Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan :
Ekologi : ilmu yang mempelajari interaksi antara organisme dengan lingkungannya dan yang lainnya.
Anatomi : cabang dari biologi yang berhubungan dengan struktur dan organisasi dari makhluk hidup
Morfologi : ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bentuk organisme, terutama hewan dan tumbuhan yang
mencakup
bagian-bagiannya.
Fitokimia : ilmu yang mempelajari berbagai senyawa organik yang ada pada tumbuhan baik tentang
struktur
kimia, perubahan dan metabolisme, biosintesis, fungsi biologis dari senyawa organik dan
penyebaran secara alami.
Hubungan Farmasi dengan Ilmu Lain
Farmakologi : lmu pengetahuan yang berhubungan dengan obat-obatan
Formulasi : Perumusan
Farmakognosi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bagian-bagian tanaman atau hewan yang dapat digunakan
sebagai obat alami yang telah melewati berbagai macam uji seperti uji farmakodinamik, uji
toksikologi dan uji biofarmasetika.
Tumbuhan Jamu :
Etnofarmakologi : ilmu yang mempelajari tentang kegunaan tanaman yang memiliki efek farmakologi
yang memiliki
hubungan dengan pengobatan dan pemeliharaan kesehatan oleh masyarakat sekitar (suku)
Botani Farmasi
Mengenal Tumbuhan obat, pengelompokan berdasarkan:
Morfologi tumbuhan Anatomi Tumbuhan
Metabolisme Primer
Metabolisme Biosintesis glukosa, asam amino dan asam lemak.
Fotosintesis
Glikolisis
Siklus Krebs
Fotosintesis
Reaksi Terang (Reaksi Fitokimia/reaksi cahaya/reaksi hill/fotolisis air) Fotolisis H2O
Di Membran Tilakoid
Hasil : ATP (Fotosistem I, P 700)
Fotolisis air -> Pembentukan Oksigen dan NADPH2 (Fotosistem II, P 680)
Reaksi Gelap (Reaksi thermokimia) Fiksasi CO2
Di Stroma
Siklus Kelvin
Fiksasi CO2 (butuh ATP dan NADPH)
Fase Reduksi
Fase Regenerasisi
Hasil : Glukosa
Biosintesis Asam Amino
Metabolisme Sekunder
Jalur yang membangun metabolisme sekunder:
Asetil Koenzim A (Asetil Co-A) : Jalur Asetat
Asam Shikimic : Jalur Shikimate
Asam mevalonate : Jalur mevalonat
Jalur 1-deoksiselulosa-5-fosfat:
deoksiselulosa Fosfat
Jalur asetat
• Bentuk metabolit sekunder penting yang terbentuk dari jalur asetat meliputi fenol, prostaglandin,
antibiotik makrolida
• Prostaglandin: prostaglandin
• Fenol: fenol, antraquinon, griseofulvin, aflatoksin, ganja, tetrasiklin, dan antibiotik makrolida
Prostaglandin
• adalah sekelompok asam lemak C20 terrmodifikasi yang pertama kali diisolasi dari air mani manusia
dan pada awalnya dianggap disekresikan oleh kelenjar prostat
• Mereka aktif pada konsentrasi hormon yang sangat rendah dan dapat mengatur tekanan darah,
kontraksi otot polos, sekresi lambung, dan agregasi trombosit.
• Sumber: Plexaura homomalla (cambuk laut), karang lunak, dari Karibia
Aflatoksin
• Aflatoksin adalah mikotoksin yang diproduksi oleh jamur Apergilus flavus dan A. parasiticus.
• Aflatoksin alami: aflatoksin B1, B2, G1 dan G2.
• aflatoksin adalah utamanya berpengaruh pada hati, menyebabkan pembesaran, penumpukan lemak, dan
nekrosis: hilanganya fungsi hati nekrosis.
Tetracyline
• Tetracyline adalah kelompok spektrum luas, Secara oral antibiotik aktif diproduksi oleh kultur spesies
Streptomyces.
• Kloretrasiklinline diisolasi dari Streptomyces aureofasciens
• Oxytetracylines dari kultur S. rimosus
• Doksorubisin (andriamycin) diproduksi oleh kultur S. peucetius vcar caeceus obat antitumor
Jalur Shikimat
Jalur shikimate mengarah ke berbagai fenol, turunan asam sinamat, lignan dan alkaloid
Bahan tanin:
Telah digunakan selama ribuan tahun dalam penyamakan hewan yang bersembunyi untuk membuat
kulit, karena kemampuan mereka untuk menghubungkan molekul protein. tanin juga berkontribusi pada
makanan astringency dan baverages, terutama teh, kopi, dan anggur.
Asam folat (vitamin B9) adalah konjugat dari unit pteridine, asam p-aminobenzoic, dan asam
glutamat
Ini ditemukan dalam ragi, hati dan sayuran hijau, namun pemasakan dapat menghancurkan hingga 90%
vitamin
defisiensi menimbulkan anemia, dan suplementasi sering terjadi selama kehamilan
Lignan
• Lignan podophyllum (rimpang kering dan akar Podophyllum, Berberidaceae)
• Podophyllum hexandrum (P. emodi) ditemukan di India, Cina dan Himalaya dan menghasilkan
podofilum India 6-12% dari resin yang mengandung 50-60% lignan
• P. peltatum (May apple atau mandrake Amerika) berasal dari amerika utara dan menghasilkan
podofilum Amerika 2-8% dari resin yang mengandung 14-18% lignan
• Resin podophyllum telah lama digunakan sebagai pencahar, tetapi penemuan sifat sitotoksik
podophyllotoxin dan senyawa terkait sekarang telah menjadikan podophyllum tanaman obat yang
penting secara komersial yang merupakan pengobatan yang efektif untuk kutil, agen antimotik.
