Subject: MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Instructor:
Lydia Anggraini

Required text:
Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction
W.D. Callister, Jr. and D.G. Rethwisch
8th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
(2009)

PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY
☛ Week 1: Introduction
☛ Week 2: Metallic Crystal Structures
☛ Week 3: Ceramic Crystal Structures
☛ Week 4: Crystallographic Directions and Planes
Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Material
☛ Week 5: Imperfections in Solids 1
☛ Week 6: Imperfections in Solids 2
☛ Week 7: Microscopic Techniques
☛ Week 8: Mechanical Properties 1
☛ Week 9: Mechanical Properties 2
☛ Week 10: Deformation and Strengthening Mechanism 1
☛ Week 11: Deformation and Strengthening Mechanism 2
☛ Week 12: Failure
☛ Week 13: Phase Diagrams
Week 1
Course Objective...
• Introduce fundamental concepts in Materials Science & Engineering
• understand the relation between properties, structure and processing

You will learn about:

• material structures
• how structure dictates properties
• how processing can change structure

This course will help you to:

• recognize new design opportunities offered by material selection
• use materials properly

Activities:
• Announce reading and homework with materials
• Present new material
• Take quizzes and midterms*
 Pengertian Bahan Teknik
• Bahan Teknik adalah semua unsur atau zat yang
berbentuk padat, cair, atau gas yang banyak di
gunakan untuk kebutuhan keperluan dunia
teknik atau industri
– Padat : Logam, keramik, plastik, kaca, karet,kayu
– Cair : Pelumas, air, bensin, solar, bahan kimia lain
– Gas : Oksigen, Asiteln, hidrogen, CO2 dan lainnya
Contoh penggunaan bahan teknik
 Pentingnya belajar bahan teknik
• Seorang ahli teknik dituntut untuk merancang
suatu produk.
• Seorang ahli teknik dituntut untuk membuat
suatu produk
• Seorang ahli teknik mesin harus memilih bahan
dalam pembuatan atau perbaikan.
• Tuntutan ekonomik (optimasi antara fungsi dan
harga)
Flow chart Pemilihan Proses dan Material
Desain Produk
Tahapan pemilihan material
 Klasifikasi Bahan Teknik
• Berdasarkan wujudnya dibedakan menjadi tiga
yaitu :
– Padat : berbentuk masif, relatif tetap, ikatan kuat
– Cair : bentuk mengikuti bejana, ikatan lemah
– Gas : bentuk mengikuti bejana, tidak terlihat.
Klasifikasi Bahan Teknik untuk bahan padat
Taxonomi Bahan Teknik
• Metals:
– Strong, ductile
– High thermal & electrical conductivity
– Opaque, reflective

• Ceramics: ionic bonding (refractory) –

compounds of metallic & non-metallic
elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
– Brittle, glassy
– Non-conducting (insulators)

• Polymers/plastics: Covalent bonding

– Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
– Thermal & electrical insulators
– Optically translucent or transparent.
Proses Pengerjaan Bahan Teknik
• A branch of science & engineering that deals with the inter-play between
structure, properties and processing of materials
PROPERTIES
“Materials Science” “Materials Engineering”

STRUCTURE PROCESSING

• Materials Science: investigates relationship between materials’ structure

& properties
• Materials Engineering: On the basis of materials science, designing and/or
engineering the materials’ structure to produce desired properties

Systematic study, not trial & error

 <0.2 nm 0.2-10 nm 1-1000 mm
1 nm = 4x10-8 in HRTEM, STEM, Optical Microscope >1 mm
XRD, AFM Naked Eye
SEM, FE-SEM, TEM
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.
• Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel
(d)

600
Hardness (BHN)

30mm
500 (c)
Data obtained from Figs. 10.21(a)
400 (b) and 10.23 with 4wt%C composition,
(a) and from Fig. 11.13 and associated
4mm discussion, Callister 6e.
300 Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig.
10.10; (b) Fig. 9.27;(c) Fig. 10.24;
30mm
and (d) Fig. 10.12, Callister 6e.
200 30mm

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (C/s)

• Processing can change structure

ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
Week 2
 Crystalline

Atom

Situated in a REPEATING or PERIODIC

In a repetitive of three dimension
 Unit cells

Subdivide the structure in to small repeat entities

The face-centered cubic (FCC)
The body-centered cubic (BCC)
The hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
 Cu

a = 2R2

The cube edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
Shared among Shared among
8 unit cells 6 unit cells
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

The cube edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

The cube edge length :a ＝ 0.76

The atomic radius :R
 Cr

R
R

The cube edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
Shared among Single
8 unit cells center atom
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

R
R

The cube edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

R
R

The cube edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

R
R

The cube edge length :a ＝ 0.68

The atomic radius :R
Mg
 c/a ratio

Short edge length :a

Long edge length :c
h=c/2
Shared among Shared among Single
12 unit cells 6 unit cells center atom
 Volume of atoms

Short edge length :a

The atomic radius :R
 Total unit cell volume

Short edge length :a

Long edge length :c
h=c/2
 Atomic packing factor(APF)

0.74
FCC HCP BCC

0.76 0.74 0.68

Crystal structures are devided into groups according to
unit cell configurations and/or atomic arrangement
Cubic

Hexagonal

Tetragonal

Rhombohedral
Orthorhombic

Monoclinic

Triclinic
Week 3
• Ceramics crystal structures are more complex since they are
composed of different elements.
• Atomic bonding in ceramics:
- Can be ionic or covalent in character, but mostly ionic, some covalent.
- % ionic character decrease increases with difference in electronegativity
of atoms.
• Degree of ionic character in ceramics:

CaF2 : large
SiC : small

60
• The bonding in ceramics may range from purely ionic (nondirectional)
to totally covalent (directional). The calculation of % ionic character of a
covalent bond using the electronegativities (Eq. 2.10)
% ionic character = {1 – exp [ – (0.25)(XA – XB)2 ]} x 100

• And here are some examples for different materials:

61
1. Relative sizes of ions – Formation of stable structures:
maximize the numbers of oppositely charged ion neighbors.

unstable stable stable

2. Maintenance of charge neutrality
– Net charge in ceramic structures should be zero.

– Reflected in chemical formula.

