Jltl ^khflhtlr

^ugl dlh pug` syujur jkold`rlt Tuolh Plhf Elol Ksl jlrkhl ltls rloelt dlh o`dlylo
 Hyl, sko`hffl eljlclo `h` dlplt tkrskcksl`jlh dkhflh bl`j. ^kebultlh eljlclo `h` tkclo
ekhdlplt blhtulh dlr` bkrblfl` p`olj, eljl pldl jkskepltlh `h` pkhuc`s ekhfumlpjlh
tkr`el jls`o ylhf skbkslr-bkslrhyl jkpldl @bu Lh`tl Dw` Lhffrl`h`, ].]T, E.]` skclju

daskh eltl juc`lo B`aj`e`l ylhf tkclo ekebkr` b`eb`hflh, dlh gufl jkpldl p`olj-p`olj
ylhf tkclo ekeblhtu dlcle pkhuc`slh eljlclo `h` sko`hffl eljlclo `h` dlplt d`skcksl`jlh
dkhflh tkplt wljtu.

Eljlclo ylhf ekeblols ekhfkhl` khz`e `h` d`pkracko dlr` bkrblfl` suebkr, bl`j
ekd`l mktlj elupuh `htkrhkt. Eljlclo `h` d`susuh lflr plrl pkeblml dlplt ekepkracko
 blhylj `hiarels`
`hiarels` ekhfkhl` eltkr`
eltkr ` khz`e.

Dlcle pkebultlh eljlclo `h` pkhuc`s ekhyldlr` els`o blhylj jkjurlhflh, acko
jlrkhl `tu eaoah elli lplb`cl tkrdlplt jkslclolh. Jr`t`j dlh slrlh ylhf ekeblhfuh slhflt
 pkhuc`s olrlpjlh lflr ekhgld`jlh eljlclo `h` ckb`o bl`j clf`. ^khuc`s bkrolrlp skeafl
eljlclo `h` dlplt bkrelhillt blf` plrl pkeblml.

]`dalrga, << Dkskebkr 2>2>

^khuc`s

 
`` 
 

Dlitlr @s`

Jltl ^khflhtl
^khflhtlrr ................................
.................................................
..................................
..................................
...................................
...............................
............. ``

Dlitlr
Dlitlr @s` ..................................
...................................................
..................................
.................................
..................................
...................................
......................
.....```

Blb < 7 ^khdlouculh

<.<. Cltlr Bkcljlhf
Bkcljlhf..........................................
...........................................................
..................................
..................................
..................................
................. 4

<.2. Rue
Rueuslh
uslh Elslclo...........................................
............................................................
..................................
..................................
............................
........... 4

<.=. Tug
Tugulh
ulh ^khuc`slh
^khuc`slh.....................................
.....................................................
..................................
..................................
..................................
....................
.. ;

Blb 2 7 ^keblolslh

2.<. ^khf
^khfkrt`lh
krt`lh Khz`e
Khz`e ........................................
.........................................................
..................................
..................................
...............................
.............. 9

2.2. ]truj
]trujtur
tur Khz`e
Khz`e ..................................
..................................................
..................................
...................................
...................................
.........................
....... 9

2.=. Mlrl Jkrgl Khz`e.................................

..................................................
..................................
..................................
..................................
......................
..... 6

2.4. ]`ilt-]`
]`ilt-]`ilt
ilt Khz`e...........
...........................
..................................
...................................
..................................
...................................
............................
.......... 0

2.;. Jcls`i`
Jcls`i`jls`
jls` Khz`e .................................
..................................................
..................................
..................................
..................................
......................
.....<>

2.9. Iljtar ylhf Ekepkhflruo` Jkrgl Khz`e ..................

......... ..................
...................
...................
..................
..................
...............
...... <2

2.6. Elmle-Elmle Jkcl`hlh Khz`e ................................................................................... <4

Blb = 7 ^khutup

=.<. Jks`ep
Jks`epuclh
uclh .................................
..................................................
..................................
..................................
...................................
...............................
.............<9

=.2. ]lrlh...................................
....................................................
..................................
.................................
..................................
...................................
......................
.....<9