Monoterpen:
Valepotriates, valtrate akar Valeriana officinalis (valerian, Valerianaceae).
Persiapan valerian banyak digunakan sebagai obat penenang herbal untuk meredakan ketegangan
saraf, kecemasan dan insomnia
Sesquiterpen:
Parthenolide dalam Tenaceum parthenium, Crhysanthenum parthenium, Leucanthernum parthenium
atau Pyrethrum parthenium (Fevervew, Compositae / Asteraceae Family) adalah obat herbal
tradisional untuk menghilangkan radang sendi, migrain, sakit gigi, dan kesulitan menstruasi
Diterpen:
Taxol (Paclicatel) dari Taxus brevifolia memiliki sifat antikanker. Isolasi pertama pada tahun 1971
Triterpen:
Asam glycyrrhizic dari Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice, Leguminosae / Fabaceae), telah digunakan di
Farmasi untuk menutupi rasa pahit obat, memiliki sifat surfaktan dan ekspektoran ringan
Steroid
Parillin dari sarsaparilla, akar kering dari berbagai spesies smilax (Liliaceae / Smilacaceae) termasuk
S. aristolochiaefolia, S. regelii dan S. febrifuga digunakan dalam pengobatan sifilis, rematik, dan
penyakit kulit
Alkaloid
Khat, teh Abyssinian terdiri dari daun segar Catha edulis (Celasteraceae), sebuah pohon kecil yang
dibudidayakan di Ethiopia, Afrika Timur dan Selatan, dan Yaman.
Mereka mengunyah khat untuk efek stimulant Pengguna menjadi ceria dan berbicara aktif, dan khat
menjadi obat sosial.
Vincristine, Vinblastine dari Catharanthus roseus (Vinca rosea, Apocynaceae) pengobatan kanker.
Penyakit Hodgkin, kanker yang menyerang kelenjar getah bening, limpa dan hati
SIMPLISA
Definisi
Simplisia adalah Bahan alamiah yang dipergunakan sebagai obat yang belum mengalami pengolahan
apapun juga dan kecuali dinyatakan lain, berupa bahan yang telah dikeringkan.
Simplisia Nabati adalah Simplisia yang berupa tanaman utuh, bagian tanaman atau eksudat tanaman.
Eksudat tanaman ialah isi sel yang secara spontan keluar dari tanaman atau isi sel yang dengan
cara tertentu dipisahkan dari tanamannya dan belum berupa zat kimia murni.
Simplisia Hewani adalah Simplisia yang berupa hewan utuh, bagian hewan atau zat-zat berguna yang
dihasilkan oleh hewan dan belum berupa zat kimia murni
Simplisia pelican (mineral) adalah Simplisia yang berupa bahan pelikan (mineral) yang belum diolah
atau telah diolah dengan cara sederhana dan belum berupa zat kimia murni
Pengumpulan Bahan
Proses pengumpulan bahan dipengaruhi oleh:
a)bagian tumbuhan yang digunakan
b)umur tumbuhan pada saat panen
c)waktu panen
d)lingkungan tempat tumbuh (budidaya atau non budidaya)
Kadar senyawa aktif dalam simplisia berbeda-beda. Untuk mendapatkan simplisia dengan kualitas
baik harus dilakukan pengawasan mutu pada saat bahan dikumpulkan.
Pengumpulan berdasarkan bagian tumbuhan
Daun, Buah, Bunga, Biji , Kayu dan Kulit kayu, Akar, Rimpang, Getah/lendir
Pengumpulan berdasarkan umur
Kandungan kimia tertentu baru akan muncul setelah tumbuhan berumur tertentu (terkait dengan
proses metabolisme/reaksi enzimatis dalam tumbuhan)
Pengumpulan berdasarkan waktu panen
Waktu panen berpengaruh pada kandungan kimia
Misal: Tanaman yang mengandung minyak atsiri dipanen dipagi atau sore hari
Pengumpulan berdasarkan lingkungan tempat tumbuh
Tanaman budidaya dan non budidaya akan memiliki kandungan kimia yang berbeda untuk jenis
tanaman yang sama (kualitas dan kuantitas)
Sortasi Basah
Untuk memisahkan kotoran-kotoran atau bahan-bahan asing lainnya dari bahan segar. Dapat
mengurangi jumlah mikroba. Bahan asing misalnya tanah, kerikil, rumput, batang, daun, akar yang
telah rusak
Cara: -Pencucian dengan air bersih. -Pengupasan kulit (akar, batang, buah)
Sortasi Kering
Untuk memisahkan benda-benda asing seperti bagian-bagian tumbuhan yang tidak diinginkan dan
pengotor lain yang masih tertinggal pada simplisia
Cara: manual, mekanik
Apabila tidak dinyatakan lain, bahan organik asing tidak boleh lebih dari 2%; kadar air tidak boleh
lebih dari 10%
Pengemasan dan Penyimpanan
Bergantung pada jenis simplisia dan tujuannya mampu melindungi simplisia dari kemungkinan
kerusakan.
Pengemasan:
Disimpan dalam wadah tertutup baik atau wadah tertutup rapat, diberi label yang mencantumkan
nama dan tanggal pengemasan.