62
1. Coordination numbers increases with:

2. To form a stable structure, the radius ratio (rC/rA) are:

Coord Coord
number geometry

63
Predicting structure of FeO
Cation CA radius ratio:
Al3+ rcation 0.077

Fe 2+ ranion 0.140
Fe 3+  0.550
Ca2+

Anion based on this ratio,

- coord number = 6
O2- - structure = octahedral (NaCl)
Cl-
F-
64
1. AX-Type Crystal Structures
For ceramics having equal numbers of cations and anions (A=cation,
X=anion).
For example: NaCl, MgO, MnS, FeO.
2. AmXp-Type Crystal Structures → CaF2, UO2, PuO2, ThO2
3. AmBnXp Type Crystal Structures → BaTiO3

65
Example:
1. NaCl (rock salt) structure

FCC chloride lattice and Na in octahedral

interstices

2. MgO and FeO also have the NaCl structure

So each Mg2+ (or Fe2+) has 6 neighbor oxygen

atoms 66
3. CsCl (Cesium Chloride) structure

So each Cs+ has 8 neighbor Cl-

67
Example:
CaF2 (Calsium Fluoride) structure  

68
Example:
Perovskite structure

69
 n' AC  AA 

VC N A

n’ = the number of formula units1 within the unit cell

ΣAC = the sum of the atomic weights of all cations in the
formula unit
ΣAA = the sum of the atomic weights of all anions in the
formula unit
VC = the unit cell volume
NA = Avogadro’s number, 6.023 x 1023 formula units/mol
70
71
72
73
1

74
2

75
1.

76
2.

77
3. Fullerenes
spherical cluster of 60 carbon atoms, C60 – Like a soccer ball

4. Carbon Nano Tubes (CNT)

sheet of graphite rolled into a tube – Ends capped with fullerene
hemispheres

78
 Week 4
Crystallographic Directions and Planes
Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Material
The unit cells (FCC) Cu

composed unit cells

 Z

Y
Three ( X , Y , Z ) axes are
used to designate directions and planes
Z

Y
Three ( X , Y , Z ) axes
 Z

( 1,1,1)

( 0,0,0)
Y

X
 Z

X
 Z

( 1 , 1 , 1/2 )
Y
( 1,0,0)
X ( 1,1,0)
 Z

( 2,2,1)
Y
( 2,0,0)
X ( 2,2,0)
 Z
[221]

( 2,2,1)
Y
( 2,0,0)
X ( 2,2,0)
 Z

( 2 , -2 , 1 )
0
Y

( 2,0,0)

( 2 , -2 , 0 )
X
 Z

( 2 , -2 , 1 )
0
Y

( 2,0,0)

( 2 , -2 , 0 )
X
 a
Z

X
0
 a
Z

a
0

Y
<100>
X 0
Utilizing a four - axis
 Z

X
 Z

Established at the corner

of another unit cell

X
 Z
∞

-1 Y

X
 Z
∞

The
reciprocals

-1 Y

X
 Z

X
 Z
1 Y
1

X
-1
 Z

X
 Z

X
 Fluorite

Extends throughout the entirety

of the specimen without interruption
 Fluorite

Extremely important in many of

our modern technology
 1 2

A crystal

3 4

A grain

The grain boundary

Various stage in the solidification of a polycrystalline specimen

Various stage in the solidification of a polycrystalline specimen
Week 5
Sterling silver﹕ 92.5％silver-7.5％copper Semiconducting material
50HBS Very small change in composition
Pure silver ﹕ 99.99％silver
25HBS →Major change in electric property

The properties of some materials are profoundly

influenced by the presence of imperfection.
Classification of crystalline imperfection

Dimension Example

0（Point） Vacancy or self-interstitial or solute

atoms
1（Linear） Dislocation
2（Plane） Grain boundary
A vacancy is an empty
lattice site.

A self-interstitial is a atom on
the non-lattice site.
Vacancy Distortion caused by
a self-interstitial atom
 Cation interstitial

Cation vacancy

Anion vacancy
 Schottky defect

Frenkel defect

Frenkel defect involves a cation-vacancy and a cation-

interstitial pair.
Schottky defect is a cation vacancy–anion vacancy pair.
Stoichiometry is a state for ionic compounds in which the
exact ratio of cations and anions is the same as theoretical.

An Fe2+ vacancy in FeO results from the formation of two Fe3+.