Dlitlr
Dlitlr ^ustljl
^ustljl .................................
..................................................
..................................
..................................
...................................
...............................
.............<6

 
``` 
 

BLB @ 

^KHDLO[C[LH

<.<.  Cltlr Bkcljlhf

@ceu b`aj`e`l ekrupljlh slclo sltu dlr` skj`lh blhylj mlblhf `ceu
 pkhfktloulh ylhf pkht`hf uhtuj d`pkclglr`. Olc tkrskbut d`jlrkhljlh `ceu b`aj`e`l
ekepkclglr` tkhtlhf pkrlhlh bkrblfl` eackjuc dlcle rkljs` j`e`l dlh prasks ylhf
 bkrclhfsuhf dlcle tubuo eljocuj o`dup. @ceu `h` gufl ekhgld` dlslr uhtuj
ekepkclglr` `ceu cl`h, skpkrt` `ceu jkdajtkrlh, `ceu f`z`, dlh cl`hhyl.

]kblfl`elhl ylhf d`pkclglr` dlcle `ceu b`aj`e`l, jko`duplh d`euhfj`hjlh

jlrkhl jaard`hls` dlr` bkrblfl` rkljs` ektlbac`se d` dlcle skc. ^ratk`h dlplt
d`o`drac`s`s dkhflh lsle jcar`dl ekclcu` pkhd`d`olh uhtuj wljtu ylhf slhflt clel.
 Hleuh, dkhflh blhtulh khz`e ylhf ldl d` dlcle tubuo, pratkac`s`s dlplt bkrclhfsuhf
dlcle wljtu ylhf s`hfjlt pldl suou tubuo.

Khz`e ekhgld` slclo sltu zlt pkht`hf ylhf ekhlr`j d` lcle. Lclslhhyl ylhf
 pkrtlel jlrkhl khz`e bujlhclo bkhdl o`dup, tktlp` bkhdl elt` ylhf d`bult acko skc
o`dup. Khz`e eke`c`j` iuhfs` skblfl` b`ajltlc`sltar yl`tu dlplt ekepkrmkplt prasks
sultu rkljs` j`e`l tlhpl `jut tkrc`blt dlcle rkljs` `tu. Dlcle sultu rkljs` j`e`l ylhf
tkrgld` khz`e ljlh bkrpkrlh dlcle rkljs` tkrskbut, tktlp` t`dlj ljlh `jut bkrublo
ekhgld` praduj jlrkhl khz`e ljlh jkeblc` jk bkhtuj lsc`hyl sktkclo rkljs` skcksl`.
Jltlc`s khz`e dlplt ekepkrmkplt prasks rkljs` dkhflh slhflt bl`j, b`lslhyl eackjuc <
khz`e dlplt bkjkrgl pldl skj`tlr <>>> eackjuc substrlt pkr ekh`t.
ekh`t.

^krlh khz`e ylhf bkriuhfs` skblfl` jltlc`sltar slhflt bkrpkhflruo tkroldlp

 pkr`st`wl-pkr`st`wl dlcle tubuo. Olc `h` d`jlrkhljlh khz`e skblfl` dktkre`hlh ylhf
elepu ekhkhtujlh jkmkpltlh bkrclhfsuhfhyl sultu rkljs` j`e`l ylhf tkrgld`.
Jkjurlhflh khz`e ljlh ekhykblbjlh tkoleblthyl glcur ektlbac`sek ylhf
ekhykblbjlh jkslclolh ektlbac`sek blwllh. ^krcu d`jktlou` bkrblfl` pkelolelh
ekhfkhl` khz`e, bl`j bkrupl strujturhyl, s`ilt-s`ilthyl, jcls`i`jls`hyl, dlh cl`hhyl
lflr dlplt ekhfktlou` blfl`elhl khz`e bkjkrgl skrtl dlplt ekhfo`hdlr` olc-olc ylhf
t`dlj d``hf`hjlh tkrgld` dlcle prasks ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh khz`e. [htuj `tu,
 pkelolelh ekhfkhl` olc-olc ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh khz`e ljlh d`blols dlcle
eljlclo `h`.

<.2.  Rueuslh Elslclo

Bkrdlslrjlh url`lh cltlr bkcljlhf, eljl dlplt d`rueusjlh elslclo skpkrt` bkr`jut 7

<.2.<.  Lpl pkhfkrt`lh khz`e1

<.2.2.  Blfl`elhl strujtur dlr` khz`e1
<.2.=.  Blfl`elhl mlrl jkrgl khz`e1
<.2.4.  Blfl`elhl s`ilt-s`ilt khz`e1
<.2.;.  Blfl`elhl jcli`jls` dlr` khz`e1
<.2.9.  Lpl slgl iljtar-iljtar ylhf ekepkhflruo` jkrgl khz`e1
<.2.6.  Lpl slgl elmle-elmle jkcl`hlh khz`e1
 
4 
 

<.=.  Tugulh ^khuc`slh

<.=.<.  Ekhfktlou` pkhfkrt`lh khz`e.

<.=.2.  Ekhfktlou` strujtur dlr` khz`e.
<.=.=.  Ekelole` mlrl jkrgl khz`e.
<.=.4.  Ekelole` s`ilt-s`ilt khz`e.
<.=.;.  Ekhfktlou` jcls`i`jls` dlr` khz`e.
 
<.=.9. Ekhfktlou` iljtar-iljtar ylhf ekepkhflruo` jkrgl khz`e.
<.=.6.  Ekhfktlou` elmle-elmle jkcl`hlh khz`e.

 
; 
 

BLB @@ 

^KEBLOL]LH

2.<.  ^khfkrt`lh Khz`e

Jltl khz`e bkrlslc dlr` Puhlh` –khzyek―

–khzyek―   ylhf bkrlrt` d` dlcle skc. Ekhurut
Juohk (<?6?), khz`e bkrlslc dlr` jltl –`– `h– dlh –zyek– ylhf bkrlrt` sksultu d` dlcle
rlf`. Khz`e ldlclo b`aeackjuc ylhf bkriuhfs` skblfl` jltlc`s ltlu skhylwl ylhf
elepu ekepkrmkplt prasks rkljs` tlhpl olb`s bkrkljs` dlcle sultu prasks rkljs`
j`e`l. B`cl zlt `h` t`dlj ldl, eljl prasks-prasks tkrskbut ljlh tkrgld` cleblt ltlu t`dlj
 bkrclhfsuhf slel skjlc`.

Khz`e ekrupljlh b`ajltlc`sltar arflh`j ylhf d`ols`cjlh arflh`sek o`dup d`

dlcle pratapclsel, ylhf tkrd`r` ltls pratk`h ltlu sultu skhylwl ylhf bkr`jltlh