Bahan kemas bersifat tidak beracun dan tidak bereaksi dengan isi (inert). Misal aluminium foil,
plastik atau botol berwarna gelap, karung, peti atau drum dari kayu/karton, drum/kaleng dari
besi berlapis
Penyimpanan:
Apabila tidak dinyatakan lain, simplisia disimpan ditempat terlindung dari sinar matahari dan
pada suhu kamar.
Bergantung sifat-sifat dan ketahanan simplisia pada suhu kamar (15-30) 0C, tempat sejuk (5-15)
0
C atau tempat dingin (0-5)0C.
Pengawasan Mutu
Simplisia sebisa mungkin harus memenuhi persyaratan yang disebutkan dalam buku Materia Medika
Indonesia (Depkes RI).
Cara: Organoleptik, makroskopik, mikroskopik, uji kimia, uji biologi, dll.
Catatan:
Pemeriksaan dilakukan berkala (berulang)
Simplisia pembanding sebagai contoh yang pasti dan memenuhi persyaratan
1. Fermentasi:
2. Dilakukan dengan seksama agar prosesnya tidak berlanjut sehingga terjadi perubahan kimia/fisik yang
tidak diinginkan
3. Penyulingan (destilasi)
4. pengentalan eksudat nabati
5. pengeringan sari air (pati, talk)
*dengan prinsip harus memenuhi persyaratan mutu
Tata Nama
Nama (dalam bahasa) latin:
Simplisia nabati ditetapkan dengan menyebutkan nama marga (genus), atau nama jenis (species) atau
petunjuk teknis (specific epithet) tanaman asal, diikuti dengan bagian tanaman yang dipergunakan
Simplisia hewani dan simplisia pelikan ditetapkan dengan menyebutkan nama latin yang paling umum
dari simplisia tersebut
Contoh:
Allii sativi Bulbus Umbi bawang putih Tamarindi Pulpa Daging buah asam jawa
Arengae Radix Akar aren Sappan Lignum Kayu secang
Catharanti Folium Daun tapak dara Apii graveolentis Herba Herba sledri
Cucurbitae semen Biji labu merah Nyctabthi Flos Bunga srigading
Momordicae Fructus Buah Pare
Simplisia getah/lendir: jarak cina, jarak pagar, kikolot, pepaya, lidah buaya
Data Penelitian
Pada setiap penelitian dilakukan pemeriksaan simplisia untuk mengetahui mutu/ kualitasnya
Contoh:
Kulit batang ketapang = Terminalia catappa L. (diambil dari hasil penelitian tesis Ade Zuhrotun)
MONOGRAFI SIMPLISIA (Materia Medika Indonesia)
1.Nama latin : Terminalia catappa cortex
2.Nama Indonesia : Kulit batang ketapang
3.Tumbuhan asal : Terminalia catappa Linn.
4.Pemerian : (gambar)
5.Ciri makroskopik : (gambar)
6.Ciri mikroskopik (penampang melintang, serbuk)
7.Identifikasi kimia (termasuk hasil kromatografi lapis tipis)
8.Kadar abu (total, tidak larut dalam asam, larut dalam air)
9.Kadar sari (dalam air, dalam etanol)
10.Penyimpanan : ...
11.Isi (kandungan kimia) : ...
12.Penggunaan : ...
13.Nama daerah :…
Khasiat Dan Kegunaan
Empirik:
Buah : obat disentri,
Biji : pencahar (laksantia),
Daun : obat rematik, disentri, sakit kepala, kejang perut, peluruh keringat dan zat penyamak,
pemberi
warna hitam pada kain
Penelitian:
Ekstrak etanol 12 jenis tumbuhan marga terminalia aktif minimal terhadap tiga jenis mikroba uji
yaitu terhadap Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans dan Microsporum
gipseum,
ekstrak etanol dan ekstrak air daun gugur segar (daun gugur tanpa pengeringan), diameter hambat
lebih besar terhadap mikroba yang sama juga terhadap Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Trichophyton
mentagrophytes, Pityrosporum ovale dan Epidermophyton flocosum dibandingkan ekstrak etanol
dan ekstrak air daun yang dipetik (daun hijau)
Salep yang mengandung 10% ekstrak etanol daun gugur pohon ketapang,dapat menyembuhkan
luka akibat infeksi jamur Epidermophyton flocosum dan Candida albicans secara in vivo pada kulit
kelinci
Ekstrak daun dan buah: aktivitas antikanker, antioksidan, anti-HIV reverse transcriptase, anti-
inflamasi, antidiabetes, hepatoprotektif dan afrodisiaka.
2. Karakteristik Mikroskopik
3. Karakteristik Mutu
4. Penapisan Fitokimia
5. Pemantuan KLT
Keterangan:
Sampel yang dipantau:
1.ekstrak etanol, 2. fraksi n-heksana, 3. fraksi kloroform, 4. fraksi etil asetat, dan 5. fraksi air.
Kondisi pemantauan: Fase diam silica gel GF254 pra lapis, pengembang toluene:eter (1:1)
Pemantauan bercak (a) sinar tampak (b) sinar UV 254 nm (c) sinar UV 366 nm (d) asam sulfat 10%
pada sinar tampak (e) asam sulfat 10% pada sinar UV 366.
