Applied Clay Science

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Ulasan Artikel eTheffect liat mineral pada proses flOwers otation

tinjauankritis
I.Ricardo Jeldresuntuk,⁎,lina Uribeb,Luis A. Cisternasa,LeopoldocGutierrez,Wi

Departemen Teknik Kimia dan Proses Mineral, Universitas Antofagasta, PO Box 170, Antofagasta, Chili b Departemen Pertamba

Universitas Talca, Talca, Chili c Departemen Teknik Metalurgi, Universitas Concepción, Concepción, Chili d CSIRO Chili Internatio

of Excellence, Las Condes, Santiago, Chili dan Jurusan Teknik Kimia, Universitas Katolik Utara, Antofagasta, Chili

PASAL INFO

Kata kunci:
Reagen lempung
tembaga Flotasi
air laut rheology

kehadiran mengarah tanah liat untuk pemulihan rendah dalam proses flowers otation tembaga Juga yang reflterpengaruh dalam
penurunan nilai konsentrat. Karena ini,ilmiahminat mempelajari effect dan Mekanisme aksi dari mineral lempung dalam
prosesotationtelah meningkat, yang mengakibatkan memiliki pemahaman yang lebih baik dalam dasar-dasar di balik fisikokimia.
Makalah ini melaporkan review bibliografi yang komprehensif di mana Mekanisme melalui mineral tanah liate Yangmenyebabkan
otationprosesdijelaskan. Studi utama sampai saat ini sistematis Dilaporkan dandiklasifikasikandi fiDalam
Makalah ini terlihat topik: i) rheology dari pulp liat; ii)spesifikreagen untuk penyebaran tanah liat; iii) interaksi antara lempung dan
mineral berharga dalam media saline; iv) entrainment mekanik dan v) oksidasi tembaga pada lapisan tanah liat. Strategi yang
digunakan untuk Meningkatkan Saat ini pengolahan dari lempunginsu mineral Telah pulpFFIefisien untuk Mencapai hasil
operasional yang optimal, sehingga pekerjaan berikut ini Ditujukan untuk Mempromosikan Pengembangan Teknologi Baru yang
memungkinkan Meningkatkan kinerja proses ini. Dalam ulasan ini, peluang penelitian yang mempertimbangkan penggunaan
nanopartikel, berbasis reagen polimer organik, teknologi menggunakan air laut saling terbuka.

1. Pendahuluan

Industri pertambangan terus menghadapi tantangan operasional yang

mengancam keberlanjutan sektor ini. Adalah umum bahwa kadar mineral telah menurun,
sehingga pengolahannya menjadi lebih rumit. Dalam banyak kasus, itu adalah
Diperlukan untuk melakukan menuntut grinding untuk Mencapai sebuah pembebasan
yang memadai mineral berharga, yang Membawa Tak pelak Konsekuensi yang tidak
menguntungkan energi tinggiseperti con sangkaan, dan generasisignifikanjumlah
fineultrafipartikelnedan.Gangue juga mengandung mineral kompleks seperti lempung
komposisi berikut (My+x nH2O) (Al2-y+3Mgy+2)Si4+4O10(OH)2 (Lagaly, 1978).
yang merupakan bagian dari banyak endapan, termasuk tembaga, platinum, nikel, dan
bijih kalium (Senior dan Thomas, 2005). Mineral lempung adalah filosilikat yang Pengolahan bijih tanah liat tinggi Biasanya berhubungan
memiliki struktur anisotropik dan biasanya meliputi ukuran koloid. Mereka terdiri dari denganenegatifffEctsdalam terutama di flotation tahap. Sebuah
silika tetrahedral (T) dan oktahedral alumina (O) lapisan, yang Bergabunglah penjelasan yang baik dibuat baru-baru ini dalam pekerjaan oleh Chen
denganspesifikproporsi 1: 1 (TO) dan 2: 1 (TOT) (lihat Gambar1),menghadirkan dua dan Peng(2018),WHO dikembangkan tinjauan umum Tentang
permukaan Itu kristal - dilographically:fferent wajah, yang cenderung menunjukkan Mekanisme dan Perilaku tanah liat di mineral flotation. Latar belakang
biaya anionik, dan ujung-ujungnya, anionik atau kationik yang hadir Tergantung pada yang mereka sajikan bersifat umum dan berguna untuk situasi apa pun
biaya di mana lempung muncul karena sebagian besar tantangan bersifat
pH(Lagaly,1978).Lempung dapatdiklasifikasikandalam dua jenis Kemampuan mereka transversal untuk setiap mineral berharga yang diproses. Dalam arti
untuk MENURUT menyerap air, pembengkakan dan non-pembengkakan lempung. ini, isu-isu terkait dengan buih Umumnya stabilitas, berlebihan reagen,
Kaolinit adalah mineral lempung non-bengkak, yang mengadopsi lapisan dengan entrainment mekanik, atau bahkan rheologi sifat bubur kaleng
struktur 1: 1 dan memiliki komposisi umum Al2Si2O5(OH)4. Hal ini ditandai dengan perubahan
dominasi Al+3 di situs oktahedralnya, di mana substitusi isomorfik terjadi dengan Mg
Fe+3, Ti+4, dan V+3 (Rand dan Melton, 1977). Mineral lempung lain seperti
montmorillonite memiliki struktur 2: 1 dengan komposisi umum yang dijelaskan oleh
Sesuai penulis.
Alamat email: ricardo.jeldres@uantof.cl (RI Jeldres).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2019.01.013 Diterima 5 Juli 2018; Diterima dalam bentuk revisi 15 Januari 2019;
Diterima 20 Januari 2019
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57-69

