Penerapan Teknologi Reverse Osmosis

untuk Penyediaan Air Bersih dari Air Laut

Disusun oleh:
TESHA YUHANI ANDYCHRISTI

Mata Kuliah: Proses Pemisahan

Dosen Pengampu: Dr. Ir. Hargono, MT

PROGRAM MAGISTER TEKNIK KIMIA

FAKULTAS TEKNIK
UNIVERSITAS DIPONEGORO
2019
 KATA PENGANTAR

Makalah berjudul Penerapan Teknologi Reverse Osmosis untuk Penyediaan Air

Bersih dari Air Laut ini ditujukan untuk memenuhi tugas mata kuliah Proses Pemisahan di
Program Magister Teknik Kimia Universitas Diponegoro Semarang.

Penyusun menyampaikan rasa syukur yang kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa atas segala
rahmat yang telah diberikan oleh-Nya, sehingga penyusun mampu menyelesaikan makalah ini.
Penyusun juga mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Dr. Ir. Hargono, MT selaku dosen pengampu
mata kuliah yang senantiasa mencurahkan segenap waktu dan tenaganya untuk terlibat
langsung serta memberi berbagai nasihat yang membangun dalam penyusunan makalah ini.
Rasa terima kasih juga penyusun berikan kepada teman-teman dan pihak-pihak yang telah
membantu, baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung atas pembuatan makalah ini.

Penyusun tentu menyadari bahwa makalah ini masih jauh dari kesempurnaan, oleh
karena itu kritik dan saran sangat diharapkan dari berbagai pihak yang membaca makalah ini.
Penulis juga memohon maaf apabila terdapat banyak kesalahan pada makalah ini. Penulis
berharap semoga makalah ini dapat bermanfaat. Terima kasih.

Semarang, 22 Mei 2019

Penyusun
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Water is now one of the leading challenges globally that should be of everyone's
concern. Water is crucial to all living things for various purposes, from supporting basic daily
needs to maintaining the function of ecosystems. Poor water supply—both in quality and
quantity—directly impacts many aspects of human health and survival. Water is a renewable
natural resource, but the demand for clean water continues to exceed the sustainable supply all
over the world. As time goes by, the world population and water consumption continue to
increase, and therefore, water demand is becoming increasingly difficult to fulfil. Data
collected by the UN (United Nations, 2017) shows that the population count grows at a rate of
1 to 2% annually, which is equal to an addition of roughly 80 million each year. Moreover,
modernization and urbanization led to large consumption patterns and uncontrollable
environmental pollution, reducing the availability of water supply. This cultural evolution,
along with the unavoidable climate change, altogether explain why water scarcity is a serious
threat and could cause the next global crisis.

Water covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface, but the oceans hold 97% of the Earth’s
water in the form of seawater with amount of salt—more commonly referred as salinity level—
that is too high to be directly sourced for human needs, leaving only 3% representing the
amount of freshwater. However, most of this amount is either locked up in glaciers and ice
caps or stored underground beneath the land surface. Accessible surface sources for freshwater
such as rivers and lakes, which have been the main source for community water systems, only
account for around 0.3% of the world’s freshwater resources. Furthermore, the small supply is
not evenly distributed across the planet; in fact, the World Health Organization (2018) reported
that water scarcity already affects 4 out of 10 people and this number is projected to rise. Lack
of infrastructure and adverse climatic conditions further limit access to clean and safe water in
some parts of the world, while improper management of wastewater treatment and disposal
results to many resources not reaching their full potential.

Understanding the core issues and how human water consumption impacts the
communities are only the initial steps. While there are continuous campaigns to raise the
awareness of individuals on water conservation, expanding the availability of water supply by
finding alternatives to water resources and exploring current technology available may reveal
the potential in improving the community water supply.