Taksonomi Tumbuhan
Pencirian
Ciri Taksonomi : Setiap atribut yang dimiliki oleh mahluk hidup, seperti: bentuk, struktur yang
dianggap terpisah dari mahluk hidup secara keseluruhan
Ciri adalah sesuatu yang lekat diri
Sifat ciri taksonomi (character state): kondisi atau ekspresi dari ciri taksonomi
Macam -macam ciri taksonomi
Morfologi Embriologi
Anatomi Fisiologi
Palinologi Kimia
Sitologi Ekologi
Genetika Molekular / Sekuen DN
Ciri Kuantitatif : Ciri yang dapat dinyatakan dengan angka. Contoh: panjang daun, jumlah putik
Ciri Kualitatif : Ciri yang tidak dapat dinyatakan dengan angka, Contoh : bentuk daun, kepala putik
Penamaan
Nama adalah sesuatu yang mutlak perlu untuk menyebut apa yang dimaksud
Tatanama Tumbuhan = nomenclatur sesuai dengan Kode International Tatanama Tumbuhan
Satu tumbuhan memiliki nama yang benar dan tepat dalam sistem klasifikasi
Penggolongan
Alasan tumbuhan harus diklasifikasi??
-Kemudahan dan keteraturan
-Economy of memory
-Pusat penyimpan informasi
-Bermanfaat dalam identifikasi
-Menggambarkan jauh dekatnya hubungan kekerabatan
-Alat Prediksi
Sistem Klasifikasi Filogenetik
Berdasarkan keturunan dan hubungan kekerabatan pengarug teori evolusi
Peralihan ke sistem filogenetik
A.W. Eichler (1837-1887)
B. Phanerogamae
Merupakan tanaman yang menghasilkan biji, dikenal sebagai spermatophyta (Gk. Sperma=seed;
phyton=plants).
Merupakan tumbuhan tingkat tinggi. Tubuh tanaman berdiferendiasi menjadi akar, batang dan daun
dengan sistem pembuluh yang sudah maju (xylem dan floem)
Divisi : Gymnospermae Kelas : Dikotilledon
Divisi : Angiospermae Anak Kelas: Choripetalae
Kelas : Monokotiledon Anak Kelas: Sympetalae
Sistem Engler (Engler, 1844-1893 & Piranti, 1849-1893)
Kelompok apetal merupakan kelompok primitive
Divisi : Embryophyta Anak Kelas: Archichlamideae
Anak Divisi : Gymnopermae (Choripetalae &Apetalae)
Anak Divisi : Angiospermae Anak Kelas: Metachlamideae (Sympetalae)
Kelas : Monokotiledon Choripetalae : Memiliki petal yang
Kelas : Dikotiledon dterpisah dan distinc (Polypetalaous)
Pinophyta Magnoliphyta
-Tumbuhan berkayu -Tumbuhan berkayu atau herba,
-Kayu tanpa trakea (kecuali, anak divisi -Kayu selalu memiliki trakea
Gnetophyta) -Sporofil terususn dalam bunga, umumnya ada
-Sporofil terususn dalam strobilus, tidak ada perhiasan bunga, warna mencolok
pershiadan bunga -Ovul terdapat di ovarium yang tertutup, dibentuk
-Ovul terdapat pada permukgaan megasporofil oleh satu atau lebih megasporofil
yang terbuka -Gametofit betina dengan sedikit atau tanpa
-Gametofit betina dengan jaringan vegetative jaringan vegetative, terdiri dari kantung embrio
yang berlimpah dan dengan arkegonia (kecuali dengan 8 inti. Tidak ada arkegonia.
Wslcitschia dan Gnetum) -Polen tidak langsung berhubungan dengan ovul,
-Polen langsung berhubungan dengan ovul hinggap di stigme
-Tidak ada pembuahan ganda -Ada pembuahan ganda
-Endosperm dibentuk oleh jaringan begetatif -Endosperm muncul setelah pembuahan,
gametofit betina umumnya dari fusi 3 inti
-Kotiledon 2-banyak -Kotiledon 1 atau 2
Diagram Klasifikasi Angiospermae Cronquist
KELAS: MAGNOLIOPSIDA
Anak Kelas I: Magnoliidae Lactoridaceae, Annonaceae, Myristicaceae,
1. Bangsa I: Magnoliales Canellaceae
Suku (10): Winteraceae, Degeneriaceae, 2. Bangsa II: Laurales
Himantandraceae, Eupomatiaceae,
Austrobaileyaceae, Magnoliaceae,
Suku (8): Amborellaceae, Trimeniaceae, Suku (1): Myricaceae
Monimiaceae, Gomortegaceae, 10. Bangsa X: Fagales
Calycanthacaceae, Idiospermaceae,
Lauraceae, Hernandiaceae Suku (3): Balanopaceae, Fagaceae, Betulaceae
3. Bangsa III: Piperales 11. Bangsa XI: Casuarinales
Suku (3): Chloranthaceae, Saururaceae, Suku (1): Casuarinaceae
Piperaceae Anak Kelas III: Caryophyllidae
4. Bangsa IV: Aristolochiales 1. Bangsa I: Caryophyllales
Suku (1): Aristolochiaceae Suku (12): Phytolaccaceae, Achatocarpaceae,
Nyctaginaceae, Aizoaceae, didiereaceae,
5. Bangsa V: Illiciales Cactaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae,
Suku (2): Illiciaceae, Schisandraceae Portulacaceae, Basellaceae, Molluginaceae,
Caryophyllaceae
6. Bangsa VI: Nymphaeales
2. Bangsa II: Polygonales
Suku (5): Nelumbonaceae, Nymphaeaceae,
Barclayaceae, Gabombaceae, Suku (1): Polygonaceae
Ceratophyllaceae 3. Bangsa III: Plumbaginales
7. Bangsa VII: Ranunculales Suku (1): Plumbaginaceae