Gambar. 1. Representasi skematis tanah liat dengan struktur 1: 1 dan 2: 1; O dan T mengacu
pada masing-masing lapisan oktahedral dan tetrahedral. Farrokhpay dan Ndlovu (2013) menemukan
kalkopirit Itu adalahpemulihanffecteddengan
Cates phyllosili- dalam urutan sebagai berikut
TALC> montmorilonit> muskovit> kaolinit>
illite, montmorillonite dan bedak Dengan
menjadi orang yang memiliki
36 3432302826 24
Ilit Kaolinit estrongetsffectnegatif,PALING karena sig-
22 mungkin tidakfikan diffperbedaan-perbedaan
Moskow MontmorilonitTalk 200 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
di kristalinitas, kapasitas tukar kation, dan
pembengkakan derajat(Farrokhpaydan
Phyllosillicate Penambahan,%
Ndlovu,2013)(Gambar.2). Uribe et al. (2016)
Mempelajari menyedihkan effect dari mineral
Gambar. 2. Effect phyllosilicates pada tembaga di kelas kalkopirit flotation (diadaptasi dari
Farrokhpay dan Ndlovu,2013).
lempung pada floatabilitykalkopirit
menggunakan PAX sebagaikolektor melalui
flotationtes, waktu induksi dan pengukuran
kondisi penghalang untuk operasi (Bulatovic, menetap-kekeruhan. Ditemukan Itu de-
2007; Goh et al., 2011; Ata, 2012; Ndlovu et menekan effect dari mineral lempung lebih
al., 2013; Gutierrez dan Melipichun, 2014). kuat pada pH 10 Yang cor- terkait dengan e
Dalam situasi khusus dari tembaga flotation, kemungkinanffect dari Ca+2 dari proses kapur
berbagai mineral bisa seperti kalkopirit pada Het- erocoagulation Antara mineral dan
ditemukan(CuFeS2),kalkosit (Cu2S), covellite kalkopirit tanah liat. Dengan lapisan tanah liat
gelembung terdeteksi dan Usulan Juga sebagai
(CU), bornit (Cu5FeS4),dan enargit (Cu3Ass4). mekanisme Itu Mungkin Jelaskan
 emenekanffect daritanah liat pada memiliki pembuat atau pemutus sifat (Hancer et al. , 2001; Jeldres et al.,
floatabilitydari copyrite selendang. Penelitian 2014). ion pembuat seperti Li+,Na+,Mg2,Cadan2 kecil dan memilikilistrik yang
lebih lanjut diperlukan untuk mengusulkan medankuat,Menyebabkan Bahwa molekul air di sekitar ion Menjadi struc- ini
suatu mekanisme yang menjelaskan fenomena tured sangat. Jika tidak, ion breaker seperti Cs +,K+,Cl- dan saya- umumnya
ini. memiliki ukuran yang lebih besar dan lebih lemah listrik medan,Yang
Beberapa strategi mengurangi negatif effect Dianggap insuFFIefisien untuk Memberikan struktur apapun untuk molekul
dari mineral lempung pada proses flotation air yang surround mereka(Moreiradan Firoozabadi 2010; Ozdemir et al.,
adalah penggunaan berbagai reagen reologi 2011).
Seperti Ada beberapa Pentingffperbedaan-perbedaanAntara flowers otation tembaga
dan aplikasi lainnya. Pertama, Beberapa jenis species mineral dengan spesialisasi
yang Mengandung tembaga se encuentra (CuFeS2,Cu2S, CuS,Cu5,FeS4dan
58
modifiersdan / atau penggunaan reagen yang teradsorpsi pada permukaan partikel tanah Cu3Ass4,entre otros) Yang jawabandifferently ke pengoksidasi dan mengurangi
liat DEMIKIAN Mencegah mereka menempel pada mineral berharga. Alternatif lain kondisi dari sistem partikulat. Akibatnya, beberapa ion seperti tembaga, besi, dan
adalah dengan menurunkan konsentrasi padatan bubur kertas untuk mendapatkan arsenik dapat dilepaskan dan menginduksi heterokagulasi antara mineral tanah liat
viskositas rendah dan tegangan luluh. Namun, metodologi ini dapat mengurangi dan spesies berharga. Kedua, kehadiran pirit dalam bijih tembaga memerlukan
produksi logam. Menggunakan metode fisik untuk menghilangkan tanah liat be- kedepan penggunaan kapur dalam cara untuk ace menghindari seperti flotation sulde
fltahapotation kemungkinan lain. Studi terbaru yang dilakukan dengan batubara estebesi.fibijih Penelitian sebelumnya menunjukkan Itu Menghasilkan
menunjukkan bahwa agitasi intensitas tinggi selama pengkondisian meningkatkan ekalsiumffdll Itu meningkatkan enegatifffect dari tanah liatdalam
kinerja ketika kaolinit hadir (Yu et al., 2017a, 2017b). Di sisi lain, Oats et al. (2010) flprosestembagaowers otation. Ini adalah perbedaan penting dibandingkan dengan
Quast et al. (2008) menemukan desliming oleh hydrocyclones Itu bisa lebih effefektif aplikasi lain. Akhirnya, bijih tembaga Mengandung besar diberbagaifferentjenis
daripada Penambahan dispersan. Namun, sejumlah besar mineral berharga dapat hilang mineral lempung dan phyllosilicates, IMPLIES sistem yang kompleks Yang
bersama lendir, sehingga rekomendasinya adalah bahwa metode tersebut hanya dapat diYangfferentke beragam aplikasi lainnya. Dalam review ini, kami menganalisis
diterapkan ketika jumlah mineral berharga dapat diabaikan. Dalam kasus perawatan penelitian de- Veloped utama untuk saat ini, yang penawaran Dengan dampak
ultrasonik, Celik et al. (1998) menunjukkan bahwa Stu mati untuk boron flotation di mineral lempung pada flowers otation tembaga. Penekanan khusus ditempatkan di
hadapan dari kandungan tinggi mineral lempung ultrasonik pretreatment Menunjukkan fimelihat masalah: i) reologi dari pulp liat, ii) penggunaan tanahliat-
menjanjikanfimanfaatdalam uji coba laboratorium, tetapi aplikasi Mereka Menunjukkan spesifikreagen, iii) tanah liat di- teraction dalam medium garam, iv) entrainment
teknik itu de este pada skala industri bisa menantang jika dibandingkan dengan agitasi mekanik, dan v) dampak oksidasi tembaga pada lapisan tanah liat. Akhirnya,
intens dan desliming hidrosiklon. penelitian utama tunities oppor- atauffered oleh subjek ini disajikan.
Tantangan tambahan adalah untuk memahami interaksi lempung di
lingkungan salin, seperti air laut (Uribe et al., 2017; Hernández et al., 2012,
2. Dampak tanah liat pada tembaga bijih
2015; Ordóñez et al., 2013; Cisternas, 2014; Goñi et al., 2015; Jeldres etfl.otation
al.,
2016, 2017a, 2017b; Quezada et al., 2017; Cisternas dan Gálvez, 2018
Costine et al., 2018; Romero et al., 2018). Sebuah lingkungan yang sangat
2.1 Perilaku rheologi suspensi tanah liat
salinedimodifikasiinteraksi antar-permukaan yang Memerintah stabilitas
pulp, dan dampaknya terutamatercerminoleh perubahan gaya elektrostatik
dan hidrasi. Kompresi yang kuat dari awan ionik yang mengelilingi situs Kehadiran tanah liat mineral mengarah ke tantangan rheologi, mana yang
Umumnyasignifikanmasalahdalam
aktif, baik dari permukaan partikel atau reagen kimia dapat bertindak, tetapi floperasi otation(Schubert,2008; Ndlovu et ke2011 ;.
juga, molekul air mengalami penataan ulang yang tergantung jika Farrokhpay,2012).Ketika
ion pulp mineral
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69