1.2. Aim and Objectives

This piece of writing is intended to identify current knowledge on reverse osmosis as a

technology to allow the provision of clean and safe water supply from seawater. It evaluates
the potential of seawater as a sustainable water resource, discusses the mechanism of reverse
osmosis as a way to separate particles suspended in a solution and how it could be an approach
to expand the availability of good water supply for community water systems.
 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

2.1. Seawater as a potential resource for human water supply

This subchapter discusses the properties of seawater and its main composition, as an
aid to evaluate and determine its potential as a sustainable water resource.

2.1.1. Seawater composition and properties

Aside from all the components of marine ecosystems and a variety of pollutants as an
effect of human activities, seawater itself is a complex mixture of many different substances
that makes it unsuitable for direct usage and consumption. Although the pH of seawater
typically falls between the acceptable range—between 6.5 and 8.5— for freshwater, the salinity
level of seawater has been observed to range from 3.4 to 3.7% (Mackenzie, Byrne & Duxbury,
2011), in contrast to freshwater which is defined to contain less than 0.05% dissolved salts
(New World Encyclopedia, 2017; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2017).
Seawater with 3.5% salinity level has a density of 1.023 g/mL at a temperature of 25 ℃ and
pressure of 1 atm, which is denser than the density of pure water of 0.997 g/mL under the same
temperature and pressure conditions. This suggests that the dissolved salts increase the mass
by a larger proportion than the volume. The chemical composition of seawater is influenced by
a wide variety of chemical transport mechanisms, but the concentrations of the principal
inorganic constituents are typically quite constant, which is shown in Table 2.1.1 below.

Table 2.1.1 Major constituents of seawater with 3.5% salinity (Mackenzie, Byrne & Duxbury, 2011)

Ionic Component Percentage by mass

Chloride (Cl-) 1.9162
Sodium (Na+) 1.0679
Sulphate (SO42-) 0.2680
Magnesium (Mg2+) 0.1278
Calcium (Ca2+) 0.0410
Potassium (K+) 0.0395
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 0.0140
Bromide (Br-) 0.0066
 Seawater also contains many elements such as zinc, phosphorus and nitrogen, that are
of great importance to the sustainability of marine life. In addition to the various chemical
composition, seawater also holds a great diversity of microbial species. Marine Biological
Laboratory (2006) reported that extensive molecular studies have found more than 500,000
different kinds of microorganisms in the oceans. A number of the bacteria and viruses found
are known to be pathogenic, and some of the microbes are known for their survival in extreme
environments. The pathogens of concern are associated with a wide range of diseases, from
gastrointestinal illnesses and respiratory infections to hepatitis and meningitis (Griffin,
Donaldson, Paul & Rose, 2003; Lee & Eom, 2016).

2.1.2. Human water needs

Water plays a significant role in the daily activities of people all over the world, for
individual and household purposes—which surprisingly only account for about 10% of the
water consumption worldwide—as well as for non-domestic uses at a larger scale. The
agriculture sector, which accounts for around 70%, uses water for irrigation of crops and the
livestock, which are all the resources for human food needs. The industrial sector, which
accounts for roughly 20%, withdraws water for manufacturing purposes such as washing,
processing and cooling, as well as for sanitation needs within the facility. Freshwater resources
are the main, or the only significant, provider for all the human water needs. Besides the typical
characteristics of clean water such as clarity with no apparent physical contaminants and low
concentrations of total dissolved solids, the standards for water quality vary between the
intended purposes. Water for drinking purpose undergoes strict and extensive processing such
as distillation and multiple stages of filtration to eliminate any microbiological and chemical
hazard as well as to achieve acceptable sensory profile while ensuring the amount of dissolved
oxygen at a certain level (Environmental Protection Agency, 2018). On the other hand, the
standards for irrigation water generally concern for trace elements, such as aluminium and zinc,
and salinity level to maintain crop quality (Enderlein, Enderlein & Williams, 1997).
2.2. Reverse Osmosis – a separation process technology

This subchapter discusses the principle and mechanism of Reverse Osmosis, along with
its current application as a technology to separate solutes from a solution.