 Carbon﹕ solute
Iron ﹕solvent

Interstitial solid solution

Perfect Crystal Distortion caused by Substitutional
a large interstitial impurity atom
impurity atom
Impurity atoms can form substitutional and interstitial solid
solutions in ceramic material.
 Concentration of element 1 in a （1+2） solid solution

C1﹕Concentration of element 1（wt％）

m1,2﹕Weight of atom 1,2（g）

The number of moles of element1

m1′﹕Mass（g）
A1﹕Atom weight of element 1

The concentration of atom percent of element 1

Week 6
Classification of crystalline imperfection

Dimension Example

0（Point） Vacancy or self-interstitial or solute atoms

1（Linear） Edge dislocation or screw dislocation

or mixed dislocation
2（Plane） Grain boundary or twin boundary

123
 Dislocation line

Slip plane

Edge dislocation : An extra half plane of atoms insert into crystals.

Slip plane : The crystallographic plane along which the dislocation line glides.
 A deformed lattice A perfect lattice

Burgers vector﹕ the magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion

Burgerswith
associated vector﹕ the magnitude
a dislocation, denotedand
by direction
b. of the lattice distortion
associated with a dislocation, denoted by b.
A screw dislocation is formed by a shear stress that is applied to
produce the distortion.
M→N → O → P → Q
 Slip plane

AB﹕ The line that dislocation

line extents along
Mixed dislocation is the dislocation that has both screw and edge character.
 Slip plane

A ﹕ Edge dislocation
B ﹕Screw dislocation
AB ﹕Mixed dislocation
 Si surface Droplets

External surface atoms have higher energy than the atoms at interior position.
Tilt boundary
 Twins
Twin boundary

A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a

specific mirror lattice symmetry.
ABCABCABC ABCAB/BACAB
Pores Crack

Foreign inclusions
 Edge dislocation
Linear defect Screw dislocation
Mixed dislocation

External surface
Interfacial defects Grain boundary
Twin boundary
Stacking faults

Pores
Volume defects Cracks
Foreign inclusions
Week 7
• 1.Grain size determination
• 2.Optical Microscope
• 3.Scanning Electron Microscope
 Grain size determination
Intersect method
1. Line length （ l ） 36mm
1 2. Line1 3grains
2 Line2 2grains
3 Line3 2grains
4 Line4 1grain
The average of the number of
grains intersected（n）2grains
3.G＝l/n ＝36mm/2grains
＝18mm/grain
4.The average grain diameter D
The linear magnification（M） x100
D ＝G/M ＝ 0.18mm/grain
 3
1

2
Bright field illumination Dark field illumination Differential interference-
contrast illumination

Crossed polarized
light illumination
Week 8
• Introduction
• Stress-strain behaviors and the related
mechanical properties
• Mechanical behavior of METALS
• Mechanical behavior of CERAMICS
• Materials subjected to FORCES/LOADS when in
service
• It is necessary to know the CHARACTERISTICS of the
material
• Important mechanical properties :
- strength 　　　　　　　
- ductility
- hardness　　　　　　　
- stiffness

e.g. : Axle
• Only can be used when
(1) load is STATIC or changes relatively SLOWLY with time
(2) load is applied UNIFORMLY over the surface
• 3 types of load lead to 3 types of tests
- tension test
- compression test
- shear test

1- Tension load 2- Compression 3- Shear load

load
Engineering Instantaneous
stress load

Original cross
sectional area

Engineering Deformation
strain elongation

Original length
• Exactly the same manner with tensile tests
• Compressive force is NEGATIVE
• Strain is NEGATIVE
• Have less information compared to tension tests
• Only used when
- large and permanent strain is desired
- material is brittle in tension
 Load parallel to
the upper and
Shear stress lower faces

Original cross
sectional area

Shear strain

Strain angle
• Deformation in which stress and strain are PROPORTIONAL
(linear relationship)
• It is a NON PERMANENT deformation – when the applied load is
released, the piece returns to its original shape.

E can be thought of as STIFFNESS

- materials resistance to elastic
deformation
• However, initial elastic portion of the stress-strain curve for
some materials is not linear (e.g.: gray cast iron, concrete, many
polymers)
• 2 ways to determine the modulus of elasticity, E
1- Tangent modulus
2- Secant modulus
• Elastic strain is manifested as
- a small changes in the interatomic spacing
- stretching of interatomic bonds
• E is a measure of the resistance to separation of nearby
atoms/ions/molecules (interatomic bonding forces)
• E is proportional to the slope of the interatomic force-separation
curve at the equilibrium spacing
• Factors that affect E
(1) different types of atomic bonding
- e.g.: metals  ionic bonding (strongest)  bigger value of E
polymers  hydrogen bond (weakest)  smaller value of E
(2) temperature of the materials
- higher temperature 
smaller E
except: rubber materials
• Other than tensile stress, compressive, shear and torsion stresses
also can create elastic behavior
• COMPRESSIVE STRESS – at low stress level, stress-strain
characteristics are virtually the same as tensile stress
• SHEAR STRESS – shear modulus can be calculated using bellow's
equation because shear stress and strain are proportional to
each other
Shear stress Shear strain Tensile stress Tensile strain

Shear modulus Modulus of elasticity

• Elongation and the accompanying strain, εz occurred in the
direction of the applied stress (axial direction)
• Constriction happened at the lateral directions (directions that
are perpendicular to the applied stress; x, y)

• The above equation is true only if:

(1) the applied stress is UNIaxial and
(2) the material is isotropic
z

y F
x
• Poisson’s Ratio, ν – ratio of lateral and axial strains

•ν must always be positive

•Max value of ν = 0.50
•Isotropic materials: ν = 0.25
•Metals and alloys: ν = 0.25~0.35