Sementara agregat DIBENTUK oleh bentonit dalam bentuk struktur 'sarang lebah' atau
menampilkan perilaku non-Newtonian, sifat-sifat seperti viskositas dan tegangan luluh
memiliki arti pentingyangsignifikan dalam hidrodinamika pulp, dan akibatnya dalam 'HouseofCards' di mana E-E dan EF obligasi dominan(Gambar.3),terutama agregat
semua sub-proses fisik yang terjadi dalam flotation sel, mengendalikan proses akhirnya
kaolinit menunjukkan struktur dari FdanF dan EE jenis (Gbr. 3b). Tidak ada struktur
yang eFFI- efisiensi. Bakker et al. (2009) dan Shabalala et al. (2011) menunjukkan jaringan seperti sisir madu yang diamati dalam pulp campuran bijih-kaolinit.
bahwa ukuran gelembung dan gas Keduanya terus-up berartiPenurunancantlyDengan Zhang dan Peng (2015) dilakukan untuk rheograms Campuran dari
pulp konsentrasi solid. Para penulis menjelaskanini temuandengan menunjukkan bahwa mineral tembaga (kalkopirit) Dengan tiga diffjenis erent dari mineral lempung, dalam
tingginya nilai tegangan luluh menyebabkan pembentukan semacam 'gua bubur kayu' di esta, dua jenis bentonit dan kaolinit.rst fihasil, dan seperti yang diharapkan, Itulah
kasus
sekitar impeler. Ini secara logis menghasilkan dispersi gelembung yang buruk melaluiKenaikan tertinggi dalam viskositas pulp yang dihasilkan oleh Bentonit Yang Dijelaskan
sel. Selain itu, hubungan yang menarik ditemukan antara reologi pulpa dan stabilitasoleh 2: Struktur 1 Itu menghasilkan viskositas lebih tinggi dari kaolinit (1: 1 struktur).
buih, di mana Farrokhpay dan Zanin (2011) menemukan bahwa stabilitas Mengenai buih dua jenis kaolinit, yang strukturnya kurang kristalin menghasilkan reologi
meningkat pada nilai pH yang lebih rendah, yang setuju dengan peningkatan viskositasyang lebih tinggi. Para penulis menemukan korelasi langsung antara viskositas pulp
pulpa.
(pada 100 s-1)dan pemulihan tembaga di flo- tasi tes, dengan bentonit Menyebabkan
Perilaku reologis pulpa lempung bervariasi dalam hal thototropi, Yang paling merusak danffect (lihat Gambar4).Dalam beberapa kasus, beberapa masalah
viskoelastisitas, dan tegangan luluh, dan pada dasarnya tergantung pada jenis tanah dalam
liat, pengukuran reologi menunjukkan bahwa nilai yang dilaporkan masih bisa
sifat kation yang dapat dipertukarkan, dan kondisi sedang (Paineau et al., 2011; Jeldres
diperdebatkan. Sebagai contoh, waktu untuk melakukan rheograms sangat pendek
et al. , 2017c). Misalnya Sebab, beberapa kertas Tunjukkan thatpH dan adanya garam (hanya 100 detik), sehingga thixotropy dapat menyembunyikan nilai-nilai reologi yang
Secara substansial mengubah Perilaku reologi diffjenis erent dari lumpur liat seperti,
sebenarnya; tidak ada perawatan yang Disebutkan untuk menghindari effects partikel
montmorillonite dan kaolinit Antara Lain(Brandenburgdan Lagaly,1988; Cruz et ke2013 kasar sedimentasi, yang Bisa berdampak
;. Tombácz dan Szekeres, 2004; Basnayaka et al., 2017; Jeldres et al., 2017c). Cruz et al.
(2015) Menunjukkan Bahwa utamarheologiffperbedaan-perbedaanmineral lempungyang
Dijelaskan Antara Lysing ana- oleh bagaimana partikel berhubungan. Dengan dukungan
gambar Cryo-SEM, penulis menunjukkan diyang luar biasa strukturalffperbedaan-
perbedaanTergantung pada apakah Mereka Sesuai untuk bentonit atau kaolinit.
 hati-hati; ..Farrokhpay et ke (2016) menunjukkan bahwa parameter utama
untuk evaluate- yang diffselisih antara lempung adalah melalui mereka 'pembengkakan'
atau 'non bengkak'properti. Para penulis menemukan tanah liat yang t topi memiliki
5910010 kapasitas yang lebih tinggi untuk menyerap air dan Meningkatkan Ukuran mereka adalah
orang-orang yang mengurangieFFIefisiensidi flotation tahap, sedangkan tanah liat yang
0100)% tidak memiliki kualitas ini (kaolinite Seperti) menghasilkan dampak kecil Entah di
rheology, stabilitas buih , atau pemulihan bijih berharga. Namun, hasil ini bukan tren
umum, karena penulis lain telah menunjukkan dampak yang cukup besar yang
(dan revocerr EPPO 8060402080604020)Pc (dan tisocsivt nerapp disebabkan oleh kaolinit. Sebagai contoh, Forbes et al. (2014) Dilakukan tembaga
C A000flotation studi menggunakan mineral sintetik yang terdiri dari Campuran dari kuarsa,
Mei 1015 konsentrasi mineralTanah Liat (wt% ) kalkopirit, dan kaolinit, Mengingat konsentrasi Orang sebagai variabel. Peningkatan
proporsi kaolinit berarti pengurangan nyata dalam pemulihan kalkopirit (Gbr. 5), tetapi
Gambar 4.bubur. Effect konsentrasi mineral lempung pada pemulihan tembaga (bols sym- ini juga menyebabkan peningkatan viskositas yang kuat, menjauh dari perilaku Newton.
kosong), dan viskositas jelas (poin padat) dari flotation snobrite (lingkaran), kaolinit (segitiga),
Penulis menyajikan Diamati Bahwa merugikan effect kaolinit diperparah pada pH
bentonit (persegi) (diadaptasidari Zhang dan Peng,.2015)
<6(Gambar6);Namun, hanya 30/70 rasio kuarsa / kaolinit yang digunakan, sehingga ada
kemungkinan bahwaefeknyaberbeda dengan komposisi gangue lainnya. Untuk itu, akan
selama tes karena fitarik ne mineral atau bahkan gangguan untuk akhirnya sedimen menarik
di untuk menerapkan teknik untuk mendapatkan model statistik seperti teknik
bagian bawah cangkir ;. juga adalah nilai laju geser Ditentukan di mana vortisitas Taylor komputasi lunak atau bahkan desain eksperimental faktorial. Teknik ini memungkinkan
Muncul Bisa untuk ini Alasannya, hasil harus dianalisis dengan namun, pada tingkat analisis setiap yang bervariasi di different
kualitatif, informasi yang berguna

Gambar. 3. Perbandingan jaringan struktural DIBENTUK oleh) bentonit-bijih campuran dan b) campuran kaolinit-bijih, di flotation pulp(Cruzet ke.,2015).
RI Jeldres et al. Ilmu Tanah Liat Terapan 170 (2019) 57-69
100
8