dkhflh pratk`h, bkriuhfs` skblfl` skhylwl ylhf ekepkrmkplt prasks rkljs` tlhpl
olb`s bkrkljs` dlcle sultu rkljs` j`e`l. Olep`r skeul khz`e ekrupljlh
 pratk`h. Bkrdlslrjlh pkhkc`t`lh, khz`e ldlclo sultu pratk`h ylhf bkrupl eackjuc-
eackjuc bkslr tlhpl ekhflcle` pkrublolh strujtur j`e`l.

2.2.  ]trujtur dlr` Khz`e

Khz`e ekrupljlh pratk`h ylhf d`c`plt ekhgld` =D ylhf jaepckjs. T`lp khz`e
eke`c`j` bkhtuj dlh lcur tkrtkhtu dlcle strujtur =D ylhf ekhf`jlt substrlt. Bkhtuj
khz`e ylhf
ylhf strujturhyl
strujturhyl skepurhl dlh ljt`i ekhfjltlc`s d`skbut olcakhz`e.
olcakhz`e. Hleuh,
ldl gufl khz`e ylhf blf`lh lpakhz`e dlh fufus prastkt`jhyl t`dlj ekhyltu.
Olcakhz`e `h` tkrd`r` dlr`
dlr ` dul jaepahkh, yl`tu lpakhz`e dlh fufus prastkt`j.
Lpakhz`e ldlclo blf`lh khz`e ylhf bkrupl
skhylwl pratk`h ylhf ekhflhduhf b`hd`hf s`tk. s`tk. ]`s`
ljt`i ldlclo s`s` ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh substrlt.
]ubstlrt ldlclo zlt ylhf ljlh d`gld`jlh praduj. ]`s`
lcastkr`j ldlclo s`s` ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh
jailjtar(ljt`vltar) khz`e. ]`s` lcastkr`j dlplt d`flhffu
acko `ho`bltar hah-jaepkt`t`i ylhf bkrstrujtur slel
dkhflh jailjtar. @ho`b`tar ljlh ekhmkflo khz`e uhtuj

ekhfublo-ublo bkhtuj s`s` ljt`i(jlju). Blf`lh lpakhz`e bkrs`ilt t`dlj tlolh plhls.

 
9 
 

]kdlhfjlh fufus prastkt`j ltlu d`skbut gufl jailjtar `h` ekrupljlh skhylwl
hah-pratk`h Jailjtar dlplt ekhfublo-ublo bkhtuj s`s` ljt`i
ljt `i sko`hffl dlplt d`tkepkc`
substrlt tkrtkhtu. Jailjtar dlplt bkrupl jakhz`e ylhf ekrpljlh eackjuc arflh`j dlh
dlplt gufl bkrupl eackjuc lharflh`j. Jakhz`e ekrupljlh jailjtar bkrupl skhylwl
arflh`j(v`tle`h) ylhf bkr`jltlh skmlrl hah-javlckh dkhflh khz`e.

Jakhz`e ]khylwl ylhf D`p`hdlojlh

<.  To`le`h p`raiasilt Lcdko`dl

2.  Iclv`h ldkh`h d`hujckat`dl (ILD) Ltae o`drafkh
=.   H`jat`hle`dl ldkh`h d`hujckat`dl
d`hujckat`dl @ah o`dr`dl (O-)
(HLD)
4.  Jakhz`e L Fufus ls`c
;.  ^`r`dajslc iasilt Fufus le`ha
9.  ;‟-dkajs`ldkhas`cjablcle`h
;‟-dkajs`ldkhas`cjablcle`h Ltae O dlh fufus lcj`c
(jakhz`e B<2)
6.  B`as`t`h MA2 
?.  Tktrlo`draiaclt Fufus sltu-jlrbah cl`hhyl
0.  Ldkhas`l tr`iasilt Fufus iasilt
<>.  Iasialdkh`c sucilt Fufus sucilt

]kcl`h jailjtar ylhf bkrupl eackjuc arflh`j, ldl gufl jailjtar ylhf bkrupl
eackjuc lharflh`j. Jailjtar skhylwl arflh`j (`ah cafle) eke`c`j` `jltlh skmlrl
javlckh dkhflh khz`e.

Cafle Hlel Khz`e

Ik+2 dlh Ik+=  Ajs`dlsk s`tajrae, Jltlclsk, ^krajs`dlsk

Mu+2  Ajs`dlsk s`tajrae
Wh+2 ^acyekrlsk DHL, Lho`drlsk jlrbah`j, Dko`drafkhlsk
lcjaoac

Ef+2  Okjsaj`hlsk, 9-iasiltlsk fcujasl

Eh+2   Lrf`hlsk
J +  J`hlsk p`ruvlt (gufl ekekrcujlh Ef+2)
 H`+2  [rklsk
Ea Rkdujtlsk h`trlt
]k ^krajs`dlsk fcutls`ah

2.=.  Mlrl Jkrgl Khz`e

]kpkrt` d`gkclsjlh skbkcuehyl, blowl khz`e olhyl dlplt bkjkrgl dkhflh substrlt
ylhf tkplt. Khz`e bkjkrgl
bkjkrgl dkhflh mlrl ekhkepkc pldl pkreujllh eackjuc zlt-zlt
ylhf bkrkljs` dlh dkhflh dke`j`lh elepu ekepkrmkplt rkljs`. ^krmkpltlh tkrgld`
jlrkhl khz`e ekhuruhjlh khkrf` pkhfljt`ilh ylhf dkhflh skhd`r`hyl ljlh
ekepkreudlo tkrgld`hyl rkljs`. ]kblf`lh bkslr khz`e bkjkrgl skmlrl jols, ylhf
 bkrlrt` skt`lp khz`e olhyl dlplt bkjkrgl pldl sltu elmle skhylwl
sk hylwl ltlu
lt lu rkljs` j`e`l.
 
6 
 

Olc `h` d`skblbjlh jlrkhl ldlhyl pkrbkdllh strujtur j`e`l t`lp khz`e ylhf bkrs`ilt
tktlp. ]kblfl` mahtao, khz`e -le`clsk olhyl dlplt d`fuhljlh uhtuj pkraebljlh plt`
ekhgld` fcujasl.
Ldl dul tkar` ylhf ekhgkclsjlh blfl`elhl sultu khz`e dlplt bkjkrgl sksul`
dkhflh iuhfs`hyl pldl sultu prasks dlcle tubuo.
L.  Tkar` Juhm` dlh Fkebaj

^ldl tlouh <?0>-lh, Ke`c I`smokr ekeadkcjlh blowl khz`e t`dlj dlplt
 bkjkrgl lplb`cl t`dlj bkrjl`tlh dkhflh substrlt ylhf ekepuhyl` bkhtuj spks`i`j
ltlu slel dkhflh s`s` ylhf ljt`i dlr` khz`e. Dlplt gufl d`jltljlh g`jl olhyl
substrlt ylhf eke`c`j` bkhtuj mamaj skmlrl spks`i`j ylhf b`sl bkroubuhflh
tkroldlp khz`e tkrskbut.
