Flow Measurement

Diposting oleh Poppy di 4:29 PM

Pada kontrol proses, pendeteksian akurat terhadap flow rate dan mass flow gas,
cairan dan zat padat memegang peranan yang sangat penting. Jenis fluida dan
karakteristiknya merupakan faktor utama yang menentukan metode pengukuran yang
paling sesuai dengan tujuan pengukuran.
Secara umum, Flow Meter dapat dibagi menjadi 2 jenis yaitu mekanik dan elektrik.
Pada divais mekanik, metode yang paling umum untuk pengukuran flow adalah
menempatkan sebuah halangan dalam aliran fluida pada pipa sehingga menghasilkan
efek sekunder seperti torsi atau menempatkan sebuah lempeng yg terdapat lubang
ditengahnya sehingga timbul perbedaan tekanan. Pada divais elektrik, beda potensial
dibangkitkan oleh koil dengan fluida bergerak dalam medan magnet, frekuensi
putaran turbin, perubahan kecepatan pada fluida bergerak , dan perubahan resistansi
dari elemen yang terletak pada fluid path
Klasifikasi FLOW METER
Flow meter diklasifikasikan menjadi dua hal mendasar : (1) quantity dan (2) rate of
flow. Quantity meter berhubungan dengan bobot atau volume fluida yang melewati
primary element. Contohnya adalah positive-displacement meters (p/d meters),
reciprocating piston, nutating discs , dll. Sedangkan untuk fluida yang melewati
primary element pada arus kontinyu diketahui sebagai rate of flow meter . Contohnya
adalah orifice plate, turbine dan electromagnetic flow meter.
Berdasarkan prinsip kerjanya , flow meter diklasifikasikan menjadi :
1. Differential Pressure measurements : (a)Orifice plate, (b)venturi tube, (c)flow nozzle
dan (d) pitot tube
2. Electromagnetic-flowmeters
3. Rotameter (variable-area meters)
4. Mechanical-Flow meters : positive displacement & turbine
5. Ultrasonic-flow meter
6. Vortex-flow meter
Differential Pressure Measurements
Dasar pengukuran menggunakan Teorema Bernoulli yaitu :

jumlah energi pada suatu titik di dalam suatu aliran tertutup sama besarnya dengan jumlah energi
di titik lain pada jalur aliran yg sama



Dimana :
p1 = tekanan per unit area pada FH
v1 = kecepatan fluida pada BD
v2 = kecepatan fluida pada FH
r = massa jenis fluida
g = percepatan gravitasi
h1 = tinggi pusat gravitasi terhadap volume BCED
h2 = tinggi pusat gravitasi terhadap volume FGIH
(a)Orifice Plate merupakan lempeng berlubang yang digunakan untuk mengukur
tingkat aliran dalam sistem pipa. Dengan Orifice Plate yang disisipkan pada pipa ,
dapat ditimbulkan pressure drop. Berdasarkan besar pressure drop,laju aliran (flow
rate) dapat dihitung. Alat ini sangat praktis untuk tabung berdiameter besar dan
fluida yang kotor. Salah satu contoh bentuk orifice plate dapat dilihat pada gambar di
awal tulisan ini. (to be continued)
Referensi :
1. Liptak, Bela G, 2003, Instrument Engineers Handbook.Process measurement and
analysis, CRC PRESS, ISA, USA
2. Rangan C.S, Sarma G.R and Mani V.S.V, 1992, Instrumentation : Devices and Systems,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi
3. http://www.emersonprocess.com/Rosemount/products/Flow/m405p.html












Flow Measurement

Introduction

Flow measurement applications in the water industry range from small dosing and treatment
flows in pipes of a few millimeters in diameter, to the flow of treated or wastewater in trunk
mains and aqueducts of 2m diameter and above. Often in the larger cities, large interceptor
sewers are used to collect vast volumes of effluent and spent water, to convey them to waste
water treatment plant for processing. Some interceptors are several meters in diameter, maybe of
special shape and usually running partially full. Flow meter usage is therefore wide and diverse
and is at the center of the entire water cycle within the industry. Metering influences resource
management, process control, new works planning, distribution management, leakage detection,
financial control and environmental issues either directly or indirectly.