7) aP (s sertsr aeh 65432 1

S60 pH Alami 7,6 NaOH pH 10 pH Kapur 10

Na2CO3 pH 10 0/100 030/70 70/30 100/0

80
a)
6040 20
quartz / kaolinit rasio 0Gambar. 5. pemulihan kumulatif tembaga dengan waktu, sebagai fungsi different kuarsa / rasio kaolinit dalam tahap gangue,
pada pH 8 (diadaptasi dari Forbes et ke.,2014).
Laju geser (s-1)
Waktu flotasi kumulatif (min)
0 100 200 300
Laju geser (s-1)
0 2 4 6 8 Waktu flotasi kumulatif (min)
1,8 1,6
b) 1,4 1,2 1,0 100
pH alami 8,7 NaOH pH10 Lime pH10Na2CO3 PH10
pH 4 pH 6pH8
.Gambar 7. Rheograms suspensi tanah liat di hadapan dan tidak adanya pH modifiers: a) kaolinit 30% wt; b) bentonit 5% (diadaptasi dari Cruz et al., 2013). pH 10
Gambar. 6. Pemulihan tembaga kumulatif dengan waktu, sebagai fungsi pH, pada rasio 30/70 kuarsa / kaolinit dalam fase gangue (diadaptasi dari Forbes et al.,
2014).
 (dan revocerr eppoce vitalumu 80 604 020
0,8)% C 00,6 0,4 0,2 0,0
0 100 200 300
flotation operasi Namun, pengetahuan itu memiliki.telah dihasilkan
02468
dapat sangat membantu untuk mengusulkan pedoman baru Mengenai penanganan reagen. misalnya, Goodwin dan Hughes (2008) Menunjukkan fect-upaya
dari heksadesiltrimetilamonium bromide (HDTAB) yang corre- sponds ke kationik surfaktan, pada reologi dua different mempertahankan satu pensiun dari
kaolinit dengan fraksi volumetrik 0,02 Dalam kedua kasus, suspensi tanpa surfaktan menunjukkan perilaku pseudoplastik, dengan munculnya tegangan
leleh, karena zona jaringan partikel tempat pengujian eksperimental dilakukan. Misalnya,
terhapus oleh interaksi antara tepi dan wajah. dari tanah liat. Bagaimana melakukan tes Menanggapi rasio kuarsa / tanah liat, tetapi padadiffpH erent
namun, Penambahan nilai mekanisme agregasi HDTAB berubah (di luar pH 8).
Meningkatkan wajah dengan wajah-interaksi dan Disebabkan suspensi ke Kompleksitas perilaku reologis meningkat ketika
berperilaku di bawah rezim Newton. Abu-Jdayil et al. (2016) menemukan Bahwa Mengingat interaksi yang timbul di antara partikel tanah liat Dengan
natrium dodesil sulfat (SDS) dansangatffefektifdalam memodifikasi reagen yang digunakan dalam flotation. Aspek ini telah sedikit dieksplorasi, meskipun
reologi bentonit. Para penulis menemukan bahwa dalam rentang konsentrasi selektivitas dan pemulihan mineral Secara substansialditingkatkan Bisa
tionsdekat dengan konsentrasi misel kritis (CMC), suspensi jika modireologi cocokfiersdipilih, serta dispersan Itu
Menunjukkan Peningkatan dalam viskositas dan bahkan tingkat tertentu dari thixotropy. Kontrol dapat eyang merugikan tanah liatffects(Bagian2.2). Cruz
et al. (2013)
Namun, Penambahan setiltrimetilamonium bromide (CTAB) Menunjukkan Bahwa dipenggunaanpHfferent modifiers Bisa mengubahrheologi
caracantly mengurangi viskositas dan mengubah sifat Perilaku tanah liat dari disangatfferentlysuspensi.Para peneliti menggunakan
penipisan geser dengan tegangan luluh keNewtonian murni cairan. Desai et al. kapur, natrium karbonat, dan natrium hidroksida untuk mencapai pH 10 di
mempertahankan satu
(2010) Mempelajari effect konsentrasi surfaktan (termasuk kaolinit dan bentonit pensiun. Sementara kapur Dipromosikan kaolinit
anionik, kationik, dan non-ionik) di viskositas sus- agregasi pyrophyllite, natrium karbonat mendispersikan mereka (Gbr. 7a). Di
pensiun. Viskositas, Diukur pada fitingkatxeddari 60 s-1Tergantung Berlawanan, natrium karbonat sebagai agen koagulasi bertindak Alih-alih dis
muatanfundamentalpada surfaktan. Para penulis mengatakan bahwa ketika Persant untuk suspensi bentonit, menghasilkan bahkan lebih untuksignifikan
reagen adalah anion (natrium dodecylbenzenesulfonate - NaDBS) atau enonffect darikapur. Sodium hidroksida juga menginduksi agregasi dalam b-
ionik (TX-100), ada peningkatan viskositas sehubungan dengan suspensi nite mereka tetapi memiliki dampak kecil pada kaolinit (Gambar 7b).
konsentrasi, perubahanMeskipun mean jauh lebihtidak bisa Dengan literatur atauSementaraffersberbagai laporan menunjukkan eItuffEcts
TX-100 (lihat Gambar.8),pada kenyataannya NaDBS Dengan dataran tinggi tercapai. Sedangkan surfaktan pada reologi tanah liat (Güngör, 2000; Abu-
Jdayil dan
dengan surfaktan kationik (Cetilpiridinium Bromide - CPB) ada Ghannam, 2014; Abu-Jdayil et al., 2016, Magzoub et al., 2017),
Kenaikan viskositas, tapi setelahspesifiknilai, ini Mulai de- untungnya, ada penelitian sistematis Esta mengintegrasikan denganPerilaku.
Crease Menurut penulis, ini disebabkan oleh pembentukan
RI Jeldres et al. Terapan Tanah Liat Ilmu 170 (2019) 57-69
2.5
aplikasi dipopulerkan dari lignosulfonat adalah ke titik bahwa hari nowa- umum digunakan dalam Mereka adalah industri, menyoroti nikel, kalium dan
bedakflotation. (Crozier, 1992; Wellham et al., 1992; Pawlik 2.0
et al., 2003; Song et al., 2006; Ma dan Pawlik, 2007; Peng dan Seaman, 2011). Namun, aplikasi dalam industri tembaga adalahterbaru dan
pertamastudisistematis Muncul dari karya Seaman et ke. 1.5
(2012) yang menggunakan tiga polimer (polyacrylate, modified asam karboksilat, dan lignosulfonat berbasis polimer F-100)untuk Meningkatkan
1.0
pemulihantembaga dan emas bijih dalam operasi pertambangan Telfer, Australia. Semua dispersan Menunjukkan hasil positif, menjadi biopolimer WHO
F-100 Meraih pemulihan yang lebih baik, khususnya tembaga sekunder sulfi
0,5
TX-100 (non-ionik) CPB (kationik) NaDBS (anion)
kalkosit. Sayangnya, hasil menjanjikan dalam boratory la- Meraih Bukankah mampu mereplikasi uji coba di-tanaman, dan alasan utama Dikaitkan dengan
diffperbedaan-perbedaan di media grinding. Cor-re-
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
media penggilingan baja tahan karat digunakan di laboratorium, sedangkan media baja karbon yang ditempa akan terkorosi dengan cepat ketika terpapar
udara dan kelembaban digunakan di pabrik. Ini adalah pertimbangan penting untuk fleotation,FFIefisiensi Mengingat Bahwa kondisi Yang grinding
Gambar 8. Viskositas dari 55% berat pyrophyllite suspensi pada laju geser dari 60 s konstan -.1di hadapan TX-100, CPB, dan SDBS (Diadaptasi dari Desai et al.,
2010).
Konsentrasi (mM)
Melaksanakan, Termasuk jenis pabrik, suasana gas, dan pH, menyebabkan Elektrokimia Perilaku itu dapat secarasignifikanmengubah hidrofobisitas
mineral tembaga(Bruckardet ke.,2011).Berdasarkan pengamatan sebelumnya, Wei et al. (2013) mempelajari dampak dari
lig-bilayer antara molekul surfaktan teradsorpsi. Mereka juga menjelaskan bahwa peningkatan viskositas yang dihasilkan oleh surfaktan anionik, SDBS,
bisa disebabkan oleh pembentukan jembatan antara dua partikel karena kemungkinan adanya ion kalsium, yang akan dilepaskan oleh tanah liat. Sayangnya,
penulis mengampuni di mulatedMengingat Penjelasanmerekafferentuntuk setiap rentang konsentrasi surfaktan. Sebagai contoh, pereaksi non-ion TX-100
dianalisis mengenai kisaran 0-2mM kira-kira, tetapi apa yang akan terjadi jika konsentrasi mencapai nilai yang sama dengan yang dicapai dengan reagen