Tkar` `h` d`hleljlh tkar` juhm` dlh fkebaj. Olc `h` d`jlrkhljlh substrlt
d`uepleljlh fkebaj dlh khz`e d`pkruepleljlh skblfl` juhm`hyl. D`elhl
juhm` dlh fkebaj olrus dlr` eadkc ylhf slel sko`hffl eke`c`j` jkmamajlh
dkhflh s`s` ylhf slel lflr dlplt ekebujl. Tkar` mlrl jkrgl khz`e `h` eke`c`j`
jkjurlhflh yljh` tlj elepu ekhgkclsjlh blfl`elhl jkstlb`clh dlr` khz`e.
Jkstlb`clh tkrskbut d`dlplt jkt`jl pkrlc`olh t`t`j pldl rkljs` khz`e
B.  Tkar` Jkmamajlh @hdujs`

Tkar` `h` d`jkeujljlh acko Dlh`kc Jasoclhd pldl tlouh <0;?. Ekhuruthyl,
s`s` ljt`i khz`e bkrs`ilt ickjs`bkc. Lj`blthyl, s`s` ljt`i khz`e dlplt bkrublo bkhtuj
ekhykhyul`jlh bkhtuj substrlt. Tkar` `h` sksul` dkhflh ekjlh`sek jkrgl khz`e
ylhf sksuhfuohyl. Rkljs` lhtlrl substrlt dlh khz`e bkrclhfsuf jlrkhl ldlhyl
`hdujs` eackjuc substrlt tkroldlp
t kroldlp eackjuc khz`e.
Ekhurut tkar` `h`, s`s` ljt`i khz`e eke`c`j` s`ilt ickjs`bkc dkhflh strujtur
substrlt. Jkt`jl substrlt ekelsuj` s`s` ljt`i khz`e, eljl khz`e ljlh tkr`hdujs`
dlh jkeud`lh ekhfublo bkhtujhyl skd`j`t sko`hffl ekhflj`bltjlh pkrublolh
s`s` ljt`i ylhf skeucl t`dlj mamaj ekhgld` mamaj. Jkeud`lh tkrgld` pkhf`jltlh

substrlt acko khz`e ylhf skclhguthyl substrlt d`ublo ekhgld` praduj dlh skfkrl
d`ckplsjlh. Khz`e ljlh jkeblc` pldl jkldllh skeucl dlh s`lp uhtuj ekhf`jlt
substrlt bkr`juthyl.
 
? 
 

2.4.  ]`ilt  ”  ]`ilt

 ]`ilt Khz`e
l.  B`ajltlc`sltar
Bkrs`ilt jltlc`sltar yl`tu khz`e ldlclo skhylwl jltlc`s ylhf ekepkrmkplt
skbulo rkljs` j`e`l tlhpl `jut bkrkljs`. ]kdlhfjlh khz`e bkrlslc dlr` arflh`sek,
eljl d`skbut gufl skblfl` b`ajltlc`sltar. Tlhpl jkold`rlh khz`e, sultu rkljs` `tu
slhflt sujlr tkrgld`. ]kekhtlrl dkhflh jkold`rlh khz`e jkmkpltlh rkljs`hyl dlplt
ekh`hfjlt slepl` <>6 jlc`. ]kblfl` mahtao, khz`e jltlclsk ylhf ekhflhduhf `ah
 bks`(Ik) elepu ekhfurl`jlh ;.>>>.>>> eackjuc o`drafkh pkrajs`dl(O2A2) pkr
ekh`t pldl >>M. O`drafkh pkrajs`dl olhyl dlplt d`url`jlh acko ltae bks`, tktlp`
sltu ltae bks` ljlh ekekrcujlh wljtu =>> tlouh uhtuj ekhfurl`jlh skgueclo
eackjuc O2A2  ylhf acko sltu eackjuc jltlcsk ekhflhduhf sltu ltae bks`
d`url`jlh dlcle sltu dkt`j.
b.  Tkreaclb`c
]trujtur dlr` sultu khz`e t`dlj cl`h ldlclo pratk`h, jlrkhl ljt`v`tls
jltlc`t`jhyl bkrflhtuhf pldl `htkfr`tls strujturhyl skblfl` pratk`h, wlclupuh ldl
 bkbkrlpl skhylwl ylhf dlplt bkrt`hdlj skblfl` jltlc`s, e`slchyl RHL. D`elhl
s`ilt pratk`h ldlclo dlplt ruslj pldl suou ylhf tkrcleplu plhls ltlu d`skbut gufl
 bkrs`ilt tkreaclb`c. Khz`e eke`c`j` suou apt`eue uhtuj dlplt ekhglclhjlh

tuflshyl. [euehyl pldl suou =6

=6M. Khz`e ljlh `hljt`i pldl suou d`blwlo <>
<>M
dlh ljlh ekhflcle` dkhlturls` pldl suou ckb`o dlr` 9>
9> M. Tkrdlplt pkhfkmulc`lh,
skpkrt` pldl jkcaepaj bljtkr` purbl, skpkrt` jkcaepaj ektolhafkh, ekrkjl
eke`c`j` khz`e ylhf bkjkrgl pldl suousu ou d` ?>
?>M.
m.  ]pks`i`j
Khz`e ljlh ekhf`jlt substrlt ylhf elepu uhtuj bkr`jltlh dkhflh s`s` ljt`i
khz`e. Olc tkrskbut d`jlrkhljlh s`s` ljt`ihyl ltlu pkreujllh tkeplt ekckjlthyl
substrlt olhyl mamaj dkhflh pkreujllh substrlt tkrtkhtu slgl. ]`ilt spks`i`j khz`e
`h` d`gld`jlh skblfl` dlslr pkhlellh khz`e. Hlel khz`e gufl b`lslhyl d`leb`c
dlr` gkh`s substrlt ylhf d``jlt ltlu gkh`s rkljs` ylhf bkrclhfsuhf.
d.  Bkjkrgl Baclj Blc`j
Bkbkrlpl khz`e jkrglhyl dlplt baclj blc`j. Khz`e ylhf ekekmlo skhylwl
L ekhgld` skhylwl B, gufl khz`e ekeblhtu rkljs` ekebkhtuj skhylwl B dlr`
skhylwl L. Mahtaohyl ldlclo khz`e c`plsk dlplt bkjkrgl uhtuj ekhfjltlc`s`s
eackjuc ckelj ekhgld` jaepahkh pkhyusuhhyl, yl`tu lsle ckelj dlh fc`skrac
skrtl dlplt gufl ekebkhtuj ckelj dlr` jaepahkh pkhyusuhhyl.
Ckelj ↔  fc`skrac + lsle ckelj  
k.  T`dlj Ekhkhtujlh Lrlo Rkljs`
Khz`e bujlhclo ylhf ekhkhtujlh jkelhl lrlo rkljs` tkrskbut ljlh bkrglclh.
]khylwl ylhf ckb`o d`butuojlh `lclo pa`h dlr` lrlo skbulo rkljs` j`e`l. E`slchyl
tubuo jkjurlhflh fcujasl, eljl ljlh dlplt ekekmlo mldlhflh bkrupl fc`jafkh
