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JournalofBusinessResearchxxx (xxxx) xxx-xxx

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Journal of
Business Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres

masa CEO dan perusahaan kinerja tanggung jawab sosial☆


Wanyu (Tina) Chensebuah,Gaoguang (Stephen) Zhoub,Xindong (Kevin) Zhuc,⁎
sebuah
DEPARTEMEN Akuntansi, Hong Kong Shue YAN University, Hong Kong, CINA
b
Departemen AKUNTANSI DAN HUKUM, Hong Kong BAPTIST University, Hong Kong, CINA
c
Departemen AKUNTANSI, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, CINA

ARTICLEINFO
ABSTRAK

JEL KLASIFIKASI:
Dalam penelitian ini, kami memeriksa apakah dan
G34 M14 M52
bagaimana masa CEO sebuahffects fikinerja tanggung jawab
Kata kunci: sosial perusahaan (CSR) rms. Menggunakan sampelAS
penguasaan CEO perusahaanuntuk 1999-2013 periode, kami mendapatibahwa
Tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan Karir menyangkut firms' kinerja CSR adalah secarasignifikanlebih tinggi di CEO
Karir cakrawala
masa awal daripada di masa nanti mereka. Kami juga
mendapatibahwa hubungan antara kepemilikan CEO dan
kinerja CSR lebih kuat ketika papan lebih independen dan
CEO memiliki masa kerja lebih lama diharapkan, mendukung
kedua interpretasi sinyal dari hipotesis kekhawatiran karir
dan hipotesis cakrawala karir. Konsisten dengan tren
peningkatan kesadaran akan pentingnya CSR, kami
mendapatibahwa hubungan antara kepemilikan CEO dan
kinerja CSR telah menjadi lebihsignifikandalam beberapa
tahun terakhir. Akhirnya, kami menunjukkan bahwa kinerja
CSR yang lebih baik dalam masa jabatan awal CEO dikaitkan
dengan kemungkinan pergantian CEO yang lebih rendah,
menunjukkan bahwa komitmen terhadap CSR selama masa
awal CEO dapat memungkinkan mereka untuk mengurangi
masalah karir.

1. Pengantar CSR kinerja.


Kepemilikan CEO memilikisignifikanyangimplikasi untuk
Karena pertumbuhan ekspektasi stakeholders' dalam perusahaan.operasi Pada tahap awal masa jabatan CEO, baik
beberapa dekade terakhir, tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan dewan direksi dan pasar tidak yakin tentang kemampuan
(CSR) telah menjadi pertimbangan bisnis utama bagi banyak CEO, yang mengarah ke masalah karir (Gibbon& Murphy,
perusahaan-perusahaan.Sebagai contoh, diperkirakan 15 miliar 1992; Holmstrom, 1982). Sebagai CEO dengan kinerja yang
dolar AS diinvestasikan dalam filantropi olehAS yang besar lebih baik di awal masa jabatan mereka cenderung untuk
perusahaanpada tahun 2010(Di Giuli & Kostovetsky, 2014). menikmati masamanfaat,termasuk lebih besar kompensasi
Perusahaan kinerja CSR juga telah menerima pengawasan masa depan, reappointments, dan otonomi yang lebih besar
luar biasa dari berbagai pihak, termasuk media massa, dana (misalnya, Fama,1980; Hermalin & Weisbach,1998),mereka
investasi bertanggung jawab sosial, dan pihak Peringkat memiliki insentif yang kuat untuk sinyal unggul kemampuan
seperti MSCI (yaitu, KLD), yang dapat secarasignifikanffect pada tahap ini. Selain itu, CEO awal-masa memiliki
firms' reputasi dan opera- tion. Namun demikian, perusahaan- cakrawala lebih lama dan dengan demikian memiliki insentif
perusahaankinerja CSR terus bervariasi, yang telah mendorong yang kuat untuk melaksanakan proyek-proyek investasi
sejumlah studi menyelidiki faktor penentu firms' komitmen jangka panjang karena mereka dapat memetikmanfaatdari
CSR. Salah satu untai studi telah menunjukkan bahwa investasi ini pada tahap berikutnya masa jabatan mereka.
suatuCEO perusahaan memilikisignifikaneffect pada proses CSR; Akibatnya, CEO memiliki dua insentif yang berbeda di masa
Oleh karena itu, keragaman CEO karakteristik dan insentif awal mereka: sinyal untuk mengurangi kekhawatiran karir
memberikan penjelasan yang kuat untuk variasi firms' kinerja dan investasi untuk mendapatkan masa
CSR (misalnya, Hambrick & Mason, 1984; Donaldson, 1999; depanmanfaatkemudian dalam masa jabatan mereka.
McGuire, Dow, & Argheyd, 2003; Tukang kayu, Geletkanycz, & Sementara CEO cenderung diflmakan laba untuk sinyal
Sanders, 2004; Deckop, Merriman, & Gupta, 2006; Dagu, kemampuan mereka dalam tahap awal masa jabatan mereka
Hambrick, & Treviño, 2013: Di Giuli & Kostovetsky, 2014; untuk meringankan kekhawatiran karir(Ali&
Tang, Qian, Chen, & Shen, 2015; McCarthy, Oliver, & Lagu,
Zhang,2015),pengetahuan kita tentang apakah kemungkinan
2017). Ad- penelitian ini vances baris ini penyelidikan dengan
ini dapat diterapkan untuk CSR terbatas, dan hasilnya
menyediakan analisis yang komprehensif tentang bagaimana
Campuran.1 Selain itu, penelitian tidak secara eksplisit
masa CEO, dimensi penting dari karakteristik CEO,
menguji dua insentif ini untuk CSR sebagai nyarankan-
sebuahffects
gested oleh literatur masa CEO dan belum diuji apakah
strategi ini adalah effefektif. Oleh karena itu, kami tidak
mengetahui motif CEO untuk terlibat dalam CSR di awal
masa jabatan mereka. Kami bertujuan untuk fill kekosongan
ini dengan


ConflIkmenarik: none untuk semua penulis.
kan
Penulis koresponden di: 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
SUREL ALAMAT: wychen@hksyu.edu (WT Chen), stephenzhou@hkbu.edu.hk (GS Zhou), xindozhu@cityu.edu.hk (XK Zhu).
1
Misalnya, Fabrizi, Mallin, dan Michelon (2014) meneliti hanya dua tahun masa jabatan CEO dan mendapati bahwaperusahaan dengan yang masuk
(berangkat) CEO memiliki (lemah) kinerja CSR yang kuat. Oh dkk.(2014),bagaimanapun, menunjukkan bahwa hubungan antara umur CEO dan
kinerja CSR adalahsignifikan.tidak

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.018
Diterima 19 Juli 2017; Diterima dalam bentuk revisi 14 Agustus 2018; Diterima 17 Agustus 2018
0148-2963/©2018ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.

Pleasecitethisarticleas:Chen,W.T.,JournalofBusinessResearch(2018),https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.08.018
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26