kationik CPB (0-10 mM)? Untuk alasan ini, kami percaya bahwa penjelasan yang diajukan oleh para peneliti harus dianalisis kembali. Tidak diragukan lagi,

pemahaman yang lebih dalam materi esta Diperlukan untuk aplikasi dalam floperasiotation perairan industri Dimana Memiliki Biasanyasignifikantingkat
kekerasan, dan reagen utama untuk memodifikasi pH adalah kapur (CaO).
Secara keseluruhan, effect Disebabkan oleh Surfaktan pada rheology beragam dan dalam beberapa kasus diFFIkultus untuk memahami. Ini dapat
menyebabkan sistem memperoleh perilaku Newton, sementara dalam kasus lain peningkatan reologi substantif muncul. Namun, ini tidak hanya tergantung
pada karakteristik surfaktan, tetapi juga dari sifat tanah liat dan kondisi medium.
Bagian 2.2 mempelajari salah satu strategi utama untuk menghadapi tanah liat, yaitu menggunakan reagen polimer yang dapat melapisi permukaannya.
Meskipun teknik ini bermanfaat, beberapa penelitian telah meneliti hasil yang disebabkan oleh penambahan polimer pada reologi pulpa. Amarasinghe dan
Abelev (2015) menemukan Itu guar gum dosis kecilberartifikan lipatan inviskositas suspensi tanah liat, eMeskipunffectjauh lebih tinggi di suspensi
montmorillonit Dibandingkan dengan yang Diperoleh Dengan kaolinit (lihat Gambar.9).
nosulfonat pada bijih tanah liat rendah dan bijih tanah liat tinggi, yang diperoleh dari lubang bawah tanah dan terbuka dari operasi Telfer, masing-masing.
Analisis untuk menentukan sifat bijih tembaga menunjukkan bahwa kedua bijih mengandung tembaga yang terkait dengan oksida, mineral tembaga
sekunder, tetapi terutama mineral tembaga primer (lebih dari 65%). The different grinding media yang Menunjukkandalampengaruhtahap besarkominusi.
Sebagai contoh, Gambar 10amenunjukkan hasil yang diperoleh dengan menggunakan media baja ringan, di mana tidak ada peningkatan dalam pemulihan
tembaga dan emas setelah menerapkan reagen pendispersi (F-100). Penjelasannya adalah bahwa media baja menghasilkan sejumlah besar besi teroksidasi,
yang menekan mineral berharga terlepas dari keberadaan dispersan. Sebaliknya, ketika menggunakan media stainless steel, produk oksidasi besi
diminimalkan, memfasilitasi aktivitas dispersant tanah liat. Kontras radikal dalam kinerja biopolimer yang dibuktikan pada Gambar. 10B, Dimana
floatabilitytembaga, emas dan massa ditampilkan sebagai fungsi dari pemulihan air setelah penggilingan dalam stainless steel menengah. Setelah penerapan
100 g / t F-100, pemulihan tembaga meningkat 7% sedangkan emas 20%.
Pekerjaan penting baru-baru ini diterbitkan oleh Wang et al. (2016). Para peneliti Dianggap tidak merupakan aspek yang telah dilaporkan dalam literatur,
quantiDimana Merekafiedsifat surfaktan beberapa dispersan, terutama ketika mereka berinteraksi dengan frother tersebut. Untuk studi ini, tiga berbasis
lignosulfonat polimer (DP1775, DP1777, DP1778 dan) Apakah dianalisis untuk flotation tembaga mineral Dengan hadirnya kaolinit. Tiga polimer
meningkatkan pemulihan tembaga dan pada gilirannya menurunkan nilainya, dengan kecenderungan yang sangat bergantung pada karakteristik
strukturalnya seperti kandungan gugus fungsi, berat molekul, dan jenis konter. Namun, salah satu kesimpulan utama adalah bahwa aktivitas permukaan
biopolimer dapat memainkan peran yang lebih besar pada kinerja mereka, terutama ketika mereka berinteraksi dengan buih karena perubahan penting
dalam sifat buih dapat dihasilkan, dengan konsekuensi dalam entrainment mekanik. 2.2.Spesifikreagen untuk tanah liat
Misalnya, pada Gambar.11,adalah Diamati Bahwa tinggi buih memiliki sedikit kepekaan terhadap frother (DSF004) dan biopolimer DP-1777 dosis,
Sebuah strategi yang digunakan untuk menangkal merusak effects dari tanah liatini
tetapi dalam kasusdari biopolimer DP-1775 dan DP-1778, penggunaan Perilaku melaluispesifikreagen, yang mengerahkan peran pendispersibe-
itu differentkarena ada ketinggian pertumbuhan buih bertahap. Pada tween tanah liat dan mineral berharga. Pereaksi ini biasanya benar
, Wang et al. Menunjukkan sinergis effect dapat timbul Menanggapi itu ke polisakarida (misalnya, karboksimetilselulosa, guar gum,
Ketika pencampuran untuk biopolimer dengan frother a. Untuk esta, 10 ppm adalah DSF004 dll) yang dapat teradsorpsi ke permukaan partikel,
menciptakan elektrostatik
terapan, dan dosis biopolimer bervariasi. Hasil, disajikan dalam dan / atau tolakan sterik yang menstabilkan suspensi (Pawlik et al.,
Gambar. 11b, menunjukkan bahwa aksi bersama reagen dapat menyebabkan lebih banyak 2003). Salah saturst fiDilaporkan studi di tanggal awal kembali
dari
perubahan intens dari Ketika Mereka bertindak secara terpisah. Sinergi ini sangat tahun 80-an, ketika Edwards et al. (1980) mengusulkan penggunaan
carbox-
mudah dideteksi dalam biopolimer DP-1775 dan DP-1778. ymethylcellulose (CMC) untuk Meningkatkan pemulihan pentlandit, setelah
Sebuah isu menarik adalah bagaimana Mengidentifikasi reagen ini Berperilaku emengurangiffectsDisebabkan oleh lumpur serpentine. Sejak Kemudian,
diKetika beroperasi padaffjenis erent dari perairan, terutama Mereka Dengan tinggi
61
RI Jeldres et ke. Ilmu Tanah Liat Terapan 170 (2019) 57-69
2.2
2.2
2.0
a)
2.0
b)
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1g/L3g/L
1.2
1g/L3g/L5g/L
5 g / L 1.0
1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Total kandungan gum guar [g / L]
Total kadar gum guar [g / L]
Gbr. 9. Viskositas semu yang tampak sebagai fungsi dari kadar gum guar dan mineral lempung: a) montmorillonite , b) kaolinit (diadaptasi dari Amarasinghe dan
Abelev, 2015).
salinitas. Sayangnya tidak ada penelitian yang ditemukan untuk mengevaluasi tembaga
meningkat secara nyata (Gbr. 12), tetapi seperti yang dinyatakan di atas, kutu buku pemulihan karbon; Namun, perlu disebutkan kerja Liu dan Peng
menurun untuk semua rentang dosis. Para penulis Terindikasi rendah itu (2015),WHO Dinilai flotation mineral batubaraDengan tanah liatyang tinggi
DOSISpolimertidak akan cukup untuk menghasilkan tolakan sterik. konten, baik dalam air tawar dan air asin (air olahan).itu,
Sementara Meningkatkan deuce harapkan tolakan sterik antara pendispersi (lignosulfonat) Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa banyak Tergantung
mineral, tetapi permukaan batubara untuk Begins hidrofobik kalah pada dosis ITS dan kondisi menengah,Apalagi, satu-satunya kasus
yang Langsung keffEctsITS. floatability di mana biopolimer menunjukkan hasil yang baik adalah ketika diterapkan di
Baru-baru ini, Ramirez et al. (2018) menerbitkan hasil interaksi dosis kecil (<100 g / ton) dalam air deionisasi. For example, the addi-
between chalcopyrite and kaolinites of different crystallinity, over the tion of 50 g/ton of lignosulfonate increased carbon recovery from 45%
pH range from 7 to 12, in both fresh and seawater. The effect of the to 63%; but when 200g/ton was applied, the recovery fell to 26%.
dispersants, sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) and sodium silicate However, when using industrial water, the beneficial effect of lig-
(SS), was evaluated in this work. It is shown that both tested dispersants nosulfonate was not observed, in fact, the coal recovery decreased to all
are able to restore the chalcopyrite flotation in the presence of kaolinite the dosages used. The researchers correlated the behaviour with in-
in seawater over the pH range from7 to 11. These authors also report a terfacial studies that allowed to establish the mechanisms by which
better effect when a poorly-crystallized kaolinite was used, which was these reagents act. Then, measurements of adsorption isotherms
the one that caused the stronger depressing effect. showed that the affinity of lignosulfonate with the surfaces of kaolinite
Another type of reagents are the so-called 'clay binders', developed and carbon depends fundamentally on the type of water employed
by Giorgia Pacific (Tao et al., 2007). The goal is that the reagent can (Fig. 12). The proposed explanation was that in the deionised water
adhere to the clay surfaces and promote their agglomeration to act as there is minimal adsorption of the dispersant onto the clay mineral, but
depressants. Tao et al. (2010) showed the performance after using them it can adhere onto the carbon surface generating a better electrostatic
in phosphate flotation, whose pulp had high contents of insoluble clays. repulsion between the minerals. This reduces the heterocoagulation,
The results were very interesting, where the use of the reagent im- improving the coal recovery. A subsequent increase in the lig-
proved the recovery between 5 and 7%, under a fixed grade of con- nosulfonate dosage is counterproductive since it continues to adhere to
centrate. At first glance, it is appreciated that the clay binder made the the valuable mineral surface, giving it a higher hydrophilic character
flotation faster, in fact, Tao et al. determined that the reagent increase that reduces its floatability. In saline water, the situation was different
the flotation rate by 17.1% (this when fitting a first-order flotation where the lignosulfonate adsorption on the surfaces of both minerals
model).
100 100
Mass recovery with F-100 Copper recovery with F-100
a)
Mass recovery with F-100 Copper recovery with F-100 Gold recovery with F-100
Gold recovery with F-100 Mass recovery without F-100
Mass recovery without F-100 Copper recovery without F-100
Copper recovery without F-100 Gold recovery withou F-100
Gold recovery withou F-100
Water recovery (%)
Water recovery (%)
62
b)
80