dlh gufl skblc`jhyl.
i.  Olhyl D`pkrcujlh dlcle Gueclo ]kd`j`t
Dlcle ekepkrmkplt rkljs` plst` ljlh ekekrcujlh khz`e. Gueclo khz`e
ylhf d`pljl` skblfl` jltlc`s t`dlj pkrcu blhylj. Olc `tu d`jlrkhljlh sltu eackjuc
khz`e dlplt bkjkrgl bkrjlc`-jlc`, lslcjlh eackjuc tkrskbut t`dlj ruslj.

 
0 
 

f.  Ekrupljlh
Ekrupljlh Jaca`d
J aca`d
Khz`e tkrsusuh ltls jaepahkh pratk`h. Eljl dlr` `tu s`ilt-s`ilt khz`e dlplt
d`facahfjlh skblfl` jaca`d. Khz`e eke`c`j` pkreujllh lhtlr plrt`jkc ylhf slhflt
 bkslr sko`hffl b`dlhf ljt`v`tlshyl
ljt`v`tlshyl gufl bkslr.
o.  Elepu Ekhuruhjlh Khkrf` Ljt`vls`
Khkrf` ljt`vls` sultu rkljs` ldlclo gueclo khkrf` dlcle jlcar` ylhf
d`pkrcujlh uhtuj ekeblwl skeul eackjuc pldl < eac skhylwl pldl suou tkrt tkrtkhtu
khtu
ekhugu t`hfjlt trlhs`s` pldl puhmlj bltls khkrf`. Lplb`cl sultu rkljs` j`e`l
d`tleblojlh jltlc`s yl`tu khz`e, eljl khkrf` ljt`vls` dlplt d`turuhjlh dlh rkljs`
ljlh bkrglclh dkhflh mkplt.

2.;.  Jcls`i`jls` Khz`e

Tkrdlplt ckb`o dlr` 2>>> gkh`s khz`e bkrbkdl ylhf tkclo d`jktlou`. Jcls`i`jls`
khz`e dlplt d`facahfjlh ekhgld` bkbkrlpl. ^khffacahflh khz`e dlplt d`bkdljlh
 bkrdlslrjlh tkeplt bkjkrglhyl, mlrl tkrbkhtujhyl, dlh gufl bkrdlslrjlh s`stke
 pkhlellh khz`e `htkrhls`ahlc dlr` @[B.
L.  Bkrdlslrjlh Tkeplt Bkjkrglhyl
<)  Khdakhz`e d`skbut gufl khz`e `htrlskcuckr, yl`tu khz`e ylhf bkjkrglhyl d`
dlcle skc. [euehyl ekrupljlh khz`e ylhf d`fuhljlh uhtuj prasks s`htks`s
d` dlcle skc dlh uhtuj pkebkhtujlh khkrf`(LT^) ylhf bkrfuhl uhtuj prasks
jko`duplh skc, e`slchyl dlcle prasks rksp`rls`.  
2)  Kjsakhz`e d`skbut gufl khz`e kjstrlskcuckr, yl`tu khz`e ylhf bkjkrglhyl d`
culr skc. [euehyl  bkriuhfs` uhtuj –ekhmkrhljlh― substrlt skmlrl o`drac`s`s,
uhtuj d`gld`jlh eackjuc ylhf ckb`o skdkrolhl dkhflh bkrlt eackjuc ckb`o
rkhdlo sko`hffl dlplt elsuj ekckwlt` ekebrlh skc. Khkrf` ylhf d`bkblsjlh
 pldl rkljs` pkekmlolh substrlt d` culr skc t`dlj d`fuhljlh dlcle prasks
jko`duplh skc.
B.  Bkrdlslrjlh Mlrl Tkrbkhtujhyl
<)  Khz`e jahst`tut`i, yl`tu khz`e ylhf gueclohyl d`pkhflruo` jldlr
substrlthyl. D` dlcle
dlcle skc tkrdlplt khz`e ylhf
ylhf ekrupljlh blf`lh
blf`lh dlr` susuhlh

skc harelc,
 pldl sko`hffl
skc o`dup. Vlclukhz`e tkrskbut skclcu
puh dke`j`lh ldl ueuehyl
ldl khz`e dlclel gueclo
ylhf gueclohy
gueclohyl tktlp
d`pkhflruo`
jldlr substrlthyl, mahtaohyl skpkrt` khz`e le`clsk. ]kdlhfjlh khz`e-khz`e
ylhf bkrpkrlh dlcle prasks rksp`rls`, gueclohyl t`dlj d`pkhflruo` acko jldlr
substrlthyl.
2)  Khz`e ldlpt`i, ldlclo khz`e ylhf pkebkhtujlhhyl d`rlhfslhf acko ldlhyl
substrlt. ^krublolh c`hfjuhflh e`jrabl dlplt ekhf`hdujs` tkrbkhtujhyl
khz`e tkrtkhtu. @hdujs` ekhykblbjlh jkmkpltlh s`htks`s sultu khz`e dlplt
d`rlhfslhf slepl` bkbkrlpl r`bu jlc`. ]kblfl` mahtao khz`e ldlpt`i ldlclo
khz`e -flcljtas`dlsk ylhf dols`cjlh acko bljtkr` K.mac`
bljtkr`  K.mac` ylhf
 ylhf d`tuebuojlh d`
dlcle ekd`ue ylhf ekhflhduhf cljtasl. Eucl-eucl  K.mac`  K.mac`   t`dlj dlplt
ekhffuhljlh cljtasl sko`hffl lwlchyl t`dlj hleplj ldlhyl pkrtuebuolh
dlh sktkclo bkbkrlpl wljtu blru ekhlepljjlh pkrtuebuolh. ]kclel ilsk
tkrskbut  K.mac`
 K.mac`   ekebkhtuj khz`e -flcljtas`dlsk ylhf d`fuhljlh uhtuj
ekraeblj cljtasl. 
 
<
 

M.  Bkrdlslrjlh ]`stke ^khlellh Khz`e @htkrhls`ahlc dlr` @[B

]`stke pkhlellh khz`e d`ltur acko @htkrhlt`ahlc [h`ah ai B`amoke`stry(@[B)
eucl` tlouh <09<. Jkeud`lh khz`e d`blf` ekhgld` 9 jkcaepaj bkrdlslrjlh rkljs`
ylhf d`jltlc`shyl.
<)  Ajs`durkdujtlsk,   ekhfjltlc`s rkljs` rkdujs`-ajs`dls`(trlhsikr kckjtrah)
tkroldlp tkroldlp bkrblfl` fufus. Mahtaohyl skpkrt` fcujasl ajs`dlsk, lcjaoac
dko`drafkhlsk, dlh p`ruvlt o`drafkhlsk.  
2)  Trlhsikrlsk, ekhfjltlc`s bkrblfl` rkljs` trlhsikr fufus iuhfs`ahlc dlr`
eackjuc dahar jk eackjuc ljskptarhyl. ]lclo sltu subjkcaepaj khz`e
trlhsikrlsk ldlclo khz`e-khz`e j`hlsk ylhf ekhfkhdlc`jlh ektlbac`sek
dkhflh glclh ekhtrlhsikr fufus iasilt dlr` LT^ jk eackjuc cl`h. Mahtaohyl
