technology and real-time data collection are valuable tools 3 11 8 5 4,215 390.5125 1,646,010.1
for earthmoving operations. In the planning and estimation stages 3 11 7 4 8,017 403.1129 3,231,756
of an earthmoving project, current practice generally collects origi- 3 11 6 3 323 427.2002 137,985.66
nal ground elevation data used for site-grading design by utilizing 1 10 4 2 3,065 427.2002 1,309,368.6
1 10 1 2 4,597 400 1,838,800
the real-time kinematics GPS survey technology. This technology
1 10 2 2 4,597 403.1129 1,853,109.9
provides point coordinates on a site grid layout for ensuing design 2 10 3 2 4,086 403.1129 1,647,119.3
and construction analysis. The proposed new approach is intended 2 10 4 2 7,151 412.3106 2,948,432.8
to augment the GPS survey technology with integrated analysis of 2 10 5 2 1,022 427.2002 436,598.59
site design and method design, aiding construction engineers in 4 12 6 3 8,512 460.9772 3,923,838.1
constructability analysis and determination of fleet selection, 4 12 10 6 5,014 424.2641 2,127,260
project execution planning, project duration, or project cost. 4 11 8 4 8,017 403.1129 3,231,756
Use of the average weighted haul distance can be viewed as a 4 11 10 5 5,509 424.2641 2,337,270.8
step toward meta-modeling for earthmoving operations. As demon- 5 12 10 5 3,003 430.1163 1,291,639.1
strated in a test case and a real world case, the power of simulation 5 12 9 4 7,109 447.2136 3,179,241.5
5 11 9 4 4,896 403.1129 1,973,640.7
is more easily accessible and the proposed method allows for more
5 11 7 3 5,216 412.3106 2,150,611.9
rapid, straightforward applications, as the necessity for specific 1 9 5 2 7,593 403.1129 3,060,836.2
simulation knowledge and training becomes less of an obstacle 1 9 6 3 4,666 390.5125 1,822,131.2
to industry personnel. The cost of performing simulations is de- 2 9 5 2 1,301 380.7887 495,406.04
creased while the benefit it provides is largely maintained. Future 2 9 7 3 2,801 390.5125 1,093,825.5
research may focus on the identification of other invariant factors in 2 9 6 2 8,157 403.1129 3,288,191.8
other aspects of earthmoving and in other construction domains. 3 10 8 3 8,017 430.1163 3,448,242.1
3 10 6 2 1,185 427.2002 506,232.22
3 9 6 2 574 380.7887 218,572.69
3 9 9 4 8,628 390.5125 3,369,341.7
Appendix. Haul Effort Calculation Based on 50-m 4 10 9 4 3,377 390.5125 1,318,760.7
Grid on Testing Case 4 10 8 3 5,825 403.1129 2,348,132.6
4 9 10 4 9,202 390.5125 3,593,495.9
Cut Fill 6 12 10 4 910 447.2136 406,964.37
Volume Distance
6 12 8 3 3,377 460.9772 1,556,720.1
x y x y (bm3 ) (m) Effort (bm4 )
6 12 9 3 5,825 474.3416 2,763,040.1
1 12 1 4 302 400 120,800 6 11 9 3 6,180 427.2002 2,640,097.2
1 12 1 3 302 450 135,900 6 11 10 3 3,932 447.2136 1,758,443.9
1 12 9 10 2,127 412.3106 876,984.57 5 10 10 3 6,107 430.1163 2,626,720
1 12 9 9 2,127 427.2002 908,654.8 6 10 10 3 1,966 403.1129 792,519.94
1 12 10 10 2,127 460.9772 980,498.55 6 10 7 2 4,141 403.1129 1,669,290.5
1 12 10 9 2,127 474.3416 1,008,924.7 1 7 7 2 8,598 390.5125 3,357,626.3
1 12 7 8 874 360.5551 315,125.18 1 7 1 1 86 300 25,800
1 12 8 8 874 403.1129 352,320.66 1 8 2 1 4,597 353.5534 1,625,284.9
1 12 7 7 874 390.5125 341,307.91 1 8 3 1 4,001 364.0055 1,456,386
1 12 9 8 4,893 447.2136 2,188,216.1 2 8 3 1 3,150 353.5534 1,113,693.2
1 11 9 8 515 427.2002 220,008.1 2 8 4 1 5,448 364.0055 1,983,101.9
1 11 2 4 302 353.5534 106,773.12 2 7 4 1 703 316.2278 222,308.12
1 11 3 4 2,633 364.0055 958,426.47 2 7 5 1 2,184 335.4102 732,535.87
1 11 2 3 302 403.1129 121,740.09 1 6 5 1 1,021 320.1562 326,879.49
3 7 8 1 5,584 390.5125 2,180,621.7 tional and global positioning system-based earthmoving systems using
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4 7 8 2 5,532 320.1562 1,771,104.2 574–587.