604020
Fig. 10. Cumulative gold, copper, and mass recovery, as a function water recovery in the flotation of a high clay ore with F-100 dispersant and without
dispersant after grinding with a) mild steel and b) stainless steel (adapted from Wei et al., 2013). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
) %(y revocere vitalumu 80 604020
C 005 10 15 20
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69
Fig. 11. Froth height in steady state, as a function of the frother or biopolymer concentration: (a) pure reagent; (b) biopolymer mixed with 10 ppm of frother (Wang et
al., 2016).
) g/gm(e tartsbuS/debrosdar emylo 4
P
3
LS on kaolinite in deionized water LS on kaolinite in saline water LS on pure coal in deionized water LS on pure coal in saline water
21
00 100 200 300 400 500
Lignosulfonate concentration (mg/L)
Fig. 12. Adsorption isotherms of lignosulfonate in kaolinite and pure carbon in deionised water and saline water at pH 8.5 (adapted from Liu and Peng, 2015).
Fig. 13. A mechanism in which binders interact with clay particles (Tao et al., 2010).
The clay binders correspond to low molecular weight polymers that aris e from the condensation of urea and formaldehyde. An advantage mentioned by
the researchers is that the polymer properties can be adapted depending on the desired application, that is, they might pre- pare reagents that work for
copper ores, in fact, the clay binders have
63
also been used for coal and potash flotation (Tao et al., 2007, 2010). This is interesting since the efficiency is fundamentally determined by the
physicochemical properties of the polymer, such as the molar ratio between formaldehyde-urea, the addition of functional groups, the degree of
functionalization, the molecular weight, and the cross-linking density. The mechanism with which these polymers act is very well exempli fied in Fig. 13.
The first phenomenon that happens is the polymer adhesion onto the clay surface, which occurs mainly by dipole- dipole interactions and strong hydrogen
bonds. After its addition, two significant consequences arise: first, there are fewer available spaces on the clay surface for the collectors to deposit, which
are used to cover the valuable mineral. Moreover, these hydrophilic polymers have a floc- culating effect, which promotes the clay aggregation and
depression, decreasing the number of them that adheres to the valuable mineral and/or bubbles.
2.3. Clays behaviour in flotation with saline water
 Clays are active from the physicochemical point of view. The che- mical reactivity is related to the internal and stoichiometric structure and is a
consequence of the small particle size and its predominantly laminar morphology, which give a high surface area. Likewise, the external and internal
surface charges attract ions and water molecules, giving rise to significant desorption characteristics and cation exchange capacity.
In particular, it has been proposed that the phenomena of hetero- coagulation are the primary responsible for a ffecting the flotation performance. This refers
to the generation of a hydrophilic coating formed by a layer of fine particles that adhere to the surface of the valuable mineral, preventing the interaction
with the bubbles and/or with the collector. Due to the anisotropic characteristics, clay coatings can occur in positively or negatively charged minerals (Peng
and Zhao, 2011), and different researchers argue that the formation of this coating is due to electrostatic attractions. For example, in the case of minerals
like chalcopyrite and chalcocite has been reported that their interaction with kaolinite is due to an attraction between the negative charges of the clay and
the positive charges of the sulfide mineral (Gan and Liu, 2008; Peng and Zhao, 2011; Farrokhpay and Zanin, 2012). However, the occurrence of chemical
interactions between the species is not ruled out, and the pH and the presence of soluble ions influence this coating to a greater or lesser extent (Liu et al.,
2002; Holuszko et al., 2008; Gupta and Miller, 2010; Peng and Zhao, 2011; Zhao and Peng, 2012). On the other hand, the adsorption of metal ions depends
strongly on the hydrolysis capacity of the cations. Studies carried out by Gan and Liu (2008) showed that the presence of multivalent ions (Ca 2+, Mg2+,
Fe3+) generated a high heterocoagulation between kaolinite and bi- tumen, due to a decrease in the magnitude of the zeta potential and an increase in cation
adsorption metallic on both minerals. Mpofu et al.
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69