WT Chen dkk . JourNAlofBusinessReseSEBUAHrchxxx (xxxx) xxx-


xxx

memeriksa effect kepemilikan CEO pada kinerja CSR. fikinerja keuangandalam literatur, setelah menganalisis sekitar
Studi telah menunjukkan bahwa dalam perusahaanCSR 2200 studi, Friede, Busch, dan Bassen (2015) cludes con-
pengaturan dapat dilihat sebagai investasi atau mekanisme bahwa mayoritas (sekitar 90%) find baik positif effect atau,
signaling.2 Teori stakeholder CSR menunjukkan bahwa CSR minimal, tidak ada effect CSR terhadap keuangan.kinerja3 Dalam
yang dapat dilihat sebagai investasi, karena CSR dapat studi ini, kami juga find secarasignifikanhubungan positif antara
berfungsi untuk memenuhi harapan pemangku kepentingan, CSR dan fi- kinerja keuangan berdasarkan sampel kami,
yang pada gilirannya memberikan penghargaan firm dengan memberikan dukungan tambahan untuk Friede et al. (2015).4
meningkatkan kinerja di masa mendatang (misalnya, Dengan demikian, masuk akal untuk mengharapkan bahwa
Bhardwaj, Chatterjee, Demir, & Turut, 2018; Freeman, 1984; CEO menganggap CSR sebagai aktivitas bernilai tambah.
Harga & Minggu, 2017; Kayu, 1991). Meskipun hasil empiris Sementara CEO dapat mengelola pendapatan di awal masa
meyakinkan mengenai hubungan antara CSR danperusahaan jabatan mereka, ketika dewan direksi mengevaluasi mereka
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
berdasarkan finansialkinerja(Ali& Zhang,2015),CEO mungkin Siegel, 2000; Orlitzky, Schmidt, & Rynes, 2003), CEO memiliki
juga aktif terlibat dalam CSR karena CSR adalah kriteria insentif yang kuat untuk berinvestasi dalam CSR di awal masa
evaluasi penting (misalnya, Chiu & Sharfman, 2016; Hong, jabatan mereka karena mereka dapat menuai yangmanfaatdari
Li, & Minor, 2016; Hubbard, Christensen, & GraFFIn,2017)dan CSR pada tahap berikutnya kepemilikan mereka.(KARIR
bisa sinyal kemampuan mereka(Lys, Naughton, & Wang, hipotesishorizon) Kedua effects kolektif menyiratkan hubungan
2015; Spence, 1973; Stiglitz, 2000). Selain itu, karena di negatif antara kepemilikan CEO dan kinerja CSR.
hubungan paling non-negatif antara CSR dan fi- Untuk lebih memahami bagaimana masa CEO sebuahffects
kinerja(.Friede et al,2015)keuangan,terlibat dalam CSR CSR kinerja, kita lebih mengeksplorasi dua saluran terpisah
kekhawatiran karir Mengurangi tidak selalu menghasilkan yang disarankan oleh potheses hy-. Melakukan hal membantu
pendapatan yang lebih rendah dalam konteks yang sama(Ali& Menguraikan ini dua effects, yang belum diperiksa dalam studi
Zhang , 2015).5 Oleh karena itu, kami berpendapat bahwa CSR. Karena dewan dengan independensi yang lebih besar
CEO dapat menggunakan kinerja CSR sebagai sinyal untuk cenderung memecat CEO dengan kinerja buruk (misalnya,
mengurangi kekhawatiran karir di masa awal mereka ( KARIR Hermalin & Weisbach, 1998), masalah perhatian karir lebih
hipotesis perhatian). Karena CSR dianalogikan dengan investasi akut ketika dewan lebih mandiri. Menanggapi dewan yang
jangka panjang (misalnya, Mahapatra, 1984; McWilliams & lebih independen, CEO memiliki insentif yang lebih kuat di
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
awal masa jabatan mereka untuk mengurangi masalah karir CEO dan kinerja CSR setelah mengontrol berbagai CEO
dengan mengirimkan sinyal. Oleh karena itu, hubungan yang karakteristik dan determinan lain yang didokumentasikan
lebih kuat antara kepemilikan CEO dan kinerja CSR di dalam studi sebelumnya. Dalam hal ekonomisignifikansi,kami
perusahaan-perusahaandengan papan lebih mandiri mendukung mendapatibahwa peningkatan deviasi satu-standar-di LNTENURE
hipotesis kekhawatiran karir. Hipotesis cakrawala karir (logaritma natural dari jabatan CEO)
menunjukkan bahwa panjang CEO diharapkan
kerjasebuahffECTS insentif mereka untuk terlibat dalam CSR
di awal masa jabatan mereka. Oleh karena itu, kami
mengharapkansignificantly kuat effect kepemilikan CEO pada 2
Lys dkk. (2015) memberikan diskusi yang sangat baik dari different
kinerja CSR ketika CEO memilikilebih lama masa dilihat dari CSR.
kerjadiharapkan. menyebabkan penurunan CSRP (CSR performance) sebesar
Kami memeriksa pertanyaan penelitian tersebut 7,18%.6 Lisis ana- lebih lanjut menunjukkanyang fikinerja
berdasarkan sampel dariAS perusahaanuntuk periode 1999 CSRrms' lebih baik di tahun-tahun awal layanan CEO,
sampai 2013. Konsisten dengan hipotesis utama kami, kami
terutama di kedua dan ketiga tahun, dibandingkan dengan
mendapatisebuah signifihubungan cantly negatif be- masa tween
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
tahun kemudian. Selain itu, hasil kami menunjukkan bahwa komitmen terhadap CSR di awal masa jabatan mereka dapat
hubungan negatif antara kinerja CSR dan kepemilikan CEO memungkinkan CEO untuk mengurangi masalah karir.
lebihsignifikandalam beberapa tahun terakhir, menunjukkan Studi kami membuat beberapa kontribusi untuk literatur.
Pertama,
bahwa CEO awal-masa terlibat dalam CSR lebih aktif baik
mendukung teori eselon atas CSR dan menambahkan masa
untuk signaling atau investasi tujuan karena meningkatnya
jabatan CEO sebagai penentu kinerja CSR (misalnya,
kesadaran CSR di tahun terakhir. Hasil kami juga
McGuire et al., 2003; Deckop dkk., 2006; Chin dkk., 2013;
mengungkapkan bahwaefekini lebih terasa ketika dewan lebih
Di Giuli & Kostovetsky, 2014; Tang dkk., 2015; McCarthy et
independen dan ketika CEO memilikilebih lama diharapkan
al., 2017). Di sini, penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa
cakrawala karir yang,7 confirming perhatian karir dan
komitmen CEO untuk CSR di awal masa jabatan mereka
cakrawala karir hipotesis, masing-masing. Selain itu, hasil
mungkin effefektif strategi CEO kekhawatiran karir
kami kuat dalam berbagai tes sensitivitas. Akhirnya, kami
mengurangi. Kedua, penelitian kami meluas dan melengkapi
menunjukkan bahwa kinerja CSR yang lebih baik dalam
studi terbaru pada konsekuensi kepemilikan CEO untuk
masa jabatan awal CEO dikaitkan dengan probabilitas
fioperasirm(Ali& Zhang,2015; McClelland, Barker, &
pergantian yang lebih rendah, menunjukkan bahwa
Oh,2012; Walters, Kroll, & Wright,2007)dengan
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
menunjukkan implikasi dari CEO masa kerja untuk CSR. 2.1. Ulasan yang dipilih LITERATUR pada CSR
Karena kedua dewan direksi dan pasar yang di- creasingly
menyadari nilai-relevansi CSR dan mempertimbangkan CSR Ada banyakdefidefinisiCSR. Carroll (1979) defiCSR nes
menjadi dimensi kinerja CEO penting, temuandari penelitian sebagai “tanggungjawab sosial bisnis yang mencakup
kami berguna bagi para praktisi yang terlibat dalam proses ekspektasi ekonomi, hukum, etika, dan diskresioner bahwa
kompensasi CEO kontrak. masyarakat memiliki dari nizations orga- pada suatu titik
Sisa makalah kami disusun sebagai berikut. Kami waktu tertentu. ”(2001)McWilliams dan Siegel CSR
pertamameninjau literatur dan mengembangkan hipotesis pandangan sebagai“tindakanyang muncul untuk lebih beberapa
kami. Kami kemudian menjelaskan desain penelitian dan barang sosial, di luar kepentingan firm dan bahwa yang
pemilihan sampel. Akhirnya, kami menyajikan hasil empiris diperlukan oleh hukum.”Ini defini- tions menekankan gagasan
dan menyimpulkan makalah. discretionary CSR (misalnya, Donaldson,1999)terlibat dalam
oleh perusahaan-perusahaandan target peningkatan berbagai hasil
sosial dan lingkungan. Sebagai CSR telah menjadi semakin
2. Sastra review dan pengembangan hipotesis penting bagimodern, perusahaan-perusahaanbanyak penelitian
telah dilakukan untuk mengeksplorasi motif di balik
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
komitmen CSR. Di antara berbagai pandangan yang operasi mereka(Freeman,1984);pemangku kepentingan,
menjelaskan motif CSR, dua yang menonjol, investasi jangka pada gilirannya, reward ffiorrmtsheir CSR e fforts. Sebagai
panjang dan sinyal, sangat relevan dengan penelitian kami. contoh, menunjukkan literatur bahwaperusahaan bertindak
Pandangan investasi jangka panjang CSR berasal dari dengan cara yang bertanggung jawab secara sosial memiliki
teori stakeholder, yang menunjukkan bahwaperusahaan harus reputasi yang lebih baik(Cahan,Chen, Chen, &
memenuhi kebutuhan pemegang stake- yang satuffect Nguyen,2015;. Orlitzky et al,2003),menikmati biaya modal
yang lebih rendah(Cheng,Ioannou, & SERAFEIM , 2014; El
3
Sebuah meta-analisis oleh Orlitzky et al (2003) juga mendukung hubungan positif-
kapal antara CSR danperusahaan fi.kinerja keuangan Lebihsecarakhusus, 6
effect dari LNTENURE pada CSR dihitung sebagai -0,083
meta-analitis ditentukan korelasi skor benar adalah 0,36. (yangkoefisienFFIefisiendi
4
Untuk singkatnya, kami tidak melaporkan tabel dalam makalah ini. LNTENURE) * 0,865 (sampel standar deviasi dari LNTENURE).
7
5
Dalam tes tambahan, kami menunjukkan bahwa hasil kami tidak Karena sangatsulituntuk mengukur pekerjaan yang diharapkan
berubah setelah mengontrol manajemen laba. dengan studi empiris, kita harus menggunakan lamanya pekerjaan
CEO sebagai proksi untuk cakrawala karir yang diharapkan.
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26