skpkrt` trlhsekt`clsk, trlhslcdaclsk, dlh trlhsjktaclsk. 
trlhsjktaclsk.  
=)  O`draclsk, ekhfj
ekhfjltlc`s
ltlc`s rkljs`
rkljs ` pkhleblolh eackjuc l`r pldl sultu `jltlh, ylhf
jkeud`lh d`clhgutjlh dkhflh rkljs` pkhfurl`lh ltlu o`drac`s`s. Mahtaohyl
skpkrt` pratklsk, le`clsk, skcuclsk, pkjt`hlsk, dlh elctlsk. 
elctlsk.  
4)  C`lsk, ekhfjltlc`s rkljs` pkhleblolh eackjuc l`r, leah`l, ltlu
jlrbahd`ajs`dl pldl sultu `jltlh rlhfjlp, ltlu gufl ekckplsjlh l`r, leah`l,
ltlu jlrbahd`ajs`dl dlh ekebkhtuj `jltlh rlhfjlp. Mahtaohyl p`ruvlt

dkjlrbajs`clsk.  
dkjlrbajs`clsk.
;)  @saekrlsk, ekhfjltlc`s bkrlfl` rkljs` `saekr`sls`, lhtlrl cl`h `saekr`sls` C
ekhgld` D, rkljs` eutls` (pkrp`h dlolh pas`s` sultu fufus), dlh cl`hhyl.
E`slchyl skpkrt` lclh`h rlskelsk. 
rlskelsk.  
9)  C`flsk, ekhfjltlc`s rkljs` d`elhl dul fufus j`e`l d`sltujlh ltlu d``jltjlh
(c`fls`) dkhflh ekhffuhljlh khkrf` ylhf bkrlslc dlr` LT^, tkrelsuj
d`lhtlrlhyl khz`e-khz`e ylhf ekhfjltlc`s pkebkhtujlh `jltlh M-A, M-], M-
 H, M-M. Mahtaohl
Mahtaohl ldlclo t`aj`hlsk. 
t`aj`hlsk. 
 Ha Hlel Khz`e Gkh`s Rkljs` ]ubjkcls
Dko`drafkhlsk
Ajs`dlsk
Rkdujtlsk
< Ajs`durkdutlsk ^krajs`dlsk
Jltlclsk
O`drajs`clsk
Trlhslcdaclsk
Trlhsjktaclsk
Iasiar`ctrlhsikrlsk
2 Trlhsikrlsk
J`hlsk
Iasiaeutlsk
Kstkrlsk
Fc`jas`dlsk
^kpt`dlsk
Iasiltlsk
O`draclsk T`aclsk
=
Iasiac`plsk
Le`dlsk
Dkle`hlsk
Rkbahujcklsk
 
<< 
 

Dkjlrbajs`clsk
Lcdaclsk
O`drltlsk
4 C`lsk
Dko`drltlsk
]`htlsk

Kp`ekrlsk
Rlskelsk
; @saekrlsk @saekrlsk
Eutlsk (t`dlj skeul)

]`htktlsk
Jlrbajs`clsk
9 C`flsk

2.9.  Iljtar ylhf Ekepkhflruo` Jkrgl Khz`e

Ljt`v`tls khz`e dlplt d`pkhflruo` acko bkbkrlpl iljtar. Ldl skt`dljhyl ; iljtar
ylhf dlplt ekepkhflruo` jkrgl khz`e, yl`tu 7
l.  ]uou

slhflt
Jkrgl sultu khz`e sl hflt d`pkhflruo` acko suou c`hfjuhflhhyl. ]kt`lp jkhl`jlh
suou <>
<>M, jkmkpltlh khz`e ljlh ekhgld` dul jlc` c`plt, slepl` bltls suou tkrtkhtu.
Khz`e dlh pratk`h pldl ueuehyl d`hahljt`ijlh acko suou t`hff`. Khz`e bkrdlrlo

 plhls dlh elhus`l bkjkrgl plc`hf ki`s`kh

k i`s`kh pldl suou =6
=6 M, skdlhfjlh khz`e okwlh
 bkrdlrlo d`hf`h pldl suou 2;
2;M. ^ldl suou > >M, khz`e ekhgld` t`dlj ljt`i dlh ljlh
jkeblc` ljt`i pldl suou harelc. Jkhl`jlh suou ckb`o clhgut ljlh ekhflj`bltjlh
ekhuruhhyl ljt`v`tls
ljt`v`tls khz`e
khz `e dlh pldl ljo`rhyl ekruslj khz`e.
b.  Dkrlglt Jklslelh (pO) 

^krublolh pO ljlh ekepkhflruo` jkmkpltlh rkljs` khz`e jlrkhl bkrublohyl

dkrlglt `ah`sls` fufus lsle dlh blsl dlr` khz`e. Khz`e ljlh bkjkrgl pldl pO
tkrtkhtu, ueuehyl pldl hktrlc, jkmulc` bkbkrlpl gkh`s khz`e ylhf dlplt bkjkrgl

 
<2 
 

 pldl sulslhl lsle ltlu sulslhl blsl. G`jl khz`e ylhf bkjkrgl apt`eue pldl pO
hktrlc d`tkepltjlh pldl sulslhl lsle ltlu blsl, khz`e tkrskbut t`dlj ljlh bkjkrgl
ltlu blojlh ruslj dlh bkf`tu gufl skblc`jhyl. Jkblhyljlh khz`e ekepuhyl` pO
apt`eue ekhdkjtl`
ekhdkjtl` 6 dlh skblf`lh jkm`c cl`hhyl ekepuhy
ekepuhyl`
l` pO apt`eue
apt`eue ylhf
slhflt rkhdlo(skj`tlr 2,>) ltlu slhflt t`hff`(skj`tlr 0,>).
m.  Jahskhtrls
Jahskhtrls`` Khz`e

]kelj`h t`hff` jahsktrls` khz`e, eljl jkmkpltlh rkljs` ljlh ekh`hfjlt o`hffl
 bltls jahskhtrls` tkrtkhtu. Hleuh, ols`c o`drac`s`s substrlt ljlh jahstlh dkhflh
hl`jhyl jahskhtrls` khz`e. Dlplt d`jltljlh blowl jkmkpltlh rkljs` khz`elt`j
 bkrblhd`hf curus dkhflh jahskhtrls` khz`e. Olc `h` d`skblbjlh
d`sk blbjlh pkhleblolh khz`e
sudlo t`dlj kikjt`i clf`.
d.  Jahskhtrls` ]ubstrlt 

Jkmkpltlh rkljs` ylhf d`jltlc`s acko khz`e slhflt d`pkhflruo` acko jahskhtrls`
substrlt. ^ldl jahskhtrls` substrlt ylhf slhflt rkhdlo, jkmkpltlh rkljs` ylhf
d`jltlc`s khz`e gufl slhflt rkhdlo. ]kblc`jhyl, jkmkpltlh rkljs` ljlh ekh`hfjlt
dkhflh ekh`hfjlthyl jahskhtrls` substrlt slepl` tkrmlpl` t`t`j tkrtkhtu, yl`tu t`t`j
 bltls jkmkpltlh rkljs` eljs`eue. ]ktkclo t`t`j bltls, khz`e ekhgld` gkhuo acko
substrlthyl, sko`hffl t`dlj dlplt bkriuhfs` ckb`o mkplt. ^kebltls jkmkpltlh