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5 7 8 2 2,702 291.5476 787,761.6 and productivity.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO
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TRUCKS
&
HAULING EQUIPMENT
(LOW RISE BUILDING)
KELOMPOK 3 :
Indriani Eka Widiastuti (55719010004)
Nella Kusumaningtiyas (55719010008)
Kartika Sri Rahayu (55719010009)
Outline Point
01 Low-Rise Building
02 EARTH MOVING
03 TRUCKS
04 Finishing Hauling
05 Hasil Review
2 06 Kesimpulan
Low Rise
Building
Definition
A low-rise building is an enclosed structure
whose architectural height is below 35
meters, and which is divided at regular
intervals into occupiable levels.
(Sumber : ESN 49213)
Jenis Low Rise Buildings
The use of buildings can be broadly divided into five areas
q Side-dump
n Capacity
q Gravimetric: carried load expressed as weight in tons
q Volumetric/struck volume: carried load expressed as
volumetric amount in cubic meter/cubic yard
(Sumber : ASCE 2014)
Method of dumping the load
n Dump Trucks
1
(Sumber : ASCE 2014) 4
n Articulated Truck
1
(Sumber : ASCE 2014) 5
Volvo Truck Family
1
(Sumber : ASCE 2014) 6
When it comes to
perfomance
SIZE DOES MATTER
Kerugian :
• Jumlahnya, lebih banyak truk meningkatkan bahaya operasional di pit, di
sepanjang jalan angkut dan di tempat pembuangan.
• Diperlukan lebih banyak driver, lebih dibutuhkan untuk output yang diberikan.
• Kendala pemuatan, target kecil untuk bucket excavator.
• Waktu penentuan posisi, total waktu bercak lebih besar karena jumlah yang
diperlukan.
(Sumber : ASCE 2014)
UKURAN TRUCK MEMPENGARUHI PRODUKTIVITAS
Truck Besar
Keuntungan:
• Jumlah, lebih sedikit yang dibutuhkan untuk output yang diberikan.
• Driver diperlukan, lebih sedikit dibutuhkan untuk output yang diberikan.
• Keuntungan pemuatan, target yang lebih besar untuk bucket excavator.
• Waktu pemosisian, frekuensi truk penarik berkurang.
Kerugian :
• Biaya waktu truk saat pemuatan lebih besar, terutama dengan excavator
kecil.
• Beban lebih berat, kemungkinan kerusakan pada jalan angkut sehingga
meningkatkan biaya pemeliharaan jalan angkut.
• Saldo armada, sulit untuk mencocokkan no. truk untuk produksi
excavator.
• Ukuran, mungkin tidak diizinkan untuk diangkut di jalan TOL.
(Sumber : ASCE 2014)
Truck Production Estimation
1) Number of bucket load:- 5) Dump Time:-
Balanced number of bucket load = Truck *Type of hauling unit
capacity/bucket capacity *Congestion in the dump area
2) Load time and Truck load volume:- 6) Truck cycle time
Production Issues:-
1) Reach of the excavator
2) Dumping height of the bucket
3) Width of the bucket
Trucks Safety
• Conduct penilaian bahaya pekerjaan setiap hari,
dan memastikan operator dan pengemudi
mengetahui bahaya.
• Pastikan tanggul dibangun dengan memadai.