WT Chen dkk . JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–xxx

Ghoul, Guedhami, Kwok, & Mishra, 2011; Goss & Roberts, mungkin tidak dapat segera menghasilkanyang finansialkinerja
2011; Jiraporn, Jiraporn, Boeprasert, & Chang, 2014), dan memuaskan,karena dapat mengalihkan sumber daya mereka
mendapatkan dukungan dari pemangku kepentingan penting, terbatas dari prorutinfiproyek t-pembangkit(misalnya, Cochran
seperti karyawan (Greening & Turban, 2000) dan pelanggan & Wood,1984; GriFFIn & Mahon, 1997; McWilliams & Siegel,
(Maignan, Ferrell, & Hult, 1999). Selain itu, perusahaan- 2000; Waddock & Graves, 1997; Wang, Choi, & Li, 2008).
perusahaandengan kinerja CSR yang lebih baik dapat Namun, sebagian besar penelitian telah ditemukan baik positif
memperoleh legitimasi, yaitu, mereka bisa mendapatkan effect atau, minimal, tidak ada effect CSR terhadap
“lisensiuntukberoperasi” (misalnya, Hartman, Rubin, & finansialkinerja (misalnya, Friede et al,2015;.. Orlitzky et
Dhanda,2007).Ungkapan “baik-baikdengan melakukan yangbaik” al,2003).Akibatnya, CSR dapat dilihat sebagai investasi jangka
menangkap hubungan positif antara CSR dan perusahaan.kinerja panjang (misalnya, Mahapatra, 1984; McWilliams & Siegel,
Namun demikian, perusahaan-perusahaanyang berinvestasi di CSR 2000; Orlitzky et al., 2003).
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
CSR juga dapat dilihat sebagai mekanisme pensinyalan. fikomitmenrms' dalam rantai pasokan. Lys dkk. (2015)
Teori sinyal menunjukkan bahwa pihak yang membuat menunjukkan bahwa yang melekat CSR pembentukan in
kontrak dapat menggunakan mekanisme yang mahal dan kredibel tentang fimasa depanrms', fikinerja keuangan
dapat diamati untuk mengurangi masalah informasi asimetris confirming hipotesis sinyal dari CSR.
(misalnya, Spence, 1973; Stiglitz, 2000). Sebuah aplikasi
penting dari teori sinyal dalam fipengaturanrm adalah
kebijakan dividen (misalnya, Bhattacharya,1979; 2.2. CEO DAN CSR
Ross,1977).Sebagai investasi CSR adalah trivial, dan
premium dari CSR adalah suFFIsien hanya untuk menutupi Meskipun beberapa faktor organisasiffect fikomitmen
biayaberkualitas perusahaan-perusahaantinggi,CSR baik perusahaan terhadap CSR, peran CEO sangat penting. Teori
menyebutkan statusnyafied untuk signaling (misalnya, eselon atas berpendapat bahwa CEO memainkan peran
Spence,1973).Misalnya, Raja, Lenox, dan Terlaak (2005) penting dalam proses CSR dan dengan demikian
menunjukkan bahwa investasi dalam ISO 14001 (manajemen menunjukkan bahwa karakteristik sebuahCEOffect
mental yang sertienviron-)fikasi sistem bisa berfungsi firms'kinerja CSR (misalnya, Carpenter et al,2004;.
sebagai effmekanismeefektif sinyal untuk menunjukkan Donaldson,1999; Hambrick & Mason,1984).Literatur awal
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
telah menunjukkan bahwa insentif ekonomi CEO, sepertiulang CEO. Sebagai CEO memiliki fitugasduciary untuk
flected dalam paket kompensasi mereka (misalnya, Deckop et meningkatkan nilai pemegang saham, keuanganperfor- Mance
al,2006;. McGuire et al,2003.),Sebuahffect komitmen CSR harus metrik utama untuk mengevaluasi CEO(GraFFIn, Boivie,
mereka. Studi selanjutnya menunjukkan bahwa keyakinan & Carpenter, 2013). Namun, penelitian empiris telah
CEO dan bias psikologismempengaruhihasil CSR (misalnya, Chin menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar dari varians dalam
et al., 2013; Di Giuli & Kostovetsky, 2014; McCarthy et al., pergantian CEO tidak dapat dijelaskan oleh
2017; Tang et al., 2015). Sebuah studi terkait berpendapat finansialkinerja(Finkelstein,Hambrick, & Cannella, 2009),
insentif karir yang CEO, seperti yang ditangkap oleh usia,ffdll menunjukkan bahwa beberapanon-faktorkeuangan harus
CSR, tetapi penelitian yang gagal dipertimbangkan. Namun, satu dimensi yang sangat penting
findsignifikanhubungan(Oh,Chang, & Cheng,2014).Studi kami yang telah mengumpulkan fokus penelitian minimal dalam
adalah different dari Oh et al. (2014) dalam bahwa kita literatur adalah CSR. Sebagai CSR perfor- Mance telah
mempertimbangkan reers ca- CEO, daripada usia mereka, ditunjukkan untuk memiliki peningkatan effect pada firm
sebagaiffCSRecting.8
Sementara CEO memilikisignifikaneffect pada firms' kinerja 8
CSR, CEO usia dan masa capture different insentif dan mewakili different
perusahaan-perusahaankinerja CSR juga dimemengaruhiprospek karir konstruksi. Dalam contoh kita, kita menunjukkan bahwa koefisien
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
korelasiFFIefisien dari dua konstruksi ini adalah sekitar 0,3, kinerja penting untuk mengevaluasi kemampuan CEO.
menunjukkansignifikandiffselisih antara mereka. Terlepas dari banyak bukti tentang penyertaan kinerja CSR
fikinerja keuangan olehffecting pemangku kepentingan dalam evaluasi CEO, hanya sedikit penelitian yang secara
dukungan dari perusahaan-perusahaan,kinerja CSR telah menjadi komprehensif memeriksa bagaimana CEO menyesuaikan
sarana penting untuk dewan direksi untuk menafsirkan CEO strategi CSR mereka selama masa jabatan mereka.
kontribusi dalam mempromosikan fikinerjarm(Hubbard dkk.,
2017). Hong dkk. (2016) menunjukkan bahwa banyak US S 2.3. Pengembangan hipotesis
& P 500 perusahaan-perusahaantermasuk CSR dalam kontrak
kompensasi CEO, memberikan bukti lebih langsung bahwa Berdasarkan penelitian sebelumnya, kami mengusulkan
dewan direksi melakukan evaluasi CEO berdasarkan kinerja hubungan negatif antara masa jabatan CEO dan kinerja CSR
CSR mereka. Chiu dan Sharfman (2016) juga menunjukkan karena dua alasan. Pertama, CEO memiliki insentif untuk
bahwa anggota dewan cenderung memberhentikan CEO menggunakan kinerja CSR sebagai sinyal kemampuan
dengan kinerja CSR yang buruk. Studi-studi ini secara mereka untuk mengurangi masalah karir. Pasar, termasuk
kolektif menunjukkan bahwa CSR telah menjadi indikator pasar tenaga kerja internal dan eksternal, tidak pasti tentang
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
kemampuan CEO yang baru diangkat (Gibbon & Murphy, ketika eval- uating CEO(Finkelsteinet al,2009;.. Hong et al,
1992; Holmstrom, 1982). Pasar menilai kemampuan ini 2016). Selain itu, keyakinan luas bahwa ada setidaknya
berdasarkan berbagai indikator kinerja diamati, termasuk hubungan non-negatif antara CSR dan finansialkinerja
keuangandannonfiorang-orang keuangan(misalnya, Chiu & (misalnya, Friede et al,2015;.. Orlitzky et
Sharfman, 2016). Sebagai penilaian negatif dari kemampuan al,2003)menunjukkan bahwa menggunakan kinerja CSR
CEO dikaitkan dengan konsekuensi yang merugikan, seperti sebagai sinyal kemampuan kekhawatiran karir Mengurangi
gaji yang lebih rendah atau pemecatan (misalnya, Chiu & tidakkonflikdengan mengelola pendapatan(Ali&
Sharfman, 2016; Hubbard et al., 2017), CEO memiliki insentif Zhang,2015).Oleh karena itu, kami berpendapat bahwa di
yang kuat untuk menunjukkan kemampuan mereka melalui masa awal mereka, CEO memiliki insentif untuk
berbagai cara di awal masa jabatan mereka (Fama, 1980; mempromosikan kinerja CSR untuk mengurangi masalah
Hermalin & Weisbach, 1998). Meskipun dewan direksi dapat masalah karir karena CSR merupakan kriteria kinerja yang
menggunakan fikinerja keuangansebagai sinyal(Ali& penting (misalnya, Hong et al., 2016) dan dapat menandakan
Zhang,2015),mereka juga kemampuan CEO (Bénabou & Tirole, 2010; Borghesi,
mempertimbangkannonkeuanganindikator seperti kinerja CSR Houston, & Naranjo, 2014; Lys dkk., 2015; Spence, 1973;
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
Stiglitz, 2000). Kami menganggap ini effect menjadi KARIR perusahaan,kami berpendapat bahwa CEO awal-masa memiliki
hipotesiskekhawatiran CSR. insentif yang kuat untuk terlibat dalam CSR daripada di
Argumen kedua kami untuk hubungan negatif antara tahap-tahap selanjutnya(KARIR cakrawalahipotesis).Kedua
masa jabatan CEO dan CSR adalah masalah cakrawala. CEO hipotesis ini secara kolektif menunjukkan hubungan negatif
yang baru diangkat memiliki cakrawala yang lebih panjang antara masa jabatan CEO dan CSR. Berdasarkan argumen di
daripada mereka yang berada di tahap akhir karir mereka. atas, kami secara resmi menyatakankami fihipotesis
Sebagai investasi awal masa jabatan CEO dapat pertamasebagai berikut:
memperolehkeuntunganmereka di tahap-tahap selanjutnya
Hipotesis 1. Ada hubungan negatif antara kepemilikan CEO dan
dengan meningkatkan kinerja masa depan perusahaan-
kinerja CSR.
perusahaan,CEO awal-masa memiliki insentif yang kuat untuk
melakukan investasi yang lebih daripada yang di tahap-tahap Pada bagian berikut, kita mencoba untuk menjelaskan
selanjutnya. Konsisten dengan argumen ini, Pan, Wang, dan bagaimana masa CEO sebuahffects kinerja CSR, seperti yang
Weisbach (2016) melaporkan signifiinvestasi cantly lebih disarankan oleh dua hipotesis. Hipotesis kepedulian karir
besar pada tahap awal dari Nure te-CEO. Sebagai CSR menunjukkan bahwa insentif CEO untuk memberi sinyal
menciptakan jangka panjangmanfaatbagi perusahaan- kinerja mereka didorong terutama oleh permintaan untuk
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
mengurangi masalah karir. Salah satu suatuyang paling
mekanisme pemantauan penting perusahaan adalah papan,
yang merupakan suatupuncak perusahaan dari otoritas dan
juga disiplin CEO
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26