(2003) evaluated the effect of chemical adsorption of the hydrolysable cations of Mn 2+

and Ca2+ on the kaolinite surface at pH 7.5 and 10.5. They found that the ion adsorption
behaviour led to significant con- sequences on the zeta potential, shear yield stress,
flocculant adsorp- tion, and dewatering behaviour. Liu et al. (2002) described an inter-
esting methodology to analyse the phenomena of heterocoagulation from measurements
of zeta potential. When a system is composed of a mixture of two minerals, it is common
for the zeta potential to present one or two picks, depending on the chemical condition of
the suspen- sion and the type of clay present. With this, the difference between kaolinite
and montmorillonite could be established in terms of its in- teraction with bitumen.
When adding a small amount of calcium ions (1 mM), a single pick was generated in the
zeta potential, which was considered as an indicator of heterocoagulation, with negative
con- sequences for the bitumen floatability. For kaolinite, the addition of calcium ions
did not lead to significant changes in the bimodal form of the zeta potential, considered
as no heterocoagulation.
Fig. 14. Chalcopyrite or chalcocite recovery as a function of flotation time in the presence and
The heterocoagulation affects the subsequent interaction of the mineral
with bubbles (Laskowski et al., 1989; Johnson et al., 1998; McFarlane et al., 2005; absence of bentonite (Peng and Zhao, 2011).
Elmahdy et al., 2008; Gan and Liu, 2008; Farrokhpay and Zanin, 2012). For copper
flotation, the electrostatic attractions between fine clay particles with chalcopyrite and
64
chalcocite minerals affect the interaction with the collector and bubbles (see Fig. 14)
particles is the high gangue entrainment (Liu and Peng, 2014). The hydrophilic gangue is
(Peng and Zhao, 2011). Likewise, evidence of an analogous phenomenon was found, in
easily dragged in the interstitial fluid film be- tween the air bubbles that form the froth
which clays can form coatings on gas bubbles, decreasing or preventing the adhesion
layer (Warren, 1985), which intensifies when the particle size is < 30 μm (Trahar, 1981;
capacity between the bubbles with the minerals (Gutierrez and Melipichun, 2014).
Smith and Warren, 1989). In copper and lead flotation it has been found that the recovery
Uribe et al. (2017) studied solutions with high ionic content, in- cluding of non-metallic gangue is increased between 5% when having a particle size of 40 μm to
seawater, on the chalcopyrite floatability in the presence of kaolinite. Interestingly, the 20–30% in particles of 10 μm (Liu et al., 2006; Wang and Peng, 2013).
significant copper depression at pH higher than pH 9 (Fig. 15) was related, in no small
extent, with the presence of calcium and magnesium ions since they have the ability to Wang and Peng (2013) analysed the carbon flotation and found that a saline
medium increased the gangue entrainment for any particle size, however, the effect was
hydrolyse and hydrate, forming Ca(OH)+, Mg(OH)+ and Mg(OH)2(s) species. The authors more evident for particles smaller than 38 um. In general, the tendency is that the clay
suggested that these complexes adsorb onto the surfaces of chalcopyrite and kaolinite entrainment is more significant in saline water, which could be closely related to the
particles, favouring their heterocoagulation (Gan and Liu, 2008; Ozkan et al., 2009; higher stability of the bubbles and froth layer (Craig et al., 1993; Henry and Craig, 2008;
Uribe et al., 2017). We must emphasise that although sedimentation tests reinforced the Wang et al., 2013; Wang and Peng, 2014). On the other hand, studies carried out by Cao
authors' argument, there was no evidence or demonstration through micro- scopy. With and Liu (2006) and Liu et al. (2006) showed the feasibility to reduce the flotation
the technologies currently available for the minerals characterisation, the development of entrainment, either by using inorganic depressants or high molecular weight polymers,
this type of experiments is pos- sible. which allow coagu- lating the fine gangue particles, forming more massive structures that
sediment by gravitational effects. In this sense, Gong et al. (2010) de- monstrated that by
applying PEO in the flotation of copper‐gold ores, less quartz entrainment was achieved,
2.4. Mechanical entrainment and it also improved the re- covery of the valuable minerals (Fig. 16). The phenomenon
was asso- ciated with the selective adsorption of PEO on the quartz surface, al- lowing
the vast floc generation enough to overcome the resistance to the fluid. The size
One of the enormous challenges in the flotation of fine and ultrafine measurement was obtained by using a photometric dispersion analyser (PDA) which is a
technique capable of monitoring the state of aggregation of suspended particles.
According to Mpofu and colleagues (Mpofu et al., 2003), PEO produces better inter-
particle bridges, a higher sedimentation rate, and a higher compaction beha- viour of
flocs than traditional reagents like PAM.
The presence of some divalent cations allows better flocculation when using
high molecular weight polymers (Mpofu et al., 2003), in fact, Liu and Peng (2014)
evaluated the PEO to reduce the entrainment of Q38 kaolinite in flotation processes,
using saline water and fresh water (Figs. 17 and 18). The recovery of kaolinite increased
 linearly with the water recovery, which is consistent with the observations of collector KAX (40 ppm) and MIBC (25 ppm) (Uribe et al., 2017).
Fig. 15. Effect of kaolinite in the recovery of chalcopyrite in chloride salts: sodium
Fig. 15. Effect of kaolinite in the recovery of chalcopyrite in chloride salts: sodium
(11,000ppm), potassium (400ppm), calcium (400ppm), magnesium (1300 ppm), using (11,000ppm), potassium (400ppm), calcium (400ppm), magnesium (1300 ppm), using
collector KAX (40 ppm) and MIBC (25 ppm) (Uribe et al., 2017).
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69

Fig. 16. Gold and copper recoveries, depending on the silica content in rougher and cleaner Fig. 18. Recovery of Q38 kaolinite as a function of water recovery, in the presence and
flotation concentrates. Molecular weight of PEO 8×10 6 (Gong et al., 2010). (For interpretation
absence of PEO, using saline water (Liu and Peng, 2014).
of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
other researchers (Trahar, 1981). Under the PEO addition, lower kao- linite entrainment
was achieved in both media, while in a PEO-free medium, a 30% of kaolinite was
obtained in fresh water and 36% in saline water. Consistent with what we have seen, the
presence of

65
electrolytes again

Fig. 17. Recovery of Q38 kaolinite as a function of water recovery, in the presence and
Different studies have analysed the influence of the mill type and grinding
absence of PEO, using fresh water (Liu and Peng, 2014).
media on the sulphide ores flotation (Heyes and Trahar, 1977; Gardner and Woods,
1979; Adam et al., 1984; Yelloji Rao and Natarajan, 1990; Peng et al., 2003). Mild
oxidation results in a surface that is rich in polysulfides with some metal hydroxides,
mainly due to the dissolution of metal ions from the surface and near-surface layers, as
observed in air, acidic and alkaline conditions. Peng and Zhao (2011) found that the
oxidation of chalcopyrite and chalcocite had a different effect on their interaction with
bentonite. Under normal grinding and flotation conditions, chalcopyrite displayed good
floatability reaching 91% recovery at the completion of 8min, meanwhile, the chalcocite
presented at lower recovery corresponding to 75% at the same flotation time. When
bentonite was added, both minerals reduced their re- coveries; however, the decrease
was much more significant with chal- cocite (Fig. 14). The results were attributed to the
strong surface oxi- dation that takes place in the chalcocite surface, which is
electrostatically attractive to bentonite resulting in bentonite slime coating. The results
were complemented with zeta potential measure- ments, where at pH9.0 a slightly
oxidised chalcopyrite is electro- statically repulsed from bentonite, while oxidised
chalcocite is strongly attracted to bentonite (Fig. 19).The argument was then confirmed
 by EDTA extraction and XPS analysis (Zhao and Peng, 2012). In the EDS analysis, Fig.
Si 19. Zeta potentials of chalcopyrite and chalcocite after grinding, and zeta potentials of
and Al signals from bentonite were detected on the ran- domly chosen chalcocite bentonite (Peng and Zhao, 2011).
particle. Meanwhile, in the case of chalco- pyrite, the signals from bentonite were not
detected, confirming that bentonite particles coated the chalcocite but not the
chalcopyrite sur- face (Fig. 20). Recently, Zhao et al. (2017) showed through electro-
chemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) the way in which electrolytes reduce the
kaolinite coating on chalcocite minerals. Interestingly, the authors found that the ability
of the ions to mitigate the coating effect is related to the Hoffmeister series since larger
ions reduce more the slime coating than smaller ions.
In Fig. 18 it can be seen that in saline water the lowest recovery of kaolinite is obtained when using low PEO dosage. However, upon in- creasing the polymer
concentration, the effects were reversed, with the same entrainment occurring in the
absence of this reagent. The authors recommended that when PEO is used, the aggregate
growth is not the only property that should be considered since the froth stability can
present changes that might decrease the performance.