• For isotropic materials,

* Most metals G = 0.4E

 Plastic Deformation
NORMAL ATOMIC
PERSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE
• Plastic deformation • Breaking off bonds
occurs when a with original atom
material is deformed neighbors and
beyond the elastic reforming bonds with
deformation region new neighbors
• 0.5% for most metallic • Happened by a process
materials called “slip”
(dislocation)
1. Yield and yield strength
• Yield strength: a measure of its resistance to plastic deformation
• Yield point: A point where plastic deformation begins (yielding)
• Also known as “proportional limit”
• 3 different ways to determine yield strength due to 3 different conditions
of the curve

(1) Linear elastic – strain offset method

a straight line is constructed parallel to the

elastic portion of the S-S curve at specified
strain (usually 0.2%)
(2) Nonlinear elastic – specified the (3) Elastic-plastic transition is very
strain well defined

stress required to produce some average stress that is associated

amount of strain e.g.: ε = 0.5% with the lower yield point

σy

0.005
2. Tensile strength
• Tensile strength is defined as the
maximum stress on the
engineering stress-strain curve
(a maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in
tension)

• Tensile strength vary from

50[Mpa] (aluminium)~
3000[Mpa] (high strength steels)

• Necking is a constriction that

begins to form after maximum
point.
3. Ductility
• A measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at
fracture
• Ductile brittle (<5%)
(i) Percent elongation

*depend on specimen gauge length, l0

(ii) Percent reduction in area

• Importance
1. Indicates the degree to which a structure will deform plastically before
fracture
2. Specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication
operations
4. Resilience
• Capacity of material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then upon unloading, to have this energy recovered
• Modulus of resilience, Ur is strain energy per unit volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding (area under the
S-S curve taken to yielding)

• Linear elastic region (rectangle)

……….①

……….②
5. Toughness
• A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.
• Factors that affect toughness
1. Specimen geometry
2. Manner of load application
• Area under the S-S curve up to the point of fracture
• Unit: energy per unit volume [J/m3]

Ductile materials are tougher

than brittle materials
• After maximum point, cross sectional area of the specimen
decrease rapidly within the neck region

• Reduction in the load-bearing capacity of the specimen

• True stress, σT defined as the load, F divided by the instantaneous

cross sectional area, Ai

True stress,

True strain,

Valid only up to
the onset of
necking
• Complex stress state also forms in
the neck region
- E.g.: the existence of other stress
components in addition to the axial
stress

• Correct stress within the neck is

slightly lower than the true stress

• For some metals and alloys,

* K : strength coefficient constant

* n : strain hardening exponent
• When unloading, some fraction
of the total deformation
recovered as elastic strain

• The magnitude of this elastic

strain is called strain recovery

• During unloading, the curve

traces straight line with its
slope virtually identical to the
modulus of elasticity, or
parallel to the initial elastic
portion of the curve
Week 9
• Tensile test is not suitable for ceramics because
1. Difficult to prepare
2. Difficult to grip (brittle)
3. Fail after about 0.1% strain
• So, transverse bending test is used:

FLEXURAL TEST
Tensile strength ≈ 1/10
compressive strength
• Stress at fracture is called flexural strength / modulus of rupture
/ fracture strength / bend strength
Rectangular

Circular

Ff : load at fracture
σfs : flexural strength
• Elastic region is similar to tensile test (linear relationship)
• Slope : modulus of elasticity, E
• A measure of a materials’ resistance to localized plastic deformation

• Hardness test is frequently use because

1. Simple and inexpensive
2. Nondestructive
3. Other mechanical properties may be estimated

• Types of hardness test

1. Rockwell
2. Brinell
3. Mohrs
4. Knoop Microhardness Test
5. Vickers
• Small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the
surface of the specimen (P = 1~1000[g]) for 10~15 seconds

• Observed under microscope and measured

• Convert into hardness number

Vickers hardness, HV ×9.807 = [MPa]

HV ×0.009807 = [GPa]
• Hardness conversion data have
been determined experimentally

• Dependent on material type and

characteristics

• Ceramics is the hardest known

material
 • Load calculations are only approximate

• Design allowances must be made to avoid unanticipated failure

• Establishing design stress, σd

Static situation/ductile materials Safe stress/working stress, σw

N’ : design factors
σc : calculated stress (estimated maximum N : factor of safety (1.2~4.0)
load) σy : yield strength
• Uncertainties in measured data
• Computation of average • Standard deviation values
(typical value) (degree of scatter)

n: number of measurements
xi: value of a discrete
measurements
Week 10
• Introduction
• Historical
• Basic Concept of Dislocations
• Characteristics of Dislocations
• Slip System
• Slip in Single Crystals
• Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals
• Deformation for Twinning
• The Plastic deformation is
permanent, and strength
and hardness are measures
of a material’s resistance to
this deformation.
• In 1930s, the mechanical strength could
explained by the type of linear crystalline
defect, as we know “dislocation”.
• In 1950s, the existence of such dislocation
defects was established by direction with the
electron microscope.
• There are two fundamental dislocation types,
edge dislocation and screw dislocation
• The process by which
plastic deformation is
produced by
dislocation motion is
termed slip.
• All metals and alloys contain Material types Dislocation density
some dislocation that were (mm-2)
introduced during
Solidified metal 103
solidification, during plastic crystals
deformation.
Heavily 109-1010
deformation
metals
• The number of dislocation or
Deformed metals 105-106
dislocation density, total after heat treating
dislocation length per unit
volume or the number of Ceramic materials 102-104

dislocation that intersect a Silicon single 0.1-1

crystals
unit area of random section.
• When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction of
deformation energy (approx.5%) is retained internally; the
remainder is dissipated as heat.