2.2.1. Osmosis

Osmosis is the natural movement of solvent molecules from a low-concentrated or

diluted solution to a high-concentrated solution, through a semi-permeable barrier called
membrane, as shown in Figure 2.2.1 below. The membrane separating the two solutions acts
as a selective medium that allows solvent molecules to pass through while retaining solute
particles at the same time (Oyewo et al., 2018). Osmosis is a natural phenomenon that happens
spontaneously regardless of the type of solution, caused by the difference in osmotic pressure
between the two solutions on both sides of the membrane (Augustyn, 2019).

Semi-permeable membrane

Solute molecule (salt)

Movement of solvent molecules (water)

Diluted Solution Concentrated Solution

Figure 2.2.1 Osmosis between saline solutions: the movement of water molecules from solution
with a low amount of dissolved salts (diluted solution) to solution with a higher amount of
dissolved salts (concentrated solution)

Osmotic pressure is the amount of force required by a solution to resist the movement
of molecules from other solutions into that solution, which is equal to the amount of repulsive
force caused by solute molecules against the surface of the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a
colligative property, which means that it depends on the concentration of a solution and not on
the nature of the substance contained in the solution (Nasr & Sewilam, 2018). Figure 2.2.1
above illustrates a process of osmosis occurring between two saline solutions containing
different amount of salt, separated by a membrane barrier. The membrane has pores which are
too small for salt molecules to pass through, leaving it permeable only for water molecules.
Diluted solutions only have few solutes that are repelling against the membrane surface, and
hence, solvent molecules from these solutions are freer to move across the membrane as
compared to solutions with higher concentrations (Muralikrishna & Manickam, 2017).
Conversely, concentrated solutions have many solutes that inhibit the movement of their
solvent fluids, so that the transfer of solvent molecules towards the more diluted solution
becomes limited. In Figure 2.2.1, the difference in salt concentration drives the water molecules
from the diluted solution to travel across the membrane towards the more concentrated
solution. In other words, an osmosis process tends to balance out the concentration difference
between the two solutions on both sides of the membrane (Shen & Hankins, 2016).

The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to its amount of solutes and inversely
proportional to its amount of solvent molecules, and therefore, concentrated solutions can be
stated to have high osmotic pressure whereas diluted solutions have low osmotic pressure. In
short, solvent molecules move from solutions with low osmotic pressure to solutions with
higher osmotic pressure in each osmosis process. The osmotic pressure of a solution indicates
the tendency of that solution to allow the inflow of solvent molecules from other solutions. The
difference in osmotic pressure between two solutions encourages osmosis to occur and
continue until an equilibrium is reached, i.e. when the concentration of the solution on both
sides of the membrane becomes the same (Kuban & Bocek, 2017; Oyewo et al., 2018).

As previously explained, the osmotic pressure of a solution is related to the movement

of its solute molecules, which is influenced by the molarity or amount of the solute molecules
present in the solution at a specific volume. Because molecules move faster in the presence of
heat, the temperature condition of a solution also affects the osmotic pressure of that solution.
Therefore, the osmotic pressure of a solution can be calculated using the following formula:

𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝝅= = 𝑴𝑹𝑻
𝑽

𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (8.314 𝐽⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑢 0.082 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 )

𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐾

𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿

𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (8.314 𝐽⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑢 0.082 𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 )

𝑛
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉
 2.2.2. Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis (RO), as its name suggests, is a process of osmosis in reverse. It is a

technology that employs an external pressure to overcome osmotic pressure and reverse the
natural osmotic flow of a solution, as shown in Figure 2.2.2. The amount of external pressure
used must exceed the existing osmotic pressure so that it can encourage the movement of
solvent molecules from a concentrated solution to a more diluted solution (Oyewo et al., 2018).
Therefore, the process of RO tends to create a difference in the concentration or amount of
dissolved substances in the two solutions on both sides of the membrane. There is a continuous
increase of the concentration difference between two solutions during an RO process as
external pressure is applied—until there is an equilibrium between the amount of external
pressure and osmotic pressure present. This mechanism is in contrary to the principle of
ordinary osmosis, which tends to equalize the concentration between the two solutions.