WT Chen et AL. JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–xxx

(Fama, 1980; Hermalin & Weisbach, 1998).9 Sebagai dewan mendukung hipotesis cakrawala karir karena CEO yang
independen lebih mungkin untuk memberhentikan CEO mengharapkan masa kerja yang singkat, misalnya, mereka
dengan kinerja yang tidak memuaskan (misalnya,dewan yang yang hampir pensiun, mungkin tidak memiliki insentif untuk
lebih independen Hermalin & Weisbach, 1998), insentif CEO secara aktif terlibat dalam CSR, bahkan jika mereka
untuk mengurangi masalah karir di tahun-tahun awal layanan menghadapi tekanan yang sama dari direktur independen.
mereka harus meningkat dengan. Akibatnya, kami Hipotesis cakrawala karir menunjukkan bahwa CEO yang
berpendapat bahwa independensi dewan memperburuk telah memegang posisi mereka lebih lama memiliki insentif
masalah karir; dengan demikian, insentif CEO yang baru yang lebih kuat untuk mengambil investasi di bidang-bidang
diangkat untuk memberi sinyal melalui CSR lebih kuat di - seperti CSR pada tahap awal masa jabatan mereka daripada
perusahaanperusahaan ini. Perhatikan bahwa hasil mereka yang telah memegang posisi mereka untuk waktu
berdasarkan independensi dewan mungkin belum tentu yang lebih singkat. Kami menguji hipotesis ini dengan
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
pengupas com- hubungan antara penguasaan CEO dan kinerja masyarakat, keragaman, karyawan tions eratnya,
CSR dalam dua kelompok CEO dengan different panjang kerja. lingkungan, dan produk. Dalam penelitian kami, suatukinerja
Kami menggunakan periode kerja aktual sebagai proksi untuk CSR perusahaan kemudiandidefinisikansebagai skor agregat
cakrawala yang diharapkan. Sesuai dengan hipotesis dengan menjumlahkan kekuatan dan mengurangkan jumlah
cakrawala karir, kami memprediksi bahwa hubungan antara dari keprihatinan (misalnya, Hubbard et al,2017;. Tang dkk.,
masa jabatan CEO dan kinerja CSR lebih kuat untuk CEO 2015).
dengan diharapkan masa kerja yanglebih lama daripada mereka
dengan cakrawala yang lebih pendek. 3.3. masa jabatan CEO UKURAN
CSR, sesuai dengan kriteria yang telah ditentukan. KLD
awalnya tertutup S & P 500 perusahaan-perusahaandan diperluas Kami mengukur masa jabatan CEO sebagai logaritma
untuk S & P 1500 pada tahun 2002. Sesuai dengan studi natural dari jumlah tahun masa kerja CEO (LNTENURE).
sebelumnya (misalnya, Chatterji, Levine, & Untukffel,2009; Sebagai yangpertama tahun bahwa CEO sebagai- sumes
Kim, Li, & Li,2014;. Tang et al, 2015), kita mengukur posisi berkode 1, nilai LNTENURE sama dengan atau lebih
fikinerja CSR rm berdasarkanberikut filima dimensi CSR: besar dari 0.
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
Untuk menyelidiki effect kepemilikan CEO pada kinerja
CSR(H1),kami memperkirakan model regresi berikut:
3.4. UTAMA EMPIRIS model
CSRPi,t = Α + β LNTENUREi,t-1 + Γ CEO_Kontroli,t-1 + Firm φ_Kontroli,t-1
kami kedua dan + Industri_FE + Tahun _FE + εi,t
hipotesis ketiga adalah (1)
sebagai berikut:
Hipotesis 2. Hubungan negatif antara kepemilikan CEO dan 3. Sampel, variabel kunci, dan model empiris
kinerja CSR lebih kuat untuk perusahaan-perusahaandengan
proporsi yang lebih besar dari direktur independen. 3.1. SAMPEL
Hipotesis 3. Hubungan negatif antara masa kerja CEO dan
Kami membangun sampel kami dengan menggabungkan
kinerja CSR lebih kuat untuk CEO dengan masa kerja lebih
beberapa dataset. Kami mengekstrak informasi CEO dari
lama daripada mereka dengan masa kerja lebih pendek.
database Compustat ExecuComp (yang mencakup eksekutif
puncak10 dari S & P 1500US firmsdi setiap tahun). Kami
mengidentifikasi para CEO dalam dataset (CEOANN = 1)
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
danmendefinisikanmasa CEO sebagai tahun setelah asumsi gelar Mengikuti studi tersebut, kami mengukur CSRP berdasarkan
CEO. Kami kemudian menggabungkan sampel data eksekutif data peringkat sosial perusahaan dari KLD. KLD wakilnya
dengan data peringkat sosial perusahaan dari database KLD. kekuatan (peringkat positif kode 1, dan 0 jika tidak) dan
Kami memperoleh fidata papan rmdari RiskMetrics. Data kekhawatiran (peringkat negatif kode 1, dan 0 jika tidak)
penghitungan ac- diekstrak dari Compustat, dan untuk perusahaan-perusahaandi berbagai dimensi
keuangandataanalis adalah dari I / B / E / S. Kami
mengharuskan semua variabelditentukandalam model empiris
9
kami tersedia dalam dataset ini. Prosedur-prosedur ini pihak lain, seperti keuangan,analis juga dapat memantau CEO.
menghasilkan 11.0121999-2013 .pengamatan tahun Namun, para analis ini tidak dapat secara langsung menghukum CEO
perusahaan untuk periode yang menunjukkan kinerja yang tidak memuaskan.
10
dataset yang biasanya mencatat kompensasi bagiperusahaan ini
limaecutives mantan top untuk setiap tahun. Dalam kasus tertentu yang
3.2. UKURAN CSR KINERJA (CSRP) jarang terjadi, database menyediakan data kompensasi untuk
maksimal sembilan eksekutif.
11
Banyak penelitian telah menggunakan peringkat CSR yang Misalnya, Waddock (2003) berpendapat bahwa KLD adalah "standar
diberikan oleh KLD karena manfaat metodologisnya. 11 penelitian de facto saat ini" untuk penelitian CSR (Waddock, 2003, hal.
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
369). CSR. Kami mengontrol usia CEO karena CEO yang lebih
muda memiliki insentif yang lebih kuat untuk berinvestasi
Untuk menguji tambahan effect dari LNTENURE,kita dalam CSR daripada yang lebih tua (Oh et al., 2014).
mengendalikan beberapa faktor penentu kinerja CSR yang McGuire dkk. (2003) berpendapat bahwa CEO denganyang
telahditentukandalam literatur. Fiset pertama dari faktor-faktor lebih besar fikepemilikan saham keuangandi firm cenderung
penentu CSRP termasuk CEO in centives dan karakteristik lebih peduli tentang keuangankinerja dari sekitar kepentingan
variabel. Studi (misalnya, Deckop et al., 2006; McGuire et stakeholders. Kami memasukkan kepemilikan CEO (CEOWN)
al., 2003) telah menyarankan bahwa CSR tunduk pada dalam model regresi dan mengharapkan hubungan negatif
kebijaksanaan manajer; dengan demikian, insentif antara kepemilikan CEO dan kinerja CSR.
kompensasi CEOsebuahffECTS tingkat CSR. CEO dengan Kami mengontrol seperangkat mekanisme tata kelola dalam
proporsi pendapatan variabel (CEOVARPAY) yang lebih tinggi, model kami. Kami
seperti bonus, saham, dan opsi, memiliki insentif yang kuat mengontrol jumlah analis mengikuti firm dengan LOGCOVE-
untuk meningkatkan kinerja jangka pendek dengan RAGE karena sebagai partai pemantauan, finansialanalis bisa
mengurangi investasi CSR (McGuire et al., 2003), yang menekan perusahaan-perusahaanuntuk terlibat dalam
menyiratkan hubungan negatif antara CEOVARPAY dan kinerja CSR(Adhikari,2016).Sebagai direktur luar adalah delegasi
Dep. Var. = CSRPt (1) (2)