• There are regions in which compressive, tensile and shear

lattice strains are imposed on the neighboring atom.
• Slip plane is there are specific directions along
which dislocation motion occurs.
• Slip direction is the direction of movement of slip
plane.
• Slip plane + Slip direction called Slip System
• Ø represent the angle between the normal to the slip
plane and the applied shear direction.
• λ represent the angle between the slip and stress
direction
• The resolved shear stress

where,
• σ is the applied stress.
• In general,ø+λ ≠ 90°
since it need not to
be the case that all
lie in the same plane.
• Slip system is generally oriented most favorably that is has the
largest resolved shear stress,
• Slip in single crystal commences on the most favorably oriented
slip system when the resolved shear stress reached some critical
value, called critical resolved shear stress (τcrss)
• When τR (max) = τcrss and the magnitude of applied stress required
to initial yielding is

• The minimum stress necessary to introduce yielding occurs when

a single crystal is oriented such that ø =λ = 45°under these
conditions ;
 • Slip occurs along plane and direction along
the length of specimen.
• Each slip step occurs when movement of a
large number of dislocation along and same
slip plane.

• On the surface of polished single

crystal specimen, these results
appear as lines, called slip line.
• There are many random
crystallographic orientations
of numerous grain, the
direction of slip varies.
• The concept of Twin is a
shear force can produce
atomic displacement
such that on one side of
plane (the twin
boundary) atom are
located in mirror image
position of atom on the
other side.
 Slip deformation Twinning deformation
The crystallographic orientation The crystallographic will be
above and below the slip plane is the reorientation across the twin plane.
same both before and after the
deformation.
Slip occurs in distinct atomic spacing Twinning occurs as atomic
multiples. displacement less than the
interatomic separation.
Week 11
• Mechanisms of strengthening in metal
üStrengthening by Grain Size Reduction
üSolid-Solution Strengthening
üStrain Hardening
• Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth
üRecovery
üRecrystallization
üGrain Growth
• Crystalline Ceramics
• Summary
In case of dislocation moving closely to grain boundary,
Slip planes are discontinuous and can not change
direction across the boundary.
- Since the two grains are of different orientation, more difficult
as the crystallographic misorientation increases.
- Because atomic disorder within a grain boundary region so slip
plane are discontinuous from one grain into the other
For many materials, the yield
strength (σy ) varies with grain size,
known as

The influence of grain size on the yield strength

 imposed on host atoms and
possible locations of

imposed on
host atoms and possible locations of
 is the phenomenon whereby a
ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is
plastically deformed.
• Sometimes it is call because the
temperature at which deformation take place is low
relative to the absolute melting temperature.
• Degree of plastic deformation represent as
and is defined as

Where A0 is the original area of cross section

Ad is the area after deformation
 Some of the stored internal strain energy is
decrease

Enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated

temperature

Some reduction in the number of dislocation

The structure and properties will be revert back

to pre cold worked stage
 Recrystallization is the formation of
new set of strain-free and grains,
being approximately equiaxed, that
Before heating with have low dislocation density and
33% CW of brass
are characteristic of the pre cold
worked condition.

After heating 3s at 580 °C After heating 4s at 580 °C After heating 8s at 580 °C

ü The influence of annealing temperature on ü The variation of recrystallization
the tensile strength and ductility of brass temperature as a function of %CW for iron.
alloy just reaches complete in 1 hour
ü If deformation less than the critical value
ü Normally, the recrystallization temperature is
between one third and one half of the
(5%CW), recrystallization can not be made
absolute melting temperature of metal, 450 to occur.
°C for brass alloy.
 Table : Recrystallization and melting temperature for various metals and alloys

Lead -4 269.15 327 600.15 44.85%Tm

Tin -4 269.15 232 505.15 53.28%Tm

Zinc 10 283.15 420 693.15 40.85%Tm

Aluminum (99.999 80 660 37.84%Tm

353.15 933.15
wt%)
Copper (99.999 120 1085 28.95%Tm
393.15 1358.15
wt%)
Brass (60 Cu-40 Zn) 475 900 63.77%Tm
748.15 1173.15

Nickel (99.99 wt%) 370 1455 37.22%Tm

643.15 1728.15

Iron 450 723.15 1538 1811.15 39.93%Tm

Tungsten 1200 1473.15 3410 3683.15 40%Tm

• After recrystallization, the
strain-free grain will continue to
grow if the metal specimen is
left at the elevated temperature
-
• When grains size increase, total
boundary area decreases,
causing total energy to decrease

Grain growth via atom diffusion

• For many polycrystalline materials, the grain diameter d
varies with time t according to the relationship
Where d0 is the initial grain diameter at t = 0
K and n are time-independent constants
(Typically, n value should be equal or greater than 2)

The logarithm of grain diameter

versus the logarithm of time for
grain growth in brass at several
temperature
Crystalline ceramics with ionic bonds
ü Electrically charged nature of ions
ü For slip in some direction, ions of
like charge are brought into close
proximity to one another
Crystalline ceramics with
covalent bonds
ü The covalent bonds are relatively
strong
ü There are also limited number of
slip systems