khz`elt`s `h` ldlclo jkmkpltlh pkhfurl`lh jaepckjs khz`e-substrlt ekhgld` praduj
dlh khz`e bkbls.
k.  Ljt`vltar dlh @ho`b`tar 

Bkbkrlpl khz`e ekekrcujlh ljt`vltar dlcle rkljs` jltlc`shyl. Ljt`vltar

ldlclo skhylwl ltlu `ah ylhf dlplt ekh`hfjltjlh jkmkpltlh rkljs` khz`elt`s.
Mahtao dlr` ljt`vltar skpkrt` `ah cafle(Ml, Ef, H`, Eh, Mc) dlh flrle dlr` cafle
lcjlc` dlcle jkldllh khmkr yl`tu pldl jldlr 2%-;%.
2% -;%.
 
<= 
 

]kdlhfjlh `ho`b`tar ekrupljlh sultu zlt j`e`l tkrtkhtu ylhf dlplt

ekhfoleblt ljt`v`tls khz`e. ^ldl ueuehyl mlrl jkrgl `ho`b`tar ldlclo dkhflh
ekhykrlhf s`s` ljt`i khz`e sko`hffl khz`e t`dlj dlplt bkr`jltlh dkhflh substrlt
sko`hfl iuhfs` jltlc`t`jhyl tkrflhffu. @ho`bltar ldl 2 elmle, yl`tu `ho`b`tar
rkvkrs`bck dlh
rkvkrs`bck  dlh `ho`b`tar `rrkvkrs`bck
`rrkvkrs`bck..

@ho`b`tar rkvkrs`bck
rkvkrs`bck   ldlclo `ho`b`tar ylhf dlplt bkjkrgl skmlrl blc`j. @ho`b`tar

`h` tkrblf` ekhgld` 2, yl`tu `ho`b`tar jaepkt`t`i dlh `ho`b`tar hah-jaepkt`t`i.

@ho`b`tar jaepkt`t`i   ldlclo zlt pkhfoleblt ylhf eke`c`j` strujtur e`r`p dkhflh
substrlt dlh bkrjaepkt`s` uhtuj bkr`jltlh dkhflh s`s` ljt`i khz`e. @ho`b`tar `h` dlplt
d`o`clhfjlh dkhflh ekhleblo substrlt. ]kdlhfjlh `ho`bltar hah-jaepkt`t`i  ldlclo
  ldlclo
zlt pkhfoleblt ylhf tkr`jlt pldl s`s` lcaskhtr`j khz`e sko`hffl s`s` ljt`i khz`e
 bkrublo. @ho`b`tar
@ho`b`tar `h` t`dlj
t `dlj dlplt d`oclhfjlh
d`oclhfjlh dkhflh ekhleblo substrlt.
@ho`b`tar `rrkvkrs`bck
`rrkvkrs`bck   ldlclo zlt pkhfoleblt ylhf bkjkrgl skmlrl t`dlj dlplt
 blc`j. Wlt pkhfoleblt `h` bkr`jltlh jult dkhflh s`s` ljt`i khz`e sko`hffl bkhtuj
khz`e bkrublo. Ljt`v`tls jltlc`j khz`e ljlh ekhgld` bkrjurlhf. Olebltlh `h`
d`skblbjlh dkstrujs` ltlu ead`i`jls` fufus khz`e.

2.6.  Elmle-Elmle Jkcl`hlh Khz`e

Khz`e slhflt d`pkrcujlh uhtuj prasks ektlbac`sek. ^khfkrt`lh ektlbac`sek

ldlclo rkljs`-rkljs` j`e`l ylhf tkrgld` dlcle tubuo uhtuj ekhfols`cjlh khkrf`,
tkrelsuj d`lhtlrlhyl pkekmlolh ckelj, jlrbao`drlt, dlh pratk`h. Jkt`jl pradujs`
khz`e tkrflhffu, eljl prasks ektlbac`sek d` dlcle tubuo puh ljlh `jut tkrflhffu.
Bkr`jut ldlclo bkbkrlpl gkh`s pkhylj`t ylhf d`skblbjlh jlrkhl jkcl`hlh khz`e.
l.  ^khylj`t Ilbry 
Jko`clhflh khz`e d` c`sasae dlplt ekhflj`bltjlh pkhuepujlh zlt bkrlmuh
sko`hffl tkrgld` flhffulh ektlbac`j skpkrt` pkhylj`t Ilbry. ^khylj`t `h` ldlclo
 pkhylj`t fkhkt`jl ylhf glrlhf bkrclju tktlp` ekrupljlh pkhylj`t
pkhylj`t skr`us ylhf
d`ols`cjlh dlr` pkh`ebuhlh ckelj ylhf d`skbut fcabatr`lasycmkrle`dk(FC-=) dlcle
 pkebucuo dlrlo, f`hglc, glhtuhf, slrli, dlh arflh cl`hhyl. ^khylj`t `h` d`skblbjlh
acko jkjurlhflh khz`e -flcljtas`dlsk. Fkglclh pkhylj`t Ilbry ekc`put` dkele,
tubuo suc`t bkrjkr`hflt, d`lrk ltlu elclo skebkc`t, hykr`, jlj`, ltlu jkskeutlh d`
tuhfjl`.
b.  Ikh`cjktahur`l 
Ikh`cjktahur`l ldlclo jkcl`hlh fkhkt`jl clhfjl ylhf ekhykblbjlh lsle
le`ha ylhf d`skbut ikh`clclh`h ekhuepuj d` dlcle tubuo. Jahd`s` `h` d`skbkbjlh
acko tkrgld`hyl jkmlmltlh pldl fkh ylhf ekeblhtu ekhm`ptljlh khz`e ylhf
d`butuojlh uhtuj ekekmlo ikh`clclh`h. Tlhpl khz`e pokhyclclh`hk oydraxyclsk,
tubuo t`dlj b`sl ekeprasks ikh`clclh`h dlh lj`blthyl ikh`clclh`h ljlh ekhuepuj
dlcle dlrlo dlh atlj. Iljtar pkhykblb pkhylj`t `h` ldlclo iljtar jkturuhlh dlr`
arlhf tul. Fkglclhyl bkrupl jktkrbkcljlhflh ekhtlc, flhffulh t`hfjlo clju,
 pkrtuebuolh ylhf cleblh, kp`ckps`, trkear, dlh blu lplj pldl hlils, ur`hk, juc`t,
juc`t,
ltlu rlebut.

 
<4 
 

m.  ^khylj`t Tly-]lmos 

^khylj`t `h` d`skblbjlh acko jurlhfhyl khz`e okxasle`h`dlsk L(Okx-L).
Khz`e `h` ekekmlo zlt ckelj ylhf d`skbut FE2 flhfc`as`dk dlcle skc-skc atlj.
Tlhpl khz`e tkrskbut, ckelj ekhuepuj d` skc-skc slrli dlh ekrusljhyl. Fkglcl
 pkhylj`t `h` dlplt bkrupl ldlhyl b`ht`j ekrlo d` eltl, tkrgld` jkglhf, dlh gufl
o`clhfhyl iuhfs` pkhfc`oltlh skrtl pkhdkhflrlh.
d.  ^khylj`t Elpck ]yrup [r`hk 
^khylj`t Elpck ]yrup [r`hk ldlclo flhffulh ektlbac`sek ylhf d`skblbjlh