Coefficie t- Coefficie t-
nt stati nt stati
stic stic
Intercept
LNTENUREt −4.798⁎⁎⁎ −3.9 −2.561⁎⁎⁎ −7.3
−1 −0.083⁎⁎⁎ 4 0
YEARONEt−1 0.138
−2.74
1.41
YEARTWOt−1 0.169⁎⁎ 2.08

YEARTHREEt−1 0.147⁎ 1.78


YEARFOURt−1 0.093 1.11

YEARFIVEt−1 0.112 1.32


INDBOARDt−1 ⁎ 5.90 ⁎ 4.16
⁎ ⁎
⁎ ⁎
CEOAGEt−1 −0.005 −1.4 −0.006 −1.63
3
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −3.3 −0.011⁎ −1.85
1
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.214 −1.6 0.019 0.15
3
INSTOWNt−1 −1.050⁎⁎⁎ −7.6 −1.192⁎⁎⁎ −8.99
4
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.220⁎⁎⁎ 3.96 0.407⁎⁎⁎ 8.07
CASHt−1 0.312 1.26 0.232 0.96
LEVt−1 0.553⁎⁎⁎ 3.94 −0.210 −1.41
MBt−1 −0.007 −0.9 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 8.15
2
R & Dt−1 6.772⁎⁎⁎ 11.7 9.667⁎⁎⁎ 18.54
7
ROAt−1 2.163⁎⁎⁎ 6.20 4.399⁎⁎⁎ 12.67
SALEGROWt−1 −0.857⁎⁎⁎ −7.2 −1.136⁎⁎⁎ −9.39
4
SIZEt−1 0.561⁎⁎⁎ 21.1 0.382⁎⁎⁎ 15.20
Industry-fixed effect Included 1 Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included
N 11,012 11,012
Adj. R-Square 0.255 0.260

Dep. C t-statistic
Var. o
= e
CSR ffi
Pt c
i
e
n
t
Inter − −3.86
cept 2
.
7
5
1
⁎⁎⁎

LNT 0 2.07
ENU .
REt−1 2
7
5
⁎⁎

LNT − −2.77
ENU 0
REt−1 .
* 4
INDB 9
OAR 3
Dt−1 ⁎⁎⁎

INDB 1 5.35
OAR .
Dt−1 9
5
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.63
AGEt− 0
1 .
0
0
6
CEO − −3.73
OWN 0
t−1 .
0
2
2
⁎⁎⁎
CEO − −1.53
VAR 0
PAYt− .
1 2
0
2
INST − −7.71
OWN 1
t−1 .
0
6
0
⁎⁎⁎

LOG 0 4.07
COV .
ERA 2
GEt−1 2
6
⁎⁎⁎
CAS 0 1.26
dari berbagai pemangku kepentingan dan tertarik untuk untuk mendukung CSR. Sebagai suatuperusahaan denganidle
memenuhi harapan stakeholder, perusahaan-perusahaandengan keuangansumber daya lebih mampu untukfford CSR, kami
direksi yang lebih independen harus memiliki kinerja CSR berharap hubungan negatif antara firm leverage
yang lebih baik(Zhang,Zhu, & Ding,2013).Karena investor yang(LEV)dan CSR, dan sama, kami berharap perusahaan-
institusional memilikisignifikaneffect pada fikinerja CSR perusahaandengan lebih banyak uang(KAS)menjadi lebih
rm(Harjoto,Jo, & Kim,2015),kita menambahkan persentase mungkin untuk berinvestasi dalam CSR. Selanjutnya, kami
kepemilikan institusional(INSTOWN)sebagai variabel kontrol mengontrol pengeluaran terkait CSR, seperti
dalam model empiris kami. tingkat(R&DR&D), dan kami mengharapkan hubungan positif
Kami juga menyertakan beberapa fikarakteristikrm dalam antara R&D dan CSRP. Sebagai peluang dan risiko yang
model kami. Kami berharap bahwaperusahaan dengan ukuran terkait dengan CSR berbeda dengan industri, kita
yang lebih besar(SIZE)dan prospek yang lebih baik, termasuk mengendalikan fikeanggotaan industrirms' didasarkan pada
pro lebih tinggifitabilitas(ROA),pasar-to-book rasio yang lebih dua digit industri SICdikelompokkan.kation Untuk kontrol
tinggi(MB),dan pertumbuhan penjualan yang lebih untuk variasi waktu-series, kami menyertakantahun-fixed
besar(SALEGROW),lebih cenderung untuk berinvestasi di CSR effects dalam model empiris. Rincidefidefinisidari
karena mereka cenderung memiliki sumber daya yang cukup
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

Tabel 1
distribusi tahunan dan statistik deskriptif. 1

1 0
Panel A: Distribusi
Tahunan

Tahun N Persent
1
ase
1999 233 2.12 1 0.2
2000 267 2.42

2001 417 3.79


1
2002 468 4.25
−0.11
2003 733 6.66
1
2004 770 6.99

2005 788 7.16


1
2006 797 7.24
1 0.1630a
2007 779 7.07

2008 760 6.90


1
2009 934 8.48

2010 963 8.75 0.0741a


1
2011 973 8.84
2012 1029 9.34

2013 1101 10.00

Total 11.012 100.00

Panel B: Statistik deskriptif variabel utama (N = 11.012)

Mean Std. Q1 Media Q3


Dev. n
CSRP 0,44 2,686 0,000 2,0
1 - 00
1,000
PENGUASAAN 8,37 7,445 3,000 6,000 11,
8 000
LNTENURE 1,77 0,865 1,099 1,792 2,3
5 98
1
INDBOARD 0,73 0,145 0,667 0,769 0,8
7 57
−0.0346a
CEOAGE 64, 7,779 64,00 58,00 69,
153 0 0 000
CEOOWN 1,62 4,210 0,083 0,256 0,8
5 99
CEOVARPAY 0,74 0,200 0,686 0,808 0,8
8 78 1
INSTOWN 0,77 0,199 0.670 0,802 0,9
4 05 −0.0980a
LOGCOVERAG 2,63 0,645 2,197 2,708 3,1
E 9 35
N
KAS 0,09 0,106 0,022 0,055 0,1
0 19
o
LEV 0,51 0,203 0,366 0,520 0,6
0 53 1
t
MB 3,17 3,447 1,542 2,298 3,6
2 62 0.0813a
e
R&D 0,02 0,051 0,000 0,001 0,0
9 38
:
ROA 0,05 0,078 0,027 0,056 0,0
6 94
T
SALEGROW 1,09 0,210 0,999 1,080 1,1 1
9 74
h
UKURAN 7,89 1,488 6,798 7,753 8,8 0.1073a
7 79 is
Catatan: Tabel ini menyajikan distribusi tahunan sampel kami dan t
statistik deskriptif variabel dalam sampel kami. Our sample period a
1
ranges from 1994 to 2013. All of the variables are defined in Appendix
bl
I. All of the continuous variables are winsorized at the 1% and 99% −0.2633 a

levels. e
r
these variables are provided in Appendix I. e
In accordance with our first hypothesis, we expect a 1
p
significantly negative coefficient on LNTENURE to support the 0.1325a o
first hypothesis that CEO tenure is negatively associated with
CSR performance. rt
s
4. Empirical results t
1
a h
−0.1958
4.1. Descriptive STATISTICS DAN CORRELATIONS
e
T P
a e
bl a
e r
2 s
C o
o n
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–
We provide the yearly distribution of our sample in Panel A
of Table 1. The table shows an increasing trend for sample 1
size, reflecting that increasingly more firms have been −0.0766a
covered by KLD in recent years. Table 1, Panel B provides
descriptive statistics for the key variables used in this study.
The mean (median) value of CSRP is 0.441 (0.000). The
1
standard deviation of CSRP is 2.686, suggesting significant
varia- tions in CSR performance among the sample firms. The −0.0671a
mean (median) of tenure (TENURE) is 8.378 (6) years.
The statistics also show that various forms of incentive
pay are used in CEO compensation contracts, as the mean
CSRP
value of CEOVARPAY is 0.748. The average SIZE is 7.897 (total
assets of $2689.203 million on average). Our sample firms LNTENURE
are profitable (ROA mean = 0.056), and they experience INDBOARD
impressive sales growth (SALEGROW mean = 1.099). The
results also reveal that these firms channel considerate CEOAGE