OSMOSIS

Diluted Solution Concentrated Solution Balanced Concentration

External
Pressure

REVERSE

Diluted Solution Concentrated Solution Reversed flow

Figure 2.2.2 A comparison between the mechanisms of osmosis and reverse osmosis on two
saline solutions with different concentrations

In an RO system, the external pressure applied allows the movement of solvent

molecules from a concentrated solution to the other side of the membrane while keeping the
majority, if not all, of dissolved components on the origin side (Muralikrishna & Manickam,
2017). Figure 2.2.2 above shows that the applied pressure counteracts the osmotic pressure
present in the concentrated solution, subsequently reversing the initial direction of flow of
water molecules, thus allowing the passage of water molecules from the concentrated solution
to the diluted solution on the other side of the membrane (Fotouhi & Kresic, 2010). Meanwhile,
the nature of the membrane material selectively inhibits the transfer of the dissolved salts,
causing the salt to be filtered out and separated from the solution passing through the
membrane. Therefore, a solution that undergoes an RO process will have a lower concentration
or even become pure after passing through the membrane, depending on the degree of
permeability of the membrane material (Oyewo et al., 2018). The types of membranes mainly
used for RO systems are cellulose acetate, thin-film composite and aromatic polyamide
(Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper, 2019).

The mechanism of RO that separates dissolved solutes from a solution allows its
application as a purification method to obtain solvent molecules from a solution (Youcai,
2018). Both the amount of external pressure used and the degree of solution concentration
determine the yield of an RO process (Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper, 2019). Most, if not all,
solvent molecules of slightly concentrated solutions can easily be extorted out through RO
using relatively low external pressure, whereas highly concentrated solutions exhibit rather
high osmotic pressure, thus requiring a substantial amount of external pressure for an RO to
occur and run effectively. Meanwhile, RO has also been widely used to reduce the volume of
a solution and produce a concentrated solution or an extract of the dissolved solids, depending
on the extent of the expulsion of solvent molecules out of that solution (Fotouhi & Kresic,
2010). In short, RO is a form of a separation process that separates the dissolved solutes as well
as the solvent molecules from a solution. The desired product may be a concentrate of the
particles suspended in that solution or the solvents in pure form, and hence RO is useful for
various types of applications. RO has been used extensively as a unit operation in drinking
water production and wastewater treatment for disposal and recycling, as well as a part of food
processing for the manufacturing of milk protein powder and fruit juice concentrates.

Besides a semi-permeable membrane and pressure pump, a typical RO system also has
a filtration system, an automated control system for operation under specific operating
conditions, and a drain line to remove the unwanted materials from the intended RO process.
As shown in Figure 2.2.3 below, an RO process generally comprises the pre-filtration, the
membrane filtration and the post-filtration (Muralikrishna & Manickam, 2017). First, pre-
filtration as a pretreatment, which usually consists of at least two stages using at least two
different types of filters, eliminates any impurities that could potentially clog the membrane
and damage the system (Fotouhi & Kresic, 2010; Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper, 2019). Next,
the RO process takes place at the membrane filtration stage, in which the system feeds a
concentrated solution on one side of the membrane and applies pressure generated at a certain
extent onto that solution. Then, the post-filtration stage enables the desired product to be further
filtered, for the benefit of improving the product quality. Finally, the final product is collected
from either one or both side(s) of the membrane, depending on the desired end product, whereas
the drain line allows the removal of materials rejected throughout the process.

Figure 2.2.3 Typical installation of Reverse Osmosis water purification system for domestic use (H2O
Distributors, 2019)
2.3. Reverse Osmosis for seawater treatment

This subchapter discusses the application of Reverse Osmosis for seawater treatment
and purification as an approach to increase the availability of sustainable water resources.

2.3.1. Reverse Osmosis system for the purpose of seawater purification

Reverse Osmosis (RO) has been used consistently as a water purification method for
both household and large-scale uses. The process itself provides a way to remove water
contaminants without employing chemicals that can be hazardous or requiring heat for water
phase changes that can be costly in term of energy consumption. Nevertheless, an RO system
is quite a complex and integrated structure of several components and key factors all
interconnecting to build its versatile functionality. It is necessary to develop a proper
understanding of the mechanism to apply the technology effectively and maximize its potential,
one of which is for seawater treatment.