Suku (8): Ranunculaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Anak kelas IV: Dilleniidae
Berberidaceae, Sargentodoxaceae, 1. Bangsa I: Dilleniales
Menispermaceae, Coriariaceae, Sabiaceae
Suku (2): Dilleniaceae, Paeoniaceae
8. Bangsa VIII: Papaverales
2. Bangsa II: Theales
Suku (2): Papaveraceae, Fumariaceae
Suku (18): Ochnaceae, Sphaerosepalaceae,
Anak Kelas II: Hammamelidae Sarcolaenaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
1. Bangsa I: Trochodendrales Caryocaraceae, Theaceae, Actinidiaceae,
Suku (2): Tetracentraceae, Trochodendraceae Scytopetalaceae, Pentaphylacaceae,
Tetrameristicaceae, Pellicieraceae,
2. Bangsa II: Hammamelidales
Oncothecaceae, Marcgraviaceae, Quiinaceae,
Suku (5): Cercidiphyllaceae, Eupteliaceae, Elatinaceae, Paracryphiaceae,
Plantanaceae, Hammamelidaceae, Medusagynaceae, Clusiaceae
Myrothamnaceae
3. Bangsa III: Malvales
3. Bangsa III: Daphniphyllales
Suku (5): Elaeocarpaceae, Tiliaceae,
Suku (1): Daphniphyllaceae sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, Malvaceae
4. Bangsa IV: Didymelales 4. Bangsa IV: Lecythidales
Suku (1): Didymelaceae Suku (1): Lecythidaceae
5. Bangsa V: Eucommiales 5. Bangsa V: Nepenthales
Suku (1): Eucommiaceae Suku (3): Sarraceniaceae, Nepenthaceae,
6. Bangsa VI: Urticales Droseraceae
Identifikasi Tumbuhan
Definisi
Identifikasi (identitas=jatidiri) Pengenalan
“Menentukan nama tumbuhan yang benar dan tempatnya yang tepat dalam sistem klasifikasi”
Determinasi (determinate=penentuan)
2 Kemungkinan dalam Identifikasi Tumbuhan
Tumbuhan yang akan diidentifikasi belum dikenal dunia ilmu pengetahuan
Tumbuhan yang akan diidentifikasi sudah dikenal oleh dunia ilmu pengetahuan
Identifikasi Takson Baru
Menyusun Deskripsi/Pertelaan (dalam bahasa Latin)
Menentukan Tipe
Memberi nama (Sesuai KITT)
Membuat candra/gambar
Mempublikasikan
Dalam identifikasi takson baru, ditulis dalam bahasa latin, dilampirkan gambar dna keterangan, dan harus
dipublikasikan.
Identifikasi Tumbuhan yang Sudah diketahui nama ilmiahnya
Bertanya pada yang ahli
Mencocokkan dengan spesimen herbarium yang sudah teridentifikasi
Mencocokkan dengan candra atau gambar pada buku-buku flora atau monografi
Menyusun pertelaan sehingga bisa dibandingkan dengan pertelaan dalam Flora atau monograf
Menggunakan kunci identifikasi
Menggunakan species Identification sheets
Pertelaan
Menyusun secara rinci dan runut deskripsi tumbuhan
Dalam bahasa yang ringkas
Urutan dari yang umum ke khusus
Dari bawah ke atas
Dari pinggir ke tengah
Manfaat Pertelaan
Memberikan gambaran tentang suatu tumbuhan yang kita maksud
Membantu dalam Identifikasi tumbuhan, terutama untuk tumbuhan yang belum teridentifikasi
Sebagai penyedia ciri-ciri taksonomi yang dapat digunakan untuk menyusun kunci identifikasi.
Membatasi suatu takson; dengan pertelaan suatu tumbuhan batasan suatu takson, seperti suku, marga
atau jenis dapat dengan jelas digambarkan
Sumber Data Pertelaan
Morfologi Anatomi
Sitologi Kimia
Palinologi Sekuen DNA
Embriologi
Contoh-contoh
Pertelaan Jenis
Pertelaan Kultivar
Pertelaan Palinologi
Pertelaan Anatomi
Kunci Identifikasi
1. Kunci Analisis:Kunci paralel (Bracketed Key), Kunci sejajar(Intended Key/ Yoked Key)
2. Kunci Perbandingan
3. Kartu berlubang
4. Kunci sinopsis (Synoptical key)
5. Program Komputer: DELTA (Description language for Taxonomy)
Contoh
SEL TUMBUHAN
Pada tahun 1838, Schleiden menunjukkan bahwa sel merupakan unit dasar (fundamental unit) dari
struktur tumbuhan.
Seluruh tumbuhan (The bodies) tersusun dari satu atau lebih dari unit dasar ini.
Setiap sel mengandung massa protoplasma yang mungkin memiliki atau tidak memiliki dinding sel
yang mengelilinginya
Protoplasma merupakan materi hidup, sedangkan bagian non protoplasmik terdiri atas vakuola dan
organel tak hidup (zat ergastik)
Protoplasmik:
(a) Cytoplasm, or the foamy, clear and granular-looking often granular matrix of protoplasm outside of
the nucleus.
(b) Nucleus or Nucleoplasm, a denser region of protoplasm containing chromatin, a substance staining
heavily with certain basic dyes.
(c) Nucleolus, a small body of dense protoplasm within the nucleus.
(d) Plastids, composed of plastid plasm, small discoid, spheroidal, ellipsoidal or ribbon-shaped bodies
scattered about in the cytoplasm.
In the cells of lower plants like the Spirogyra, plastids are large and are then called chromatophores.