amounts of financial resources into R&D activities (R&D mean


= 0.029). These
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

statistics are consistent with the notion that our sample


includes more mature firms. 12
We present the correlation matrix in Table 2. As shown in We find that the VIF scores range from 1.206 to 2.727, suggesting
Table 2, that multicollinearity is less likely to be an issue in our study.
13
the correlation coefficient between LNTENURE and CSRP is Studies suggest that CEOs may not be able to exert their influence
−0.0671 with less than 5% significance, supporting our first on CSR in the first year of their tenure (Chin et al., 2013).
14
We thank one anonymous reviewer for making this important point.
hypothesis. Meja 2 also shows that CSR performance is
significantly positively associated with board independence variables that may affect CSR performance and CEO tenure
(INDBOARD), firm size (SIZE), profitability (ROA), and MB. Firms simulta- neously. We run the regression based on the
whose CEOs have a larger proportion of variable pay in their reduced sample.15 As shown in Panel B of Table 3, our main
compensation package (CEOVARPAY) have better CSR findings remain unchanged after controlling for these
performance. Conversely, older CEOs (CEOAGE) and CEOs with variables.
larger financial stakes in their firms (CEOOWN) are less likely In addition, we also use an instrument variable (IV)
to actively engage in CSR. In an untabulated test, we find that approach to address the endogeneity issue. In the first stage
all of the in- dependent variables have VIF scores less than regression, we use the industry average of CEO tenure in the
10,12 suggesting that multicollinearity is less likely to be an previous year (LNTEN- URE_IndAvg) as an instrumental
issue in our study. variable, which could affect a firm's CEO tenure, but is
unlikely to be associated with a firm's CSR perfor- mance. In
4.2. MAIN results the second stage regression, we use the predicted LNTENURE
(LNTENURE_Predict) derived from the first-stage regression to
examine its effect on CSRP. The results of the regressions are
Panel A of Table 3, Column (1) reports the regression
reported in Panel C of Table 3. The coefficient on
results of Eq. (1), which examines the effect of CEO tenure on
firms' CSR perfor- mance. The coefficient of LNTENURE is LNTENURE_Predict is significantly nega- tive (−0.573 with a t-
significantly negative (−0.083 with t-value of −2.74), value of −2.82), indicating that the relationship between CSR
suggesting that a firm's CSR performance is negatively performance and CEO tenure holds after controlling for
associated with CEO tenure. This finding supports the notion endogeneity based on a 2SLS approach. However, regardless
that a firm's CSR performance is greater in the early years of of our effort to address the endogeneity problem, we caution
CEO tenure and lower in later years, which is consistent with against assuming that this issue has been fully resolved by
our hypothesis H1. using these two methods.
The coefficient of CEOAGE is negative but not significant,
consistent with the results in Oh et al. (2014). This result also 4.4. Time trend
confirms that CEO age and tenure are different constructs. The
other coefficients of control variables are generally consistent As our sample spans 14 years, it is worth examining
with prior studies. For example, CSR performance is higher in whether CEOs have engaged more actively in CSR in
larger and more profitable firms and in firms with more response to the increasing im- portance of CSR in the
independent boards, resulting in greater analysis and more R
business world. To check the time trend, we re- examine Eq.
&D investment.
(1) by comparing an earlier sub-sample from 1999 to 2005
To further elucidate our findings, we estimate Eq. (1) after
replacing LNTENURE with indicator variables for each of the and a more recent sub-sample from 2006 to 2013.16 The
first five years of the CEO's tenure (Ali & Zhang, 2015), ie, results of the sub-sample analyses are shown in Table 4.
YEARONE, YEARTWO, YEART- Although columns (1) and
HREE, YEARFOUR, and YEARFIVE, which equal one if the (2) show that the coefficients of LNTENURE are both
observation is for the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth significantly ne- gative for an earlier and a more recent
years of the CEO's tenure, respectively, and zero otherwise. sample period (−0.089 with t- value of −1.99 and −0.101
As shown in Table 3, Panel A, Column (2), the coefficients of with t-value of −2.59, respectively), the relationship between
YEARTWO and YEARTHREE are significantly positive (0.169 with CEO tenure and a firm's CSR performance is more
a t-value of 2.08, and 0.147 with a t-value of 1.78, pronounced in recent years, which indicates CEOs' increasing
respectively), suggesting that a firm's CSR performance peaks tendency to use CSR for either signaling or investment
in the second and third years, in contrast to the later years of purposes early in their tenure.
a CEO's tenure. In addition, the coefficient of YEARONE is
positive but marginally significant13 (0.138 with t-value of 4.5. The effect of CAREER concern
1.41). In contrast, the coefficients of YEARFOUR and YEARFIVE
are insignificant. Collectively, the regression results show that
To test hypothesis H2, we re-examine Eq. (1) by
CSR performance peaks in the first three years of a CEO's
interacting LNTE- NURE with INDBOARD. As shown in column
tenure; subsequently, the performance decreases with the
(1) of Table 5, the coef- ficient of LNTENURE*INDBOARD is
CEO's tenure.
significantly negative (−0.493 with a t-value of −2.77),
indicating that a more independent board enhances the
4.3. Endogeneity test association between CEO tenure and CSR performance,
consistent with the career concern hypothesis. Note that the
The results thus far may be subject to endogeneity coefficient of LNTENURE is positive. Nevertheless, the net
concerns because some omitted correlated variables such as effect remains nega- tive.17 The result also suggests that
past financial performance may affect CSR performance and early-tenure CEOs may not actively engage in CSR when few
CEO career simultaneously.14 To ad- dress this issue, we use outside directors sit on the board.
the following two approaches.
The first approach is to include more control variables, 4.6. The effect of CEOs' horizon
including financial performance (ROA_Avg), firm size (SIZE_Avg),
firm leverage (LEV_Avg), market to book ratio (MB_Avg), and
To test hypothesis H3, we re-examine Eq. (1) by
R&D (RD_Avg) over the previous three years. The inclusion of
interacting LNTE- NURE with HorizonDummy, where HorizonDummy
these additional control variables averaged over the past three
is an indicator vari- able that equals one if the CEO's
years helps mitigate the omitted correlated
maximum tenure is larger than that of the industry median,
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–
and zero otherwise. The coefficient of LNTEN-
URE*HorizonDummy is significantly negative (coefficient of
−0.160 with t-value of −2.08), as shown in Table 6. The
results lend support to hypothesis H3 and suggest that CEOs
are likely to invest in CSR in the early years of their tenure;
thus, they can reap the benefits of those investments later in
their tenure.

15
Our sample reduces significantly after including the control
variables, which is also why we do not use the augmented model in
the main result.
16
We split our sample into two periods of an equal number of years.
17
The coefficient of LNTENURE is 0.275 and that of
LNTENURE*INDBOARD is −0.493. As the mean of INDBOARD is 0.737,
the net effect is −0.088 (−0.493 ∗ 0.737 + 0.275).
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

4.7. The consequences of CSR ENGAGEMENT in EARLY tenure


Table 3
CEO tenure and CSR performance.
Our results so far suggest a significantly negative
association be- Panel A: The effect of CEO tenure on CSR performance
tween CEO tenure and CSR performance. An interesting yet unexplored
question is whether CEOs could benefit from their CSR
investment early in their tenure. In other words, we ask
whether investing in CSR early in their tenure could
successfully mitigate CEOs' career concerns and therefore
lower the probability of their dismissal later in their tenure.
We use the following specification to examine this question:

Pr ob (Dismissal)i,t = α + β CSRP (earlytenure)i


+ γ ROA
(earlytenure)iφ
Firm_Controlsi,t (2) 1.077 0
+ Industry_FE + .
7
Year _FE + εi,t
5
4

We use the probability of compulsory dismissal (DISMISSAL)


as the dependent variable, in accordance with Chiu and
Sharfman (2016). Our independent variable of interest is
CSRP (EARLY tenure), which is equal to the average CSR
performance over the first three years of their tenure. We
also include the financial variable averaged over the first
three years (ie, ROA (EARLY tenure)) as controls in the model
because fi- nancial performance is an important evaluation
criterion. The other control variables in Eq. (1) are also
included. We report the results in Table 7.
As shown in Table 7, the coefficient of CSRP (EARLY tenure) is
nega- tive at a significance level of less than 1%, suggesting
that CEOs' commitment to CSR early in their tenure could
reduce the probability of their dismissal. This result therefore
extends prior studies (eg, Oh
et al., 2014) and shows that engagement in CSR early in their tenure
could allow CEOs to mitigate career concerns. Panel B: Endogeneity issue: inclusion of additional control variables