Managing Water Distribution Systems

Water imbalances are becoming a key focus to increase the reliability and quality of supply. The
complete supply system consists of a number of elements. Each needs to be effectively managed
and controlled if the overall supply cycle is to remain within tight control. A typical system,
shown in figure 1, usually consists of the following main elements:
Raw water piping system between abstraction and primary treatment plant
Piping and components within the water treatment works
Transmissions mains and supply storage reservoirs
Local distribution supply mains
Connection pipes to the consumers premises
Piping in the consumers premises after the point of final metering






Water is drawn from the source, through an abstraction meter (SP1) and into the treatment plant.
A second supply meter (SP2) may identify losses in the supply main. From the treatment plant,
water passes through the outlet meters (OMs) into the transmission mains and finally into local
reservoirs. District meters measure the amount taken out from these reservoirs into each district
and finally area meters (AMs) measure flow in smaller supply mains into each sub-division,
when the supply mains split after the DMAs. Further down each area, there may be individual
meters for shops, apartment complexes and factories. It is vital that all the meters within this
system are of known performance and regularly maintained, so the water balance within any
section can be documented and the uncertainty correctly estimated, as losses or imbalances can
(and do) occur in any or all of the above.
In the first area, large volumes of water are involved through a few key flow meters. Consider a
large Venturi meter for example in a 1600mm pipe measuring a flow of 250MLD. Over a period
of time the inside surface of the pipes and parts of the meter will change (due to deposits) and
general experience shows the meter may begin to under-read. The intrinsic accuracy is
fundamental to managing the water balance. If the same type of meter were used through the
supply system, then all could drift in the same way and at almost the same rate. We could have
the situation were the meters may balance, but the quantitative assessment of the flow is in error.
This has been the case in a good proportion of the older networks. Invariably these meters have
not been properly installed, calibrated or maintained, but are still used to measure the amount of
water put into supply. Knowledge and experience of installing flow meters, it may be argued that
this total is never precisely known.





Flow metering techniques within the water industry

In water supply systems, the common methods used almost always come from differential
pressure types, displacement types, inferential types, magnetic types, ultrasonic types, and open
channel types. By far the largest numbers sold are the domestic inferential meters for individual
usage in houses, apartments, factories, etc. Millions are used worldwide and have formed the
backbone of network supply management for the past three decades. Bulk supply has
traditionally been monitored with Venturi or Dall tubes or large propeller meters, but recently
magnetic meters are increasingly used for such applications. From the very many types that are
described, it is possible to compose a basic application table, largely based on experience and
tradition. It should not be considered as the final means of selecting the best meter, but merely to
give an indication of the choice.





For the elements shown in figure 1, the current practice is to use ultrasonic or magnetic meters
wherever possible, governed of course by costs. As large meter costs can vary enormously, the
balance has to be struck between spending the right amount of money for an economic return.
Normally meters are chosen purely on cost grounds, but experience throughout the world shows
this may not necessarily be the optimum. Life cycle costs are a much better means of judging
instrument selection.




Expected and actual installed meter performance

When purchasing any instrument, the supplier usually gives a written specification for that
device. Some manufacturers give detailed performances backed by independent testing while a
minority of specifications barely enables the prospective user to determine what they are
purchasing. Flow meters are a little different to other instruments. They are tested in a flow
laboratory under reference conditions. This means that standard flow rates are used in long
straight pipes under steady flow conditions. Few manufacturers have comprehensive data on
installation effects and often are reluctant to part with this data. An installation effect is defined
as the variation from laboratory calibration to that obtained under field conditions.

Examples of flow meter installation effects are:
Differences in pipe characteristics (roughness, ovality, etc.)
Proximity of fittings (valves/bends) which are not present in reference testing
Differences in temperature (fluid and ambient)
Effect of local RFI which are not present in reference testing
Signal acquisition and processing errors of the local system


The laboratory data are relevant for the meter in the laboratory set-up only. Once the meter is
installed in the customers pipe, other changes may be introduced and may include:
Bore of the mating pipe is usually different to that of the meter
The flow rates in the transmission lines may be different to the lab data
There may be sediment, or calcification effects within the network


All these variables may introduce additional bias into the meter readings from the day a meter is
installed. This can only be estimated or quantified from verification and this should form part of
regular network management activities. Many users, when purchasing flow meters, expect the
manufacturers specification to apply immediately and be stable with time. This is a popular
misconception. For example, small mechanical meters are always tested at the manufacturers
premises in accordance with local Weights and Measures regulations or international metrology
standards. This is the guarantee to the user that when it leaves the factory it is within
predetermined calibration limits. If it is incorrectly installed, installed too close to valves or used
on water supply with high sediment content, its performance may shift from the as-new
calibration. Usually, though not always, it under-records and over a period due to component
wear, this under-registration may increase. There may be a steady but noticeable fall in accuracy
of the meter with time. This trend is not just for these types of meters. ALL flow meters,
whatever the type from any source of supply, show these time dependent effects to varying
degrees. The key to successful network management is to estimate the rate of degradation (if
present) with time.