ü Because of electrostatic repulsion, ü Dislocation structure complex

this mode of slip is very restricted
• Plastic deformation corresponds to motion of dislocations in
response to an externally applied shear stress, known as .
• A slip system represent a
combination.
• The critical resolved shear stress is the minimum shear stress
required to initiate dislocation motion
• Plastic deformation ability is a function of dislocation glide;
restricting dislocation motion increases hardness and strength,

• The properties of metal will revert to pre cold work by

appropriate heat treatment, during which
occur
Week 12
Fracture
・Fundamentals
・Ductile fracture
・Brittle Fracture

Fracture mechanics
・Stress concentration
・Fracture toughness

Impact test
・Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
・Creep
Ductile and Brittle
・Ductile
→substantial plastic deformation with high energy absorption before fracture
・Brittle
→little or no plastic deformation with low energy absorption accompanying a brittle
fracture
Fracture
Two steps
[Crack formation→Crack propagation] The mode of fracture is highly depended on
the mechanism of crack propagation

・Ductile fracture
Characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advanced crack
→The process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is extended
Crack is said to be Stable
It resists any further extension unless there is an increase in the applied stress
・Brittle fracture
Cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little accompanying plastic deformation
Crack is said to be Unstable
Crack propagation, once started, will continue spontaneously
without an increase in magnitude of the applied stress
Extremely soft metals
ex) pure gold at RT,
other metals, polymer,
inorganic glasses at
elevated Temperature. The most common type
100% reduction in area
This fracture process normally occurs in several stages

The central interior region

→irregular and fibrous appearance
 Take place without any appreciable deformation,
and by rapid crack propagation

The direction of crack motion is very nearly

perpendicular to the direction of applied tensile
stress & flat fracture surface
Failed in a brittle manner,
fracture surfaces has distinctive patterns
Ex)V-shaped “chevron” in some steel pieces

Ex) Radial fan-shaped ridge

Chevron markings may form near the center of

the fracture cross section that point back toward
the crack initiation site
Surface contain lines or ridges that radiate from
Both of these marking patterns,
the origin of the crack in a fan-like pattern
discerned with the naked eye.
 Brittle crystalline materials
Crack propagation corresponds to the successuve and repeated breaking of
atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes → cleavage
This type is said to be transgranular ( or transcrystalline)
Cracks pass through the grains
Fracture surface may have grainy or faced texture,
as a result of changes in orientation of the cleavage planes from grain to grain

Brittle fracture in a mild steel

Cracks propagation is
along the grain boundaries
This type is said to be
intergranular

Weaken or embrittle
grain boundary regions

Transgranular fracture surface Intergranular fracture surface

Stress concentration
The measured fracture strengths for most brittle materials are significantly lower than those predicted by theoretical
calculations based on atomic bonding energies
→This discrepancy is explained by the presence of very small, microscopic flaws or cracks that always exist under normal
→conditions at the surface and within the interior of a body of material.

These flaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because an applied stress may be amplified or concentrated at the tip,
the magnitude of this amplification depending on crack orientation and geometry

sm : maximum stress at the crack tip

s0 : nominal stress
t : the radious of curvature of the crack tip

Stress concentration factor: Kt

Stress concentration
The stress amplification is not restricted to these microscopic defects; it may occur at macroscopic internal discontinuities,
at sharp corners, and at notches in large structures.
→The effect of a stress raiser is more significant in brittle than in ductile materials.
For ductile material, plastic deformation ensures when the maximum stress exceeds the yield strength.

Using principles of fracture mechanics, it’s possible to show that the critical stress sc required for crack propagation
in a brittle material

When the magnitude of a tensile stress at the tip of one of these flaws exceeds the value of this critical stress,
a crack forms and then propagates, which results in fracture
Fracture toughness
Fracture toughness : Kc (Mpa√m)
Y : dimensionless parameter or function
that depends on both crack and specimen sizes and geometries,
as well as the manner of load application

Cracks are much shorter than the specimen width

Infinite width
Through-thickness crack
Y=1.0
Semi-infinite width
edge crack
Y≅ 1.1

The value of Kc will depend on specimen thickness

However, when specimen thickness is much greater than the crack dimensions, Kc becomes independent of thickness
Under these conditions a condition of plane strain exists

Plane strain fracture toughness : KIc (Mpa√m)

Fracture toughness
Plane strain fracture toughness : KIc (Mpa√m)

The I (i.e., Roman numeral “one”) subscript for KIc denotes that the plain strain fracture toughness is for
mode I crack displacement

Brittle materials have low KIc values and are vulnerable to catastrophic failure.
On the other hand, KIc values are relatively large for Ductile materials

Fracture mechanics is especially useful

in predicting catastrophic failure in materials having intermediate ductilities
Fracture toughness
KIc is a fundamental material property that
depends on many factors,
the most influential of which are temperature,
strain rate, and microstructure.

strain rate
Kic

Temperature
Kic

Grain size
Kic
Techniques Two Standardized Tests
notch
・Charpy
・Izot
Measure the Impact Energy
Specimen

Hammer
Hammer
Difference between Charpy and Izot
Lying in the manner of specimen support

Charpy

Izot

Energy absorption
→computed from difference h and h’
Impact Energy

Specimen size , shape, notch configuration

and depth influence the test results
→qualiitative

Absolute value ×
Comparison　 ○
 The temperature dependence of the measured impact energy absorption

the CVN(charpy v-notch) Energy is large at high temperature

a steel

The temperature becomes low

the CVN Energy drops suddenly

A brittle mode of fracture A ductile mode of fracture

Shiny(A granular texture) Fibrous and Dull
 The temperature dependence of the measured impact energy absorption

the CVN(charpy v-notch) Energy is large at high temperature

a steel

The temperature becomes low

the CVN Energy drops suddenly

The line of the percent shear fracture

Conservative
The fracture surface becomes 100% fibrous
→It means transition temperature

Shiny(A granular texture) Fibrous and Dull

Transition Temperature is
approximately 110℃
The metal alloys having FCC crystal structures Ex. Aluminum- and copper-based alloy
remain ductile even at extremely low temperatures.