acko pkhuruhlh iuhfs` jaepckjs khz`e -jktalm`d dkoydrafkhlsk. Fkglcl jcls`j
Elpck ]yrup [r`hk D`sklsk(E][D) pldl bly` d`tlhdl` dkhflh blu s`rup elpckelpck  
 pldl skruekh dlh l`r skh` pldl e`hffu-e`hffu pkrtlel. G`jl t`dlj d`ablt`, bly`
dlplt ekhflcle` cksu, jurlhf eljlh, flflc hlils, d``jut` acko jael dlh jkelt`lh
d`h` lj`blt pkebkhfjljlh atlj.
k.  ^khylj`t Ourckr 
^khylj`t Ourckr d`skblbjlh acko khz`e dki`s`khs` -<-`durah`dlsk.
Jkjurlhflh khz`e `h` dlplt ekhykblbjlh pkhuepujlh eackjuc eujapac`sljlr`dl.
Bly` dkhflh pkhylj`t `h` tleplj harelc sllt clo`r, tktlp` sktkclo khle buclh wlglo
 bly` ljlh tkrc`olt jlslr. ^kebkslrlh olt` dlplt tkrlbl skrtl okrh`l ueb`c`jlc`s dlh

`hfu`hlc`s euhfj`h euhmuc. Fkglcl flhffulh jafh`t`i gufl dlplt tkrgld`, skpkrt`
jksuc`tlh bkrp`j`r dlh bkclglr, jksuc`tlh bkrb`mlrl, dlh o`pkrljt`v`tls jkt`jl lhlj
ekelsuj` us`l blc`tl.

 
<; 
 

BLB @@@ 
^KH[T[^

=.<.  Jks`epuclh

Khz`e ldlclo skhylwl arflh`j ylhf eke`c`j` pkrlh skblfl` jltlc`s, yl`tu
uhtuj ekepkrmkplt prasks dlh rkljs` j`e`l ylhf skdlhf bkrclhfsuhf. Khz`e
 bkjkrgl skmlrl spks`i`j olhyl pldl sltu gkh`s substrlt. Hleuh, bkbkrlpl khz`e dlplt
 bkjkrgl pldl bkbkrlpl gkh`s substrlt. Khz`e ekrupljlh pratk`h jaepckjs ylhf
slhflt bkrpkrlh pkht`hf blf` eljocuj o`dup. Blhylj gkh`s khz`e ylhf d`tkeujlh,
ylhf dlplt d`jcls`i`jls`jlh bkrdlslrjlh mlrl tkrbkhtujhyl,
tkr bkhtujhyl, tkeplt tkrbkhtujhyl, dlh
 gufl dlr` pkhlellhhyl ylhf
ylhf ekhgld` 9 facahflh bkrdlslrjlh @[B.

Ekjlh`sek jkrgl khz`e dlplt d`eadkcjlh ekclcu` tkar` juhm` fkebaj dlh
tkar` jkmamajlh `hdujs`. ]`ilt-s`ilt khz`e ljlh ekepkhflruo` blfl`elhl khz`e
dlplt bkjkrgl. Bkbkrlpl iljtar skpkrt` suou, pO, jahskhtrls` khz`e, jahskhtrls`
substrlt, dlh ldlhyl jt`vltar skrtl `ho`b`tar dlplt ekepkhflruo` jkrgl khz`e.
Jkcl`hlh dlr` bkbkrlpl gkh`s khz`e dlplt ekhykblbjlh tkrgld`hyl pkhylj`t-pkhylj`t
tkrtkhtu ylhf bkrblolyl dlh gufl dlplt ekhuruh jkpldl jkturuhlh hlht`hyl.

=.2.  ]lrlh

Eljlclo ylhf skdkrolhl `h` okhdljhyl d`gld`jlh eat`vls` bkclglr blf`

 pkeblml uhtuj ekhfktlou` olc-olc ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh khz`e, bl`j eucl` dlr` dlr `
 pkhfkrt`lh, strujturhyl, blfl`elhl khz`e dlplt bkjkrgl, jcls`i`jls` khz`e, iljtar-
iljtar ylhf dlplt ekepkhflruo` jkrgl khz`e, dlh gufl pkhylj`t-pkhylj`t ylhf
d`skblbjlh acko jkcl`hlh khz`e. D`olrlpjlh pkeblml dlplt ekhfktlou` dlh
ekelole` dkhflh bl`j olc-olc ylhf bkrjl`tlh dkhflh khz`e, tkrckb`o clf` khz`e
ldlclo skhylwl ylhf slhflt pkht`hf blf` eljocuj o`dup. 

 
<9 
 

DLITLR ^[]TLJL

Vloyuh`, ]r`. (2><6). B`aj`e`l

(2><6). B`aj`e`l Khz`e dlh Jlrbao`drlt 
Jlrbao`drlt . Coajskuelwk 7 [h`elc ^rkss.

]uolrl. (2>>?). Dlslr-Dlslr
(2>>?). Dlslr-Dlslr B`aj`e`l. Blhduhf7
B`aj`e`l. Blhduhf7 ^r`sel ^rkss.

]ue`ls`o, H. H., & Bud`lh`, H. H. (2><9). B`acaf`

(2><9). B`acaf` Dlslr dlh B`acaf` ^krjkeblhflh.
^krjkeblhflh. Gljlrtl
 Gljlrtl
]kcltlh7 ^usd`j ]DE Jkskoltlh.

Ylsudkvlh, D. E., & Yl`dylhltolh, J. (2><=). Tkxtbaaj ai B`amoke`stry iar Ekd`mlc

]tudkhts (]kvkht Kd`t`ah). Hkw
Kd`t`ah). Hkw Dkco`7 Glypkk Bratokrs Ekd`mlc ^ubc`sokrs.

Dw`wlt`, ]. (2><=, Havkebkr 2?). ]trujtur Khz`e. Rktr`kvkd

Khz`e. Rktr`kvkd Dkskebkr <<, 2>2>, irae
ottps:7//www.sc`dksolrk/hkt/eab`ck/sr`dw`wlt`/strujtur-khz`e.mae

Kdrl, R. (2><6, Havkebkr 9). ^khfkrt`lh

9).  ^khfkrt`lh dlh ]`ilt-]`ilt
]`ilt-]`ilt Khz`e.
Khz`e. Rktr`kvkd Dkskebkr <2,
2>2>, irae bcaf.rulhffuru.mae

Iltr`l, G. (2>2>). C`el
(2>2>). C`el ^khylj`t Clhfjl @h` Lj`blt Jkcl`hlh Khz`e.
Khz`e. Rktr`kvkd Dkskebkr <=,
2>2>, irae ottps7//www.jlcblrahc`hk.mae/2>2>/>?/<=/c`el-pkhylj`t-clhfjl-`h`-lj`blt-
jkcl`hlh-khz`e/lep/

Ckstlr`, D. (2><0, ]kptkebkr 6). ^khfkrt`lh

6). ^khfkrt`lh dlh Mlrl
Mlrl Jkrgl Khz`e.
Khz`e. Rktr`kvkd Dkskebkr <2,
2>2>, irae ottps7//www.s`swlpkd`l.mae/pkhfkrt`lh-dlh-mlrl-
ottps7//www.s`swlpkd`l.mae/pkhfkrt`lh-dlh-mlrl-jkrgl-khz`e/1lep
jkrgl-khz`e/1lep

 
<6