Leucoplastids are colorless plastids found in the underground portions of a plant and also in seeds,
and other regions given up to the storage of starch. Their function is to build up reserve starch from
sugar and other carbohydrates as well as to change the reserve starch back into sugar when it is
needed for the growth of the plant.
Chloroplastids are plastids found in cells exposed to light and contain the green pigment,
chlorophyll.
Chromoplastids are plastids found in cells independent of their relation to light or darkness and
contain a yellow, orange or red pigment called chromophyll.
Non-Protoplasmik
Sugars comprise a group of crystalline substances found in the cell sap of many plants either free or
in combination with glucosides. They may be divided into two main groups: monosaccharoses and
disaccharoses.
Starch is a carbohydrate having the chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n which is generally found as
the first visible product of photosynthesis in most green plants. It is found in the chloroplasts and
chromatophores of green parts in the form of minute granules.
Dextrin is a carbohydrate made from starch (chiefly from corn or potato starch) by the application of
heat (yellow dextrin) or by treatment with both heat and acids (white dextrin).
Amylodextrin. This is a carbohydrate intermediate in properties between starch and dextrin. It occurs
in the form of small irregularly shaped granules
Inulin is a carbohydrate isomeric with starch which has the chemical formula of C12H20O10. It is
found dissolved in the cell sap of many plants, especially those of the Composite.
Hesperidin. Hesperidin is a glucoside having the chemical formula of C12H26O11 . Like inulin it
occurs in solution within the cell sap. It is found in abundance in the Rutaceae family but occurs in
many other plants.
Strophanthin. This is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of the endosperm of Strophanthus Kombe,
S. hispidus and other species of Strophanthus.
Salicin. Salicin is a glucoside occurring in the cell sap of the bark and leaves of the Willows and
Poplars.
Saponin, another glucoside, found in Soap Bark, Senega, Saponaria and other drugs.
Coniferin is a glucoside, occuring in the cell sap of the spruce, pine, and other plants of the Conifera
Digitoxin, a glucoside found in the leaves of Digitalis purpurea, is colored green with hydrochloric
acid.
Alkaloids, chemically, these are basic carbonaceous amines which like glucosides are products of
metabolism.
They undoubtedly serve as defensive agents in plants containing them on account of their bitter taste
and poisonous properties.
Gluco-alkaloids. These are compounds intermediate in nature between alkaloids and glucosides,
having characteristics of each.
To this group belongs solanine (C28H47NO11) which is found in Solanum nigrum, Solanum
Dulcamara, Solanum carolinense and other species of the Solanacea.
Asparagine (C4H8N2 + H2O). This is an amino compound of crystalline nature which occurs widely
in the plant kingdom.
It has been found in certain of the slime molds and fungi, in the roots of Alth&a officinalis and
Atropa belladonna, in young shoots of Asparagus, in the seeds of Castanea dentata, in the tubers of
Solanum tuberosum and varieties of Dahlia,
known to play an important part in metabolism.
Calcium Oxalate. This substance, occurs in many plants always in the form of crystals. It is
apparently formed by the reaction of salts of calcium, which have found their way into the cell sap
from the soil, with oxalic acid which is manufactured by the plant.
Cystoliths are clustered bodies formed by the thickening of the cell wall at a certain point and
subsequent ingrowth which latter forms a cellulose skeleton consisting of a stalk and body.
Silica (SiO2) occurs in a number of plants either as an incrustation in the cell wall as in Diatomsv the
Equisetinea and Graminea or more rarely in the form "silica bodies" such as are found in certain
Palms, Orchids and Tristicha.
Tannins are amorphous substances occurring in plants having an astringent taste. They occur in
greatest quantity in the bark of exogens, and in gall formations.
Proteins are complex nitrogenous substances forming the most important of the reserve foods of
plants. They are found in all the living and many of the dead cells of plants, although most abundant
in seeds.
Ex: globulins, albumens, glutelins, nudeins, and gliadins.
Aleurone grains are small bodies found in seeds particularly those containing oil, and like starch
grains often are characteristic of the genus or species.
Mucilages and gums are those substances occurring in plants which are soluble in water or swell in
it, and which are precipitated by alcohol.
Fixed Oils and Fats. These are fatty acid-esters of glycerin which are found in the vacuoles of cells or
formed with the cell walls
Volatile Oils. These are volatile odoriferous principles found in various parts of numerous plants
which arise either as a direct product of the protoplasm or through a decomposition of a layer of the
cell wall (“ resinogenous layer“)
Resins, Oleoresins, Gum Resins, and Balsams. These substances represent products of metabolism in
many plants which are formed either normally as a result of pathological processes through injury to
the plant tissues
They occur usually in special cavities such as secretion cells, glands, or secretion reservoirs.
Resins are insoluble in water but mostly soluble in alcohol. They combine with alkalies to form soap.
Many of them are oxidized oils of plants. Examples: Guaiacum, Resina.
Oleoresins are mixtures of oil and resin. Examples: Terebinthina,Terebinthina Canadensis.
Gum resins are natural compounds of resin, gum and oil. Examples: Asafcetida, Myrrha, Cambogia.
Balsams are mixtures of resins with cinnamic or benzoic acid or both and generally a volatile oil.
Examples: Balsamum Tolutanum, Styrax, Balsamum Peruvianum.
Pigments.These are substances which give color to various plant parts in which they are found. They
occur either in special protoplasmic structures, as chloroplasts, chromoplasts or chromatophores, or
dissolved in tjae cell sap.
Chlorophyll: is the yellowish-green pigment found in the chloroplastids or chromatophores of
leaves or other green parts of plants.