Dep. var. = CSRPt Coefficient t-statistic

4.8. Robustness tests Intercept −3.005⁎⁎⁎ −5.11


LNTENUREt−1 −0.109⁎⁎⁎ −3.16
To supplement our main findings and mitigate the INDBOARDt−1 1.204⁎⁎⁎ 5.54
measurement error problem, we also perform tests using CEOAGEt−1 −0.007⁎ −1.77
CEOOWNt−1 −0.020⁎⁎⁎ −2.74
alternative measures of CSR performance. Our CSRP measure
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.609⁎⁎⁎ −3.91
is the summation of five dimensions of CSR indicators, INSTOWNt−1 −1.181⁎⁎⁎ −7.33
without considering the weight of each CSR dimension. In an LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.091 1.37
additional test, we use an aggregate measure of CSRP that is CASHt−1 0.985⁎⁎⁎ 3.25
based on seven dimensions18 of the CSR measure and find LEVt−1 0.591⁎ 1.91
that our results hold. To gauge the weight problem, in MBt−1 0.001 0.10
R & Dt−1 −5.217⁎ −1.75
accordance with Deng, Kang, and Low (2013), we calculate
ROAt−1 0.907⁎ 1.70
the equal-weight CSR performance and use this measure as SALEGROWt−1 −0.875⁎⁎⁎ −4.78
our alternative CSRP measure. The results based on Deng et SIZEt−1 0.058 0.53
al. (2013) hold, suggesting that our inference is not sensitive LEV_Avg −0.477 −1.39
to the measurement problem. MB_Avg −0.006 −0.50
Studies have suggested that CEOs may not be able to RD_Avg 13.129⁎⁎⁎ 4.41
ROA_Avg 0.182 0.37
exert their influence on CSR in the first year of their tenure
SIZE_Avg 0.669⁎⁎⁎ 6.02
(Chin et al., 2013). Therefore, our inferences may be biased Industry-fixed effect Included
due to our use of a sample including CEOs in the first year of YEAR-fixed effect Included
their tenure. To mitigate this con- cern, we repeat our N 8406
analyses based on a reduced sample consisting of CEOs with Adj. R-Square 0.283
tenures of more than one year, and the results hold. In ad-
dition, we report t-values based on standard errors that are
adjusted by
clustering at the firm and year levels (Petersen, 2009), and we find that
our results are quantitatively similar. Panel C: Endogeneity issue: 2SLS approach
To provide further evidence regarding how long CEOs actively en-

gage in CSR in their early careers, we create an array of six years in the literature (Ali & Zhang, 2015; Pan et al.,
thresholds, ranging from the first three years of tenure to the 2016). We replace our variable of interest with early tenure
first six years, as early tenure is normally defined as the first dummies using different thresholds in the main empirical
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–
model, and the results are qualitatively similar to our main Dep. Var. (1) (2)
findings.
First-stage Second-stage

=LNTENUREt−1 =CSRPt

18
The additional two dimensions are human rights and corporate Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic

govern- ance.
Intercept 0.775⁎⁎⁎ 9.41 −0.928⁎ −1.68
LNTENURE_Predict −0.573⁎⁎⁎ −2.82
LNTENURE_IndAvgt−1 0.575⁎⁎⁎ 13.81
INDBOARDt−1 1.043⁎⁎⁎ 4.71
(continued on next PAGE)
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

Table 3 (continued)
Table 5
Panel C: Endogeneity issue: 2SLS approach CEO tenure and CSR performance: the effect of career concern.

Dep. Var. (1) (2)

First-stage Second-stage

=LNTENURE t−1 =CSRPt

−3.60

−9.57

−0.19

Note: This table presents the regression results for whether CEO
career concern affects the effect of CEO tenure on CSR performance.
We report the regression results based on Eq. (1) by interacting CEO
Note: Panel A presents the regression results on the effect of CEO
tenure with board independence.
tenure on CSR performance. Panel B shows the regression results of
, , and ⁎ indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10%
⁎⁎⁎ ⁎⁎
model (1) including firm- level characteristics averaged over the
levels or better, respectively. The definitions and measurements of all
previous three years. Panel C presents the IV approach to address
of the variables are provided in Appendix I.
potential endogeneity issues in Panel A. Column (1) of Panel C reports
the first-stage regression result and Column (2) presents the
regression results using predicted CEO tenure based on first-stage
regression as the independent variable of interest. ⁎⁎⁎, ⁎⁎, and ⁎ indicate
statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels or better,
Table 6
respectively. The definitions and measurements of all of the variables
are provided in Appendix I. CEO tenure and CSR performance: the effect of horizon.
Dep. Var. = CSRPt Coeffici t-
ent statisti
c
Intercept −2.821
⁎⁎⁎ −5.52
Table 4 LNTENUREt−1 −0.003 −0.06
*
CEO tenure and CSR performance: time trend. LNTENUREt−1 HorizonDummy t−1 −0.160⁎⁎ −2.08
HorizonDummy t−1 0.17 1.39
3
Dep. Var.=CSRPt (1) (2) INDBOARDt−1 1.28
3⁎⁎⁎ 7.18
CEOAGEt−1 −0.0 −1.08
05
Sample from 1999 to 2005 Sample from 2006 to 2013 CEOOWNt−1 −0.0 −2.95
17⁎⁎⁎
CEOVARPAYt−1 −0.3 −2.69
36⁎⁎⁎
Coefficien t- Coefficien t-statistic INSTOWNt−1 −1.1 −8.63
t statistic t 66⁎⁎⁎
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 0.19 3.59
Intercept −1.853 −0.91 −7.616⁎⁎⁎ −4.33 1⁎⁎⁎
CASHt−1 0.29 1.21
LNTENUREt−1 −0.089⁎⁎ −1.99 −0.101⁎⁎⁎ −2.59 9
LEVt−1 0.40 3.03
INDBOARDt−1 0.573⁎⁎ 2.52 1.638⁎⁎⁎ 6.16 9⁎⁎⁎
MBt−1 −0.0 −0.86
CEOAGEt−1 −0.006 −1.05 −0.003 −0.58 06
R & Dt−1 7.18 11.76
CEOOWNt−1 0.007 0.88 −0.033⁎⁎⁎ −4.33 0⁎⁎⁎
ROAt−1 1.68 4.95
CEOVARPAYt−1 0.445⁎⁎ 2.52 −0.728⁎⁎⁎ −4.05 9⁎⁎⁎
INSTOWNt−1 −0.853⁎⁎⁎ −4.25 −1.079⁎⁎⁎ −6.07 SALEGROWt−1 −0.8 −7.27
56⁎⁎⁎
LOGCOVERAGEt− 0.097 1.20 0.371⁎⁎⁎ 5.09 SIZEt−1 0.62 21.05
1
7⁎⁎⁎
CASHt−1 0.662 1.55 0.309 1.03 Industry-fixed effect YEAR- Inc
LEVt−1 −0.064 −0.31 0.783⁎⁎⁎ 4.25 fixed effect lud
MBt−1 0.011 1.27 −0.004 −0.30 N ed
R & Dt−1 5.538⁎⁎⁎ 6.30 7.065⁎⁎⁎ 9.72 Inc
ROAt−1 3.871⁎⁎⁎ 7.54 0.758 1.64 lud
SALEGROWt−1 −0.645⁎⁎⁎ −4.47 −0.940⁎⁎⁎ −5.38 ed
11,0
SIZEt−1 0.190⁎⁎⁎ 4.80 0.717⁎⁎⁎ 20.89 12
Industry-fixed Included Included Adj. R-Square 0.25
effect
YEAR-fixed effect Included Included 5
N 3676 7336 Note: The table presents the regression results on whether CEO
Adj. R-Square 0.223 0.303 horizon affects the effect of CEO tenure on CSR performance. ⁎⁎⁎, ⁎⁎,
and ⁎ indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels
Note: This table presents the results for the effect of CEO tenure on or better, respectively. The defini- tions and measurements of all of
CSR per- formance in two different periods. We report the regression the variables are provided in Appendix I.
results based on Eq.
(1) in the sample in the early period (column 1) and recent period
(column 2), respectively. ⁎⁎⁎, ⁎⁎, and ⁎ indicate statistical significance at 5. Discussion and conclusion
the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels or better, respectively. The definitions
and measurements of all of the variables are provided in Appendix I. CEOs' two distinct incentives vary at different stages of
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–
their tenure. CEOs have a strong need to signal their ability
early in their tenure and a lower signaling need later in their
tenure. Similarly, CEOs have strong incentives to undertake
more investment early in their tenure, as they can reap the
benefits later in their tenure. In this study, we examine
whether these two incentives arising from CEOs' tenure
affect firms' CSR performance.
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

Table 7 effective strategy for CEOs to mitigate career concerns.