It is actually quite difficult to calibrate flow meters to much better than 0.2% total uncertainty, so
this represents the baseline when any meter leaves a manufacturing facility. When the user
installs the meter, this 0.2% lab figure almost certainly changes (increases). The outlet meters
from a water treatment plant for example should have the highest accuracy and the best
installation practice. This is because they are handling large volumes of treated water being put
into supply. Any flow meters of 250mm and above should be carefully selected and even more
carefully installed. Poor installation causes the greatest source of error. Standards give guidance
on the effect of single fittings but little data exists on the effect of multiple fittings close to flow
meters. The main problem is that even accepted standards currently in use may not be totally
correct, usually being out of date due to the rapid developments currently taking place in
metering. This is why site verification is vital to ensure the meter readings are valid.

All flow meters are affected by lack of attention at the installation stage to details such as
protruding gaskets, pipe bore alignment, the proximity of valves, presence of pipe branches etc.
In addition to these hydraulic considerations, close attention must be given to environmental
aspects on secondary equipment to avoid excessive vibration, flooding, ambient temperature
swings and other effects. These can greatly affect the actual measurement uncertainty that can be
achieved.

The overall recommendation, taking account of the many installation factors listed above, is that
it is often difficult to demonstrate total installed errors of much better than 2% anyway. It is
suggested that in order to achieve this long-term figure, it is necessary to specify instruments
with an intrinsic uncertainty of around 0.25% or better and this then allows more than 1.75% for
all the additional unquantified effects. More attention should be paid to the nature of the meter
chosen and the application needs. If water companies would standardize on this 2% value, it is
suggested that leakage figures would become much more understandable. It is essential that all
meters are site verified to ensure that this 2% value is maintained, (or at the least any deviation is
estimated).





Modern Installation practices and the cost implications of metering

Cost often dictates the choice of meter and the design of the complete installation, but
unfortunately it is usually only the purchase price of the equipment that is the driving factor. The
full cost of flow measurement is not simply buying the instrument. Recent independent studies
have shown this is only around 40% of the total cost of owning and operating the meter in the
first year. The actual price depends heavily on the meter specification such as pressure ratings,
materials of constructions, transmitter functionality etc. Installing the meter is actually the single
most expensive item in the first year. This covers both mechanical and electrical installation as
well as the purchase of piping and ancillaries. As a result many water supply Authorities around
the world have focused on reducing installations costs. Previously meters had been installed in
chambers to allow access for maintenance and calibration. Modern flow meters however require
little maintenance and recent advances in electronic signal processing and fault diagnostics have
allowed field devices to be developed that do not require direct access to the meter. These use
electronic fingerprinting to look for changes in both meter and transmitter characteristics.





The future role of metering

It is clear that accurate metering is fundamental to the future conservation of water resources and
to the successful financial and operational management of existing water supply networks.
Without metering, the true loss of water cannot be assessed and this can in turn lead to financial
under-recovery and possible errors in capital investment within the industry. An economic
reduction in leakage rates can render the investment in new water sources, dams, treatment
works or reservoirs unnecessary, or at the least enable a better economic justification to be made.
Studies have shown that in major city water supply networks, financial uncertainties in excess of
several millions of US dollars per day are easily possible. When set against the cost of good
instrumentation and maintenance practices, such leakage costs are very significant. This is why
so many cities around the world are investing in long term projects for water loss reduction.

In the near future, as digital electronics and communications protocols become more accepted,
flow meters are expected to evolve into small metering systems (pressure, flow temperature and
alarm capability at each point). Indeed even the small domestic mechanical meters are
undergoing radical development and evaluation. They are evolving into solid-state devices,
linked to telephone systems, satellite dishes, local cable TV or other lines into properties, so that
flow rate, consumption and other data can be automatically transmitted back to central centers
for collation and billing.