• Operator harus mengikuti semua sinyal operasi.
• Gunakan spotter saat mendukung dengan blind
spot.
• Harus jauh dari jalur perjalanan kendaraan.
• Memakai pakaian keamanan visibilitas tinggi.
(Sumber : ASCE 2014)
HAULING
EQUIPMENT
Hauling merupakan transportasi atau
pemindahan material baik on atau off
road dengan jarak tempuh tertentu.
Aktivitas Hauling dilakukan dengan
menggunakan media transportasi berupa
truck untuk mengangkut material ke
lokasi tujuan. Hauling
Hauling adalah proses pengangkutan
batuan yang telah dimuat menggunakan
truk, kemudian batu diangkut menuju
mesin crushing atau jaw untuk masuk
kedalam tahap processing.
Kekurangan
1. Kecepatan geraknya lamban
(Sumber : ASCE 2017)
Power Scrapper
Bagian - Bagian
Underground Truck
Kelebihan & Kekurangan
Kelebihan
1. Jarak angkut bias mencapai 2 km
2. Fleksibel dalam menambah alat tanpa mengganggu produksi
3. Kecepatan relative tinggi
Kekurangan
1. Kondisi jalan harus baik dan tidak licin
2. Jumlah operator banyak
3. Ventialasi harus baik
4. Jalan harus lebar dan tidak boleh menyudut
Underground Truck
Bagian - Bagian
Loading
Cycle
excavation
40
(Sumber : ASCE 2017)
“
STUDI KASUS
STUDI KASUS 2
&
(indri)
Penulis : Chaimaa Jaafari1; and Jamshid Mohammadi, M.ASCE
Publisher : ASCE 2018
36
JURNAL 1
Latar Belakang
Previous Research
Methode Authors Kekurangan
Radio Based - J.-W. Park, K. Kim, Y.K. Cho sinyal radio sering mengalami kesulitan
- T. Omar, M.L. Nehdi mengidentifikasi jenis kegiatan secara tepat
- C. Zhang, A. Hammad, S. Rodriguez
JURNAL 1
Tujuan
studi ini mengkaji dan mengidentifikasi elemen-
elemen penting untuk memahami operasi interaktif
excavator dan dump truck.
Pertama, lokasi Kedua, aksi individu Ketiga, interaksi antara Akhirnya, post-
ekskavator dan dump dari objek yang dilacak excavator dan dump truck processing dilakukan
truck dilacak dari waktu diakui menggunakan kemudian dianalisis untuk mengurangi
ke waktu untuk penalaran spatio- berdasarkan faktor-faktor kesalahan pengakuan
mengumpulkan dua jenis temporal dan teknik seperti koeksistensi, dengan
data: jenis peralatan dan pembedaan gambar. kedekatan, dan konsistensi mempertimbangkan
lintasannya aksi. kontinuitas kegiatan
peralatan.
TLD (Tracking Learning-Detection) untuk melacak beberapa peralatan konstruksi dalam jangka
panjang. , integrasi fungsional meningkatkan kinerja deteksi dan pelacakan dengan
mengkompensasi kelemahan detektor dan pelacak. Pembelajaran online melatih dan
menyesuaikan detektor, serta mengembangkan dan memperbarui data pelatihan secara real time
tanpa pekerjaan awal.
Method and Research
1. Data collection and description
operasi interaktif antara dump
Pengumpulan Data
truck dan kelompok beberapa
menggunakana
dump truck yang bekerja
CCTV dan
secara bersamaan dan
smartphone.
excavator
kamera stasioner dipasang pada jarak 10
hingga 30 m, ketinggian 0 hingga 3 m, dan
sudut pandang yang berbeda (yaitu, depan,
belakang, samping, dan diagonal), 11 posisi
berbeda secara keseluruhan.
Hasilnya menyiratkan
bahwa modul bekerja
dengan baik untuk
mengenali tindakan
individu. Juga diamati
bahwa precision
untuk dump truck
lebih besar daripada
excavator.