BCC and HCP alloys experience this transition

“For these materials the transition temperature is sensitive
to both alloy composition and microstructure”
Ex. Decreasing the average grain size of steels results in
a lowering of the transition temperature.

Relationship between
Carbon content and the CVN transition

Increasing the C content

→raises the CVN transition of steels
Deformation under “at elevated temperature and exposed to static mechanical stresses”
It’s observed in all material types
For metals, it becomes important only for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm
(Tm=absolute melting temperature)

A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant
The typical constant load creep behavior of metals

3 regions
1st. Continuously decreasing creep rate
the slope of the curve diminishes
2nd. The rate is constant
3rd. An acceleration of the rate
and ultimate failure

Transient creep tertiary creep

Steady-state creep
Deformation under “at elevated temperature and exposed to static mechanical stresses”
It’s observed in all material types
For metals, it becomes important only for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm
(Tm=absolute melting temperature)
A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant
The typical constant load creep behavior of metals

The most important parameter Δε/Δt

For metallic materials : uniaxial tension tests

For brittle materials : uniaxial compression tests
 With either increasing stress or temperature,
the following will be noted,
(1) The instantaneous strain at the time of stress
application increases
(2) The steady-state creep rate is increased
(3) The rupture life time is diminished

Nickel alloy
Same stress : low temperature →become long lifetime
 In general,
The higher the melting temperature,
The greater the elastic modulus, →The better is a material’s resistance to creep
The larger the grain size
“Relative to grain size, smaller grains permit more grain-boundary sliding”

The creep resistance of the cobalt and nickel superalloys is enhanced by solid-solution alloying, and
also by the addition of a dispersed phase which is virtually insoluble in the matrix.

Directional solidification
→produces either highly elongated grains or
single-crystal components
Week 13
 Contents
• Terms and definition
• Phase and microstructure
• Binary Isomorphous System (complete solid solubility)
• Tie line
• Lever rule
• Binary Eutectic System (limited solid solubility)
• Microconstituent
• Binary system with Intermetallic phase & compound
• Eutectoid reaction
• Peritectic reaction
• Congruent Phase transformation
 Terms & Definitions
lighter phase :Cementite

Phase
• Classical Definition of a phase

Chemically –homogenous dark phase:

ferrite

Physically- distinct
Mechanically- Separable
large dark area
Proeutectoid ferrite

Fig. Microstructure of a plain carbon steel contain 0.44wt%C

• A phase, therefore, is that aggregate of the material

wherein the mixing of components occurs at the atomic
or molecular level
 Components

The independent chemical species (element or

compound) in terms of which the composition of the
system is described.

Example

System Components Phases

water H2O liquid
Water + ice H2O liquid + solid
sugar-water syrup H2O, C12H22O11 liquid
Cu-Zn brass Cu + Zn 　　　　　　　liquid + solid
 Solubility limit

• is the maximum concentration of solute atoms that

may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution.
Solubility limit at 20oC
65wt% sugar
• If < 65wt% sugar: syrup
• if > 65wt% sugar:
syrup + sugar.
Effect of Temperature on
solubility limit Fig. The solubility of sugar in sugar-water syrup

Øsolubility limit increase with

T:
e.g., if T= 100oC, solubility limit
= 80wt% sugar
Liquidus: locus of temp. points above which
the system consists of all liquid

Solidus: locus of temp. points below which

the system consists of all solid

Solvus: line separates one solid solution from

a mixture of solid solutions. solubility limits

Phase Equilibrium

• if at constant temperature, pressure and composition the system is stable, not

changing with time.

Metastable state:
• Equilibrium is the state that is achieved given sufficient time. But the time to
achieve equilibrium may be very long (the kinetics can be slow) that a state along
the path to the equilibrium may appear to be stable.

In thermodynamics, equilibrium is described as the state of system that corresponds

to the minimum of the thermodynamic function called the free energy of the system.
 Phase diagram
• graphical representation of the combinations of temperature, pressure, composition
for which specific phases exist at equilibrium.

A single component phase diagram :

　　　Unary diagram

A two-component phase diagram:

　　　　　　Binary diagram

A three-component phase diagram:

　　　　　　　　　 Ternary diagram
 Binary Isomorphous Systems
• complete solid solubility between components in the solid and liquid state.