CSR performance and CEO dismissal. Second, our study deepens our understanding of CEOs'
Dep. Var. = Prob(DISMISSAL = 1)t Coefficient z-statistic CSR deci- sions when facing career concerns. How career
concerns influence
CEOs' decision-making has become an interesting and
important ques-
Intercept 12.483⁎⁎⁎ 9.39 criterion for assessing their ability. In recent years, many US
CSRP (early tenure) −0.095⁎⁎⁎ −4.15
firms have added CSR performance as another important
ROA (EARLY tenure) −0.282⁎ −1.71
LNTENUREt 0.034 0.47
evaluation criterion, as is reflected in CEO com- pensation
INDBOARDt −1.364⁎⁎⁎ −3.12 contracts (Hong et al., 2016). An important yet unexplored
CEOAGEt −0.097⁎⁎⁎ −9.83 area is whether CEOs mitigate career concerns using CSR
CEOOWNt 0.207⁎⁎⁎ 4.33 performance. Our study complements Ali and Zhang (2015)
CEOVARPAYt −0.256 −0.76 and shows that CEOs may promote CSR as a means to signal
INSTOWNt −0.517 −1.57
their ability, enriching the career concern literature and
LOGCOVERAGEt −0.030 −0.18
CASHt 0.175 0.24
providing implications for CEO compensation design. Our
LEVt −0.739⁎ −1.93 study also complements and extends Chiu and Sharfman
MBt 0.007 1.37 (2016), Hong et al. (2016), and Hubbard et al. (2017)
R & Dt 1.295 0.82 because it de- monstrates the role of CSR in the CEO
ROAt 0.632⁎⁎ 2.18 performance evaluation process. Future research can extend
SALEGROWt −0.020 −0.36
our study by examining how CEOs use CSR to signal their
Industry-fixed effect Included
YEAR-fixed effect Included
ability in other circumstances.
N 8428 Our study also provides several managerial implications
Pseudo R-Square 0.193 for practi- tioners. With increasing relevance of CSR to firm
financial performance, both boards of directors and the
Note: The table presents the results for the effect CSR performance (in market have considered how to mo- tivate CEOs to engage
early tenure) on the likelihood of subsequent CEO dismissal. ⁎⁎⁎, ⁎⁎, and ⁎ in CSR actively. In line with such trend, many firms have
indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels or taken several measures such as explicitly including CSR
better, respectively. The definitions and measurements of all of the
performance into CEO performance evaluation process.
variables are provided in Appendix I.
Against the backdrop, our study highlights CEO tenure as an
important factor that could affect firm CSR performance,
Using a sample of US firms for the 1999–2013 period, we
suggesting that the boards of di- rectors can use tenure-
find that firms' CSR performance is significantly higher in
related incentives to motivate CEOs to commit to CSR
CEOs' early tenure than in their later tenure. We show that activities. Our study could also be of interest to external
this trend is more significant in recent years, as the market parties such as CSR rating agencies and socially responsible
has increasingly recognized the importance of CSR for value investment funds. These parties have keen interest in
creation and thus has considered CSR to be a perfor- mance understanding, assessing, and pre- dicting firms' CSR
evaluation criterion. Further analyses show that the negative performance in order to make informed decisions. Our study
association between CEO tenure and CSR performance is more together with the emerging studies based on the upper
pro- nounced when CEOs have a longer expected tenure, echelon theory of CSR suggests that CEO characteristics are
supporting the career horizon hypothesis. Our results also important factors that influence firm CSR performance, and
reveal that CEOs' CSR per- formance early in their tenure is therefore could ben- efit these parties by improving their
better in the presence of a more in- dependent board, which is respective decision performance.
consistent with the signaling interpretation of the career As with other CSR studies, this study is subject to certain
concern hypothesis. Finally, we confirm that engagement in common limitations. The primary limitation is the potential
CSR early in their tenure could be an appropriate strategy for measurement error for CSR performance. Our CSR
CEOs to mitigate career concerns, as we show a negative performance measure based on KLD aligns with prior studies
association between early tenure CSR performance and CEO (eg, Chin et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2015). Despite the
dismissal probability. popularity of this measure of CSR performance, its relia-
Our study contributes to the literature and provides
important im- bility remains controversial (eg, Chatterji, Durand, Levine, &
plications for management. First, our study extends prior Touboul, 2016). Second, our inferences are based on US
studies and adds CEO tenure as an important determinant of firms, and therefore, our findings may not be generalized to
CSR. Prior studies based on upper echelon theory have shown other countries. We encourage future research to overcome
that CEOs' characteristics affect firms' CSR performance (eg, these limitations by examining this issue in other countries.
Chin et al., 2013; Deckop et al., 2006; Di Giuli & Kostovetsky,
2014; McCarthy et al., 2017; McGuire et al., 2003; Tang et
al., 2015). Another related study examines the effect of CEO Compliance with ethical standards
age on CSR performance, showing that this relation is not
significant and should be contingent on industry and The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest
monitoring me- chanisms (Oh et al., 2014). Our study extends in this study.
this research stream and highlights the effect of CEO tenure This research did not receive any specific grant from
on CSR performance. Additionally, our study enriches the funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
literature by showing that CEOs commit to CSR in their early sectors.
tenure to mitigate career concerns and investment pro- Ethical approval: This article does not contain any studies
blems. More importantly, our study advances this line of with human participants or animals performed by any of the
inquiry by showing that commitment to CSR early in their authors.
tenure could be an
tion as CEOs affect several dimensions of firm outputs. To
signal their ability, CEOs are likely to inflate earnings (Ali &
Zhang, 2015) because financial performance is an important
W.T. Chen JourNAlofBusinessReseArchxxx(xxxx)xxx–

Appendix I. Variable definitions

Variables

Definitions Dep. Var.


CSRPt CSR performance in year t, equal to the total strengths minus the total concerns in the five CSR
dimensions in KLD, ie, community, diversity, employee relations, environment, and product. Following
Tang et al. (2015) and Hubbard et al. (2017), CSRP is defined as an aggregated score by summing the
strengths and subtracting the sum of the concerns.
Prob(DISMISSAL = 1)t The probability that the CEO was fired on a compulsory basis in year t.
Ind. Var.
CASHt−1 Cash holding in year t-1, equal to the ratio of cash to total assets.
CEOAGEt−1 CEO age in year t-1.
CEOOWNt−1 CEO ownership (in percentage) in year t-1, calculated as the shares held by the CEO divided by total
shares outstanding.
CEOVARPAYt−1 CEO variable pay ratio in year t-1, equal to the percentage of variable pay relative to total pay.
CSRP (EARLY tenure) The average CSR performance over the first three years of CEO's tenure.
HorizonDummyt−1 Indicator variable that equals to one if the CEO's maximum tenure is larger than the industry median
in year t-1, and zero otherwise.
INDBOARDt−1 Board independence, measured as the percentage of independent directors on a board in year t-1.
AVRINDBOARD is the mean of INDBOARD of a firm in our sample period.
INSTOWNt−1 Institutional ownership in year t-1, calculated as the shares held by institutional investors by total shares
outstanding.
LEVt−1 The leverage of a firm in year t-1, which is calculated as the sum of short-term debt and long-term
debt, divided by total assets.
LEV_Avg The average of LEV over years t-1, t-2, t-3.
LNTENUREt−1 The natural logarithm of CEO's tenure in
year t-1. LNTENURE_IndAvgt−1 The industry average of CEO
tenure in year t-1.
LOGCOVERAGEt−1 The natural logarithm of the number of analysts following a firm in year t-1.
MBt−1 Market to book ratio in year t-1, measured by the market valuation of a firm, which is
calculated as market capitalization at the fiscal year end, divided by book equity.
MB_Avg The average of MB over years t-1, t-2, t-3.
R & Dt−1 The R&D investment level for a firm in year t-1, which is calculated as research and development
expenses divided by total assets.
RD_Avg The average of R&D over years t-1, t-2, t-3.
ROAt−1 Return on assets of a firm in year t-1, which is calculated as the operating income after depreciation
divided by total assets.
ROA (EARLY tenure) The average financial performance (ROA) over the first three years of a CEO's tenure.
ROA_Avg The average of ROA over years t-1, t-2, t-3.
SALEGROWt−1 Sales growth in year t-1, which is calculated as the total sales in year t, divided by total sales in year t-1.
SIZEt−1 Firm size in year t-1, which is calculated as the natural logarithm of the market value of the firm.
SIZE_Avg The average of SIZE over years t-1, t-2, t-3.
YEARFIVEt−1 Indicator variable that equals one if the observation is for the fifth year of the CEO's service in year
t-1, and zero otherwise.
YEARFOURt−1 Indicator variable that equals one if the observation is for the fourth year of the CEO's service in year
t-1, and zero otherwise.
YEARTHREEt−1 Indicator variable that equals one if the observation is for the third year of the CEO's service in year
t-1, and zero otherwise.
YEARTWOt−1 Indicator variable that equals one if the observation is for the second year of the CEO's service in year
t-1, and zero otherwise.
YEARONEt−1 Indicator variable that equals one if the observation is for the first year of the CEO's service in year t-
1, and is zero otherwise.

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