7. Performance of the post-processing
N
disederhanakan untuk menggantikan simulasi yang terperinci
model yang mempertimbangkan pola gerakan bumi tertentu,
sementara masih menghasilkan output dengan akurasi yang
sebanding
JURNAL 2
Pertimbangan Rata Rata Jarak
Pengangkutan
Pada operasi pengerjaan tanah linier seperti itu, diagram massa angkut yang
ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 1 dapat dengan mudah diterapkan tentukan total volume
cut dan fill, jumlah yang dipindahkan dan jarak angkut rata-rata di mana jumlah
tertentu perjalanan material tertentu
JURNAL 2
Perbandingan dengan Pusat Massa
Untuk sistem partikel, masing-masing dengan mi massa
dan posisi ri, itu Koordinat R dari pusat massa dapat
diperbaiki dengan mengikuti
Algoritma Heuristik
untuk Menentukan
Upaya Pengangkutan
Algoritma Heuristik untuk Menentukan Upaya JURNAL 2
Pengangkutan
kolom Cut
menunjukkan lokasi
x, y tempat bahan
diambil, dan Isi
kolom
menunjukkan lokasi
x, y tempat materi
tersebut berada
ditempatkan
JURNAL 2
Variasi Jarak Haul Rata-Rata Tertimbang
Variasi pada total
upaya angkut, dan,
pada gilirannya, rata-
rata jarak angkut
tertimbang dalam
100 simulasi
termasuk dalam
rentang yang
dikenakan oleh batas
presisi dari data yang
dimasukkan
JURNAL 2
Variasi Jarak Haul Rata-Rata Tertimbang
variasi pada
jarak angkut
rata-rata
tertimbang
berdasarkan
percobaan
simulasi terbatas
pada kisaran
(413, 450 m)
JURNAL 2
Pemilihan Armada
Setelah mengidentifikasi
konfigurasi peralatan
praktis, perlu
dipertimbangkan apakah
melakukan semua
operasi di tempat dengan
satu armada, atau
memecah proyek
menjadi subhaul terpisah
dengan beberapa
armada, adalah lebih
hemat biaya dan hemat
waktu
JURNAL 2
penelitian ini berkontribusi untuk mengidentifikasi menghasilkan keputusan yang relevan dan kuantitatif
elemen-elemen penting yang menjelaskan operasi berdasarkan data dan informasi terbatas yang
interaktif, mencirikan kerangka kerja identifikasi tersedia di Indonesia konteks perencanaan operasi
aktivitas berbasis visi, dan meningkatkan penerapan RESULT pemindahan tanah pada desain penilaian lokasi atau
metode berbasis visi untuk analisis operasi dalam tahap perencanaan proyek awal.
peralatan otomatis.
Karena sifat operasi pemindahan tanah, perbedaan
- perubahan bentuk excavator tidak terdeteksi
kurang dari 4% pada rata rata durasi proyek
selama ‘scooping/rotating/dropping’
dianggap tidak signifikan, maka durasi proyek
- Pencilan atau kotak pembatas kebisingan objek
WEAKNESS digunakan untuk model yg disederhanakan, hanya
target menghasilkan perubahan centroid yang
menggunakan jarang angkut tertimbang dan
tiba-tiba; akibatnya, beberapa tindakan 'bergerak'
volume cut sebagai input
diklasifikasikan sebagai 'tidak bergerak'.
Kinerja algoritma heuristik yang diusulkan
Mengembangkan kerangka kerja yang dapat memuaskan dengan menghasilkan jarak angkut
meningkatkan praktisitas dari identifikasi aktivitas STRENGTH lebih pendek, argumen kuantitatif yang dibuat
otomatis pada situs pemindahan tanah yang sebelumnya pertimbangan rata rata jarak angkut
sebenarnya. penilaiannya seimbang atau dianggap relatif stabil/
tidak berubah
pelacak berbasis CNN mengungguli untuk
KETERBARUAN Mengidentifikasi faktor invarian lain dari aspek lain
melokalkan segala jenis objek yang memiliki variasi
dari pemindahan tanah dan dalam domain
intraclass / interclass yang tinggi.
konstruksi lainnya
Thank You