Chlorophyllin when examined spectroscopically produces absorption bands in the red, orange,
yellow and green of the spectrum, the broadest and most distinct band being in the red.
Chromophyll also called "xanthophyll" and "carotin" is the yellow or orange pigment found in
chromoplastids. By some the term carotin is limited to the orange pigment found in the carrot.
Etiolin is a pale yellow pigment which appears when green plants are kept for some time in
darkness. It is probably identical with xanthophyll.
Anthocyanins are applied to the blue, purple and red pigments which occur in the cell sap. The
character of the color is claimed to be due to the alkalinity or acidity of the cell sap.
Phycocyanin is the blue pigment found in the blue-green algae, associated with chlorophyll. It is
soluble in water.
Phycophaein is the brown pigment found in the brown algae.
Phycoerythrin is the red pigment found in many of the red algae.
Latex. This is an emulsion of varying composition and color found in special passages, as latex cells
and laticiferous vessels of many plants.
It may contain starch, sugar, proteid, oil, enzymes,tannins, alkaloids, gum, resins, caoutchouc and
mineral salts.
The color may be absent as in Oleander; whitish as in Asclepias, Papaver,Hevea, and Apocynum;
yellowish to orange as in Celandine, or red as in Sanguinaria.
Enzymes or ferment (according to Hepburn) is a soluble organic compound of biologic origin
functioning as a thermolabile catalyst in solution.
a catalyst as an agent which alters the rate of a reaction without itself entering into the final product,
or which does not appear to take any immediate part in the reaction, remains unaltered at the end of
the reaction and can be recovered again from the reaction product unaltered in quantity and quality.
JARINGAN TUMBUHAN
tissue is a group of cells similar in source, structure and function
The generative tissues are found in the growing apices of plant organs, such as root, stem and leaf apex
By the division and redivisions of their cells they give rise to the mature or adult tissues of plants.
1. Dermatogen originates epidermal tissue and derivative structures such as stomata, non- glandular
and glandular hairs, glands, and cork cambium.
2.Periblem originates cortex tissue, chlorophylloid cells (chlorenchyma), colloid cells (collenchyma),
strengthening cells (sclerenchyma), crystal cells (raphiderchyma) latex cells (lacterchyma),
endodermis and cork cambium.
3. Plerome originates fibre-vascular bundles, fundamental tissue, pericambium and cambium
MERISTEM
Embryonic tissue, is undifferentiated tissue composed of cells -in the state of rapid division
Found in the growing apices of roots, stems and leaves primary meristem, the first meristem to
appear
Found in other regions of plant organs such as the cambium, cork cambium and pericambium
secondary meristem, loses with its development the power of division and independent growth
PARENKIM
Fundamental Tissue is the soft tissue of plants, consisting of cells about equal in length, breadth and
thickness (isodiametric) with thin cellulose cell walls enclosing protoplasm and a nucleus and
frequently substances of a non-protoplasmic nature.
The four types of parenchyma:
Ordinary Parenchyma (Soft Ground Tissue, Fundamental Tissue). Next to the meristem this is the least
modified of all plant tissues.
Assimilation Parenchyma (Chlorophyll or Chromophyll Parenchyma, Chlorenchyma). Found in foliage
leaves, floral leaves, in the outer region of young green stems and fruits.
Conducting Parenchyma. This functions in the rapid translocation of food materials to distant regions in
the plant
Reserve Parenchyma. Found in seeds, fleshy roots, or underground stems such as tubers, corms, and
bulbs. Its cells being filled with starch, protein crystals, or oil globules
KOLENKIM
This form of tissue is characterized by its cells being prismatic, more elongated than ordinary
parenchyma, and thickened in their angles with a colloidal substance.
The cells contain protoplasm and a nucleus, and frequently chloroplasts
Generally found underneath the epidermis, and gives strength to that tissue, as the supporting and
strengthening tissue between the stronger veins and the epidermis.
SKLERENKIM
Stony tissue comprises a variety of supporting elements having thickened cell walls composed of
lignocellulose
Stone Cells, sclerenchyma that composed of cells which are more or less isodiametric or moderately
elongated, with thickened lignified walls and conspicuous pores . Distributed in fruits, seeds and barks
of many plants, rarely in woods
Scierenchyma fibers, sclerenchyma that composed of cells which are greatly elongated and more or less
obtusely or taper ended. Frequently spindle-shaped, contain air and exhibit oblique slits in their walls.
EPIDERMIS
The outer covering tissue of a plant and is protective in function. Its cells may be brick-shaped,
polygonal, equilateral or wavy in outline.
Their outer walls are frequently cutinized (infiltrated with a waxy-like substance called cutin)
Among the epidermal cells of leaves and young green stems may be found numerous pores or stomata
(sing, stoma) surrounded by guard cells.
Epidermal hairs or trichomes are more elongated outgrowths of one or more epidermal cells
The glandular hairs comprise those whose terminal cell or cells are modified into a more or less
globular gland for gummy, resinous or oily deposits.
Scales are flat outgrowths of the epidermis composed of one or several layers of cells
Plant hairs are adapted to many different purposes:
Absorb nourishment in the form of moisture and mineral matter in solution
a protection to the plant may be barbed and silicified, rendering them unfit for animal food
charged with an irritating fluid, penetrating the skin when touched, injecting the poison into the wound.