2.5. Effect of copper sulphide oxidation on clay coating

Few studies have reported to date which consider the effect of

RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69
Fig. 20. The EDS analysis on the randomly chosen particle (bottom) of the chalcocite (a) and 3.3. Organic reagent
chalcopyrite (b) samples ground in the presence of bentonite particles (Zhao and Peng, 2012).
Organic reagents, such as polysaccharides, have shown promising results for
copper sulphide oxidation on flotation performance, and its interaction with clays. flotation operations since they can act as clay (Liu and Peng, 2015) and pyrite (Mu et al.,
However, they have been enough to prove the importance of this phenomenon (Peng and 2016) depressants. However, the reports published to date have considered few systems,
Zhao, 2011; Zhao and Peng, 2012). We suggest that this topic should be considered in focusing primarily on phosphate, carbon, and potash minerals. As for copper mining
future research, in order to find alternatives that mitigate these detrimental effects. Peng studies are scarce, it is attractive to deepen the research on this subject. Of particular
and Zhao (2011) showed that it is possible to overcome the slime coating when the interest is the behaviour in seawater and its implication on mechanical entrainment (Liu
oxidation is reduced in the milling process but it is necessary to evaluate if this and Peng, 2014).
alternative is feasible in plant conditions with real ores.
3.4. Seawater flotation
3. Research opportunities
As previously stated, a high ionic content can increase the hetero- coagulation
between the valuable mineral and fine clay particles. However, fundamental studies are
In the last years, significant advances have arisen on the clays handling in
required to evaluate the effect of each type of clay and each primary ion in solution
flotation operations. Among them, the following stand out: i) the use of physical methods
separately depending on the different minerals of interest, to achieve a broad knowledge
to mitigate the adhesion of clays to va- luable minerals, such as intense agitations prior
about the interaction mechanism between the species. This fact is of particular
to flotation, the use of hydrocyclones, or ultrasound treatments; ii) use of specific
importance in operations that use seawater, where the con- centrations of divalent ions
reagents that can cover the clay surface avoiding the slime coating effect and reduce the
are sufficient to generate heterocoagula- tion. A strategy that has been proposed in the
excessive consumption of collectors; iii) use of rheological modifiers, either inorganic or
last years is to perform a pretreatment to seawater, where only the calcium and
polymeric dispersants; and iv) decrease the pulp solid concentration (Celik et al., 2002;
magnesium ions are removed, which has proved beneficial in copper‐molybdenum mi-
Papo et al., 2002; Tao et al., 2006; Oats et al., 2010; Cruz et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2017a).
neral flotation operations. Considering that these divalent ions also promote the clay
However, the processes continue to be inefficient and in some cases unsustainable. That
heterocoagulation with valuable minerals (Uribe et al., 2017), it was proposed that an
is why the invitation to researchers is to address this issue, introducing modern and non-
attractive option is the use of pretreated seawater in systems with high clay contents
conventional technologies that can transcend beyond the limited improvements that can
(Cruz et al., 2019).
be obtained by optimising traditional methods. In literature, there are many ex- amples
of researchers who have innovated flotation operations, ob- taining promising results
(see Calgaroto et al. (2014)). 3.5. Industrial trials

66 Significant knowledge has been generated about strategies to im- prove the
Emerging techniques that could be explored to evaluate the feasi- bility of treatment of mineral flotation
their implementation are: in the presence of clays.
3.1. Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles present great capacities to modify the physicochem- ical nature of clay surfaces. Studies like Bailey et al. (2014) have shown that silica
nanoparticles alter the stability of clay suspensions, with important consequences in their
rheological properties, which can in- crease or decrease depending on the surface charge.
Currently, no re- ports show systematic studies on their use in mineral flotation with high
clay content, however, the possibility of manipulating the phenomena of particle
aggregation/dispersion at convenience, put this issue as an interesting point to be
addressed in future research.

3.2. Rheological modifiers

Greater depth and systematic studies are required to extend the knowledge on the rheological implications involved in the selection of flotation reagents. Several
studies have shown that pH modifiers, frother, depressants, and eventually collectors,
could have a significant impact on the pulp rheology, although the effect is diverse and
chal- lenging to predict. For example, some surfactants could cause the system to acquire
a Newtonian behaviour, while in other cases a rheological raising may appear showing
even certain levels of thixo- tropy. However, this not only depends on the surfactant
characteristics but also on the clay nature and the medium conditions (eg, pH, sali- nity,
etc.). In general terms, it is proposed that when systems have complex mineralogies,
which generate rheological challenges, an ade- quate reagent selection should include
their implication in the flow properties within the flotation cell.
RI Jeldres et al. Applied Clay Science 170 (2019) 57–69
67 However, in the vast majority of cases, the studies have been conducted
that in most cases involve extra costs for the process, or even sacrifice only on a laboratory scale and have not faced the challenges involved in
part of the production or product quality. For this reason, the invitation the industry. A good example is a study conducted by Seaman et al.
is for researchers to address this issue and include modern and un- (2012), who found that lignosulfonate reagents might significantly
conventional techniques in their researches that can transcend beyond improve the copper and gold recoveries in the presence of clays, but
the limited improvements that can be obtained by optimising tradi- when tests were conducted in Minera Telfer, Australia, the results did
tional methods. Attractive alternatives for exploration include the use not show the same efficacy than in the laboratory. The reason was that
of nanoparticles, and new organic reagents. Reagent selection meth- a significant variable like the grinding type was not considered in the
odologies should also be expanded to understand the rheological im- study. Logically, this was not a positive result but generated a new
plications that this entails, and of course, the suggestion is that the new matter of study. In the same way, all the potential benefits of new
findings obtained at the laboratory scale must be submitted to the strategies like the use of nanoparticles, organic reagents, new rheolo-
challenges involved in industrial scaling. gical modifiers, pretreated seawater, etc., should offer their industrial validation.
Acknowledgement
4. Summary
The authors are grateful for the financial support of CONICYT PIA ACM 170005. RIJ thanks CONICYT Fondecyt n° 11171036. RIJ and When mineral
deposits present high clay contents, significant
LG thank the support of Centro CRHIAM through Project Conicyt/ challenges for flotation operations appear. The pulps tend to behave
Fondap/15130015. like non-Newtonian fluids and properties such as viscosity and yield stress begin to have a preponderant role in the hydrodynamics of
the
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