Convention in representation of
phases:

Liquid- (L),
Liquid solution
Solid: denoted by Greek letter

complete solubility
Liquid solution
+ • crystal structure
Crystallites of • atomic radii
Solid solution
• electro negativities
• vacancies

Polycrystalline
Solid solution

Fig. the Cu-Ni phase diagram

 Tie Line
It is constant temperature line drawn in 2- phase region.
Ends of the tie line gives composition of the phases in equilibrium

Determination of Phase compositions

• Locate composition and temperature in
diagram
• In two phase region draw the tie line or
isotherm
• Note intersection with phase boundaries.
Reade compositions at the intersections.
 Lever Rule
Used to determine relative phase fraction/ mass fraction of phase

mL + m α = 1
mLCL + m αC α = C0

where:
mL =mass fraction of liquid
m α =mass fraction of solid
Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys
Solid-Solution Strengthening

Fig. Tensile strength vs composition

Fig. the Cu-Ni phase diagram

Fig. Ductility (%EL) vs composition
 Binary Eutectic Systems

Three single phase regions

• α -solid solution of Ag in cu
matrix,
• β =Solid solution of cu in Ag
matrix,
• L-liquid

Three two-phase regions

• α+L
• β +L
• α +β

Fig. Copper-Silver phase diagram

• Melting Temperature of pure metal decreases by adding alloying element.

Example Line AE, FE
 Binary Eutectic Systems (cont.)
A eutectic phase diagram has an invariant
point

Eutectic isotherm – the horizontal solidus line

at TE.

Melting point- the melting point of the

eutectic alloy is lower than that of the
components (eutectic = easy to melt in Greek)

Eutectic reaction – transition between liquid

and mixture of two solid phases at eutectic
concentration CE.

Fig. lead-tin phase diagram

 Development Of Microstructure In Eutectic Alloys
Several different types of microstructure can be formed in slow cooling at different
compositions.

L → α +L→ α L → α +L → α → α +β
Fig. lead-tin phase diagram
Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys
Solidification at the eutectic composition

No changes above the eutectic

temperature TE.

At TE the liquid transforms to α

and β phases (eutectic reaction).

L → α +β

Fig. lead-tin phase diagram

 Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys
solidification at the eutectic composition
Compositions of α and β phases are very different → the eutectic reaction involves
redistribution of Pb and Sn atoms by atomic diffusion. This simultaneous formation of α and
β phases result in a layered (lamellar) microstructure that is called the eutectic structure.

light layer:
tin-reach β phase
dark layer:
lead-reach α phase

Fig. Formation of the eutectic structure in the lead-tin system.

 Development of microstructure in eutectic alloys
Compositions other than eutectic but within the range of
the eutectic isotherm

Primary α phase is formed in the α + L region, and the eutectic structure that includes layers
of α and β phases (called eutectic α and eutectic β phases) is formed upon crossing the
eutectic isotherm.

L → α + L → α +β

Fig. lead-tin phase diagram

 Micro constituents
Micro-constituent - element of the microstructure having a distinctive structure. In
the case described in the previous slide, microstructure consists of two micro
constituents, primary α phase and the eutectic structure.

Fig. Microstructure of lead-tin alloy

Although the eutectic structure consists of two phases, it is a micro-constituent with

distinct lamellar structure and fixed ratio of the two phases.
 Determination of relative amount of micro-
constituents
Eutectic micro-constituent forms from liquid having eutectic compositions (61.9wt% Sn).

We can treat the eutectic as a separate phase and apply the lever rule to find the relative
fraction of primary α phase (18.3wt%Sn) and the eutectic structure (61.9wt % Sn):

me = P / (P+Q) (eutectic) mα’ = Q / (P+Q) (primary)

Fraction of α phase (both eutectic and

primary) determined by application of the
lever rule across the entire α + β phase
field:

mα = (Q+R) / (P+Q+R) (α phase)

mβ = P / (P+Q+R) (β phase)

Fig. lead-tin phase diagram

 Phase Diagrams with Intermediate Phases or
Compounds
Eutectic systems we have seen so far have only two solid phases (α and β) that exist near
the ends of phase diagrams. These phases are called terminal solid solutions.

Some binary alloy systems have intermediate solid solution phases. In phase diagrams,
these phases are separated from the composition extremes (0% and 100%).
Example: in Cu-Zn, α and η are terminal solid solutions, β, β’, γ, δ, ε are intermediate solid
solutions.

β’- is termed as an ordered solid solution,

one in which the copper and zinc atoms
are situated in a specific and ordered
arrangement within each unit cell.

Fig. copper-zinc phase diagram

 Phase Diagrams with Intermetallic compounds
Besides solid solutions, intermetallic compounds, that have precise chemical compositions
can exist in some systems.

When using the lever rules, intermetallic compounds are treated like any other phase,
except they appear not as a wide region but as a vertical line.

This diagram can be thought of as two

intermetallic
compound
joined eutectic diagrams, for Mg-Mg2Pb
and Mg2Pb-Pb. in this case compound
Mg2Pb can be considered as a
component.

Fig. Mg-Pb phase diagram

 Eutectoid Reactions
The eutectoid (eutectic-like in Greek) reaction is similar to the eutectic reaction but occurs
from one solid phase to two new solid phases.

It has one invariant point

i.e Point E

Eutectoid
isotherm

Eutectoid composition

Fig. a region of copper-zinc phase diagram

 Peristaltic reactions
A peristaltic reaction- solid phase and liquid phase will together form a second solid
phase at a particular temperature and composition upon cooling.

An invariant point ,i.e

point P

Fig. a region of copper-zinc phase diagram

 Congruent Phase Transformations
A congruent transformation involves no change in composition (e.g., allotropic
transformation such as α-Fe to γ-Fe or melting transitions in pure solids).

for an incongruent transformation, at least one phase changes composition (e.g.

eutectic, eutectoid, peristaltic reactions).
Congruent melting of γ

Fig. a Portion of nickel-titanium phase diagram