A dense covering of hairs also prevents the ravages of insects and the clogging of the stomata by an
accumulation of dust
ENDODERMIS
The "starch sheath" layer of cells, constituting the innermost layer of the cortex
Endodermal tissue is devoid of intercellular-air-spaces. Its cells contain protoplasm and nucleus. Its
functions seem to be to give protection to the stele (tissues within it) and to reduce permeability
between primary cortex and stele.
GABUS
Suberous tissue is composed of cells of tabular shape, whose walls possess suberized layers
Its cells are mostly filled with air containing a yellow or brownish substance. It is derived from the
phellogen or cork cambium which cuts off cork cells outwardly.
Cork tissue is devoid of intercellular-air-spaces. It forms a protective covering to the roots of secondary
growth, stems and wounds of stems and branches
Living cork cells contain protoplasm and cell sap while dead cork cells are filled with air.
LATICIFEROUS
All laticiferous elements contain a colorless, milky-white, or otherwise colored emulsion of gum-resins,
fat,, wax, coautchouc and in some cases, alkaloids, tannins, salts, ferments, etc. This emulsion is called
"latex."
Latex cells are elongated tubes which take their origin from meristematic cells of the embryo.
Elongating with the growth of the plant, they branch in various directions and traverse at maturity all of
its organs
Laticiferous vessels are long simple or branching tubes, which owe their origin to chains of
superimposed cells whose transverse walls have early become absorbed, the lumina of the cells then
becoming filled with latex; They are found in various parts of roots, stems, and leaves. When branched
the branches Connect with those of other tubes forming anastomosing network
Secretory cells with a latex-like content are probably of secondary origin in plants. They resemble in
many respects latex cells
JARINGAN SIEVE (LEPTOME OR CRIBIFORM)
Found in the phloem (rarely in the xylem) region of fibro-vascular bundles consists of superimposed,
elongated, tubular cells whose longitudinal walls are thin and composed of cellulose and whose
transveise walls, called "sieve plates," are perforated, permitting of the passage of proteids from one cell
to another.
JARINGAN TRAKEA
Comprises two kinds of elements, the trachea (ducts or vessels) and tracheids. Both of these conduct
crude sap (water with mineral salts in solution)
The trachea are very long tubes of a cylindrical or prismatic shape which are formed by the
disintegration of the transverse walls between certain groups of superimposed cells, during the growth
of the plant.
Tracheae are classified according to their markings as annular, spiral, reticulate, porous or pitted
annulo-spiral, scalariform
Tracheids are undeveloped ducts having bordered pores and frequently scalariform thickenings
The bordered pores of coniferous tracheids exhibit a wall surrounding the pore which forms a dome
shaped protrusion into the cell
MEDULLARY RAYS
These are bands of parenchyma cells which extend radially from the cortex to the pith (primary
medullary rays) or from a part of the xylem to & part of the phloem (secondary medullary rays).
In tangential-longitudinal sections they usually appear spindle shaped 'while in radial-longitudinal
sections they are seen crossing the other elements.
Their primary function is to supply the cambium and wood with elaborated sap formed in the leaves and
conveyed away by the sieve tubes, and phloem parenchyma and to supply the cambium and phloem
with crude sap which passes up mainly through the tracheae and tracheids from the absorptive regions
of the roots.
They furthermore serve as storage places for starch, alkaloids, resins, and other substances
FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES
Groups of fibers, vessels and cells coursing through the various organs of a plant and serving for
conduction and support
Xylem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains wood cells and fibers. It may also contain
tracheae, tracheids, seldom sieve tubes.
Phloem is that part of a fibro-vascular bundle that contains sieve tubes, phloem cells, and often bast
fibers.
a. Closed collateral, consisting of a mass of xylern lying alongside of a mass of phloem, the xylem
facing toward the center, the phloem facing toward the exterior.
b. Open collateral, consisting of a mass of xylem facing toward the pith and a mass of phloem facing
toward the exterior and separated from each other by a cambium
c. Bicollateral, characterized by a xylem mass being between an inner and an outer phloem mass.
There are two layers of cambium cells, one between the xylem and inner phloem mass, the other
between the xylem and outer phloem mass.
d. Concentric, characterized by a central xylem mass surrounded by a phloem mass or vice versa. No
cambium present.
e. Radial, characterized by a number of xylem and phloem masses alternating with one another
SECRETION SACS
These were formerly parenchyma cells which sooner or later lost their protoplasm and nucleus and
became receptacles for oil, resin, oleoresin, mucilage or some other secretory substance.
Found in parenchyma regions of stems, roots, leaves, flower or fruit parts and frequently possess
suberized walls
INTERCELLULAR AIR SPACES
Cavities filled with air found between cells or groups of cells throughout the bodies of higher plants
Their function is to permit of the rapid movement of atmospheric gases through the entire plant body
They are formed either by the breaking down of the middle lamella of the cell walls, where several cells
come together, and a later separation of the cells at these places (Schizogenous intercellular- air-spaces),
or by a breaking down and disappearance of cell walls common to groups of cells (lysigenous
intercellular-air-spaces). In terrestrial plants which live in middle regions (mesophytes) and in desert
plants (xerophytes) the intercellular- air-spaces are averagely small and more or less angular
In plants of swamp or marsh habit they are medium-sized, while in those which live entirely in the
water (hydrophytes) they are of large size and more or less rounded.
SECRETION RESERVOIRS
Internal glands, found as globular or irregular spaces, containing oil or oil and resin
Secretion canals or reservoir, as tube-like spaces filled with hydrocarbon principles
They are generally lined with epithelium, a layer of cells, usually more or less flattened, which are
characterized by possessing large nuclei
KLASIFIKASI JARINGAN BERDASARKAN FUNGSINYA