RO is one of the methods commonly used for desalination, a process of removing

dissolved salts from seawater. However, this technology has not been considered as the primary
approach to acquire a good water supply from water resources with relatively high amount of
impurities such as seawater. As opposed to other forms of water supply, seawater desalination
intrinsically consumes a considerable amount of energy because the salinity level determines
the amount of energy required. The minimum amount of energy needed for the desalination of
seawater with 3.5% salinity level and typical water recovery of 50% is 1.06 kWh/m3
theoretically, whereas the actual value could reach up to 6.00 kWh/m3 (Avlonitis, Kouroumbas
& Vlachakis, 2003; Elimelech & Phillip, 2011). However, Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper (2019)
made a thorough comparison between RO and several distillation methods and deduced that
although RO system consumes a slightly higher electrical energy to generate enough pressure
for its process, the distillation methods also require a substantial amount of thermal energy,
thus surpassing the total energy requirements. Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper indicated that the
pressure pumps for RO desalination units need to work at 50 to 80 bar for seawater desalination.

As a membrane-based technology, the quality characteristics of membrane material

used significantly affects the performance of the RO process. In general, the membranes used
in an RO system have a pore size in the range of 0.01 to 0.0001 microns as shown in Figure
2.3.1 below, and hence even ionic compounds such as dissolved salts and toxic trace metals
can be removed out of a solution effectively. As a reference of the relative size of common
contaminants, the average size of bacterial cells is 1 micron and viruses are typically 0.1
microns in size.

Figure 2.3.1 Reverse Osmosis among other membrane filtration technologies (Aqua Clear, 2009)

The membranes typically used for seawater desalination are thin-film composite (TFC)
membranes, as TFC provides the highest rejection rate of organic contaminants—
approximately above 90%—and the highest recovery yield as well as performing well over a
wide range of pH (Fotouhi & Kresic, 2010; Rabiee, Khalilpour & Tapper, 2019). However,
TFC membranes are known for their incompatibility with chemical oxidants, which may be
used for pretreatment. Another limitation of RO membranes is their susceptibility to scaling
and fouling, which is a significant issue in particular to the application for seawater, as it
contains many different minerals and colloids as well as various biological particles (Kress,
2019).

Typical reverse osmosis system for seawater treatment needs extensive pretreatment to
protect the membranes, as shown in Figure 2.3.2 below. The pretreatment generally consists of
screening of visible solids within the water, polypropylene cartridge filtration to remove
microparticles and also the addition of chemicals for various purposes (Greenlee et al., 2009).
Chlorine is added for its antibacterial properties and bisulfites are then used to neutralize the
chlorine, whereas antiscalants and biofouling inhibitors are necessary to prevent membrane
deterioration. The pH and hardness of the seawater may also need some adjustments to
minimize the scaling tendency.

Figure 2.3.2 Reverse Osmosis desalination unit (Tampa Bay Water, 2019)

Aside from the plant capital cost and the operational cost—which Kress (2019) reported
being comparable to those of thermal processes—the maintenance cost is also an important
measure in deeming the sustainability of RO technology for long-term management of the ever-
growing water demand. The upkeep cost for RO units has been reported to be higher than other
technologies, which is mainly for regular membrane replacements (Oyewo et al., 2018; Rabiee,
Khalilpour & Tapper, 2019). This further indicates the significance of pre-filtration stage in
improving the effectiveness of an RO desalination unit.
 CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Reverse Osmosis (RO) still holds great potential as a water purification technology,
especially for the purpose of seawater desalination. Desalination is a viable solution to convert
the abundance of seawater into a sustainable water resource, as an approach to increase the
availability of clean and safe water supply for the community. There is still some knowledge
gap, and hence, further research in the area is highly encouraged to find new ways to maximize
the efficiency of the process.
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