FLOWMETER TYPES AND THEIR PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
Measuring the flow of liquids is a critical need in many industrial plants. In some operations, the
ability to conduct accurate flow measurements is so important that it can make the difference
between making a profit or taking a loss. In other cases, inaccurate flow measurements or failure
to take measurements can cause serious (or even disastrous) results.
With most liquid flow measurement instruments, the flow rate is determined inferentially by
measuring the liquid's velocity or the change in kinetic energy. Velocity depends on the pressure
differential that is forcing the liquid through a pipe or conduit. Because the pipe's cross-sectional
area is known and remains constant, the average velocity is an indication of the flow rate. The
basic relationship for determining the liquid's flow rate in such cases is:
Q = V x A
where

Q = liquid flow through the pipe

V = average velocity of the flow

A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

Other factors that affect liquid flow rate include the liquid's viscosity and density, and the
friction of the liquid in contact with the pipe.
Direct measurements of liquid flows can be made with positive-displacement flowmeters. These
units divide the liquid into specific increments and move it on. The total flow is an accumulation
of the measured increments, which can be counted by mechanical or electronic techniques.

Reynolds Numbers
The performance of flowmeters is also influenced by a dimensionless unit called the Reynolds
Number. It is defined as the ratio of the liquid's inertial forces to its drag forces.

Figure 1: Laminar and turbulent flow are two types normally encountered in
liquid flow Measurement operations. Most applications involve turbulent
flow, with R values above 3000. Viscous liquids usually exhibit laminar
flow, with R values below 2000. The transition zone between the two levels
may be either laminar or turbulent.
The equation is:
R = 3160 x Q x Gt
D x h
where:
R = Reynolds number
Q = liquid's flow rate, gpm
Gt = liquid's specific gravity
D = inside pipe diameter, in.
h = liquid's viscosity, cp




The flow rate and the specific gravity are inertia forces, and the pipe diameter and viscosity are
drag forces. The pipe diameter and the specific gravity remain constant for most liquid
applications. At very low velocities or high viscosities, R is low, and the liquid flows in smooth
layers with the highest velocity at the center of the pipe and low velocities at the pipe wall where
the viscous forces restrain it. This type of flow is called laminar flow. R values are below
approximately 2000. A characteristic of laminar flow is the parabolic shape of its velocity
profile, Fig. 1.

However, most applications involve turbulent flow, with R values above 3000. Turbulent flow
occurs at high velocities or low viscosities. The flow breaks up into turbulent eddies that flow
through the pipe with the same average velocity. Fluid velocity is less significant, and the
velocity profile is much more uniform in shape. A transition zone exists between turbulent and
laminar flows. Depending on the piping configuration and other installation conditions, the flow
may be either turbulent or laminar in this zone.




FLOWMETER TYPES
Differential Pressure Positive Displacement Velocity Mass Open-Channel
Orifice Plate
Venturi Tube
Flow Tube
Flow Nozzle
Pitot Tube
Elbow Tap
Target
Variable-Area(Rotameter)
Reciprocating Piston
Oval Gear
Nutating Disk
Rotary Vane
Turbine
Vortex Shedding
Swirl
Conada Effect & Momentum
Exchange
Electromagnetic
Ultrasonic, Doppler
Ultrasonic, Transit-Time
Coriolis
Thermal
Weir
Flume




Numerous types of flowmeters are available for closed-piping
systems. In general, the equipment can be classified as differential
pressure, positive displacement, velocity, and mass meters.
Differential pressure devices (also known as head meters) include
orifices, venturi tubes, flow tubes, flow nozzles, pitot tubes, elbow-
tap meters, target meters, and variable-area meters, Fig. 2.
Positive displacement meters include piston, oval-gear, nutating-
disk, and rotary-vane types. Velocity meters consist of turbine,
vortex shedding, electromagnetic, and sonic designs. Mass meters
include Coriolis and thermal types. The measurement of liquid
flows in open channels generally involves weirs and flumes.


Differential Pressure Meters
The use of differential pressure as an inferred measurement of a
liquid's rate of flow is well known. Differential pressure
flowmeters are, by far, the most common units in use today. Estimates are that over 50 percent of
all liquid flow measurement applications use this type of unit.
The basic operating principle of differential pressure flowmeters is based on the premise that the
pressure drop across the meter is proportional to the square of the flow rate. The flow rate is
obtained by measuring the pressure differential and extracting the square root.
Differential pressure flowmeters, like most flowmeters, have a primary and secondary element.
The primary element causes a change in kinetic energy, which creates the differential pressure in
the pipe. The unit must be properly matched to the pipe size, flow conditions, and the liquid's
properties. And, the measurement accuracy of the element must be good over a reasonable range.
The secondary element measures the differential pressure and provides the signal or read-out that
is converted to the actual flow value.


Orifices are the most popular liquid flowmeters in use today. An orifice is simply a flat piece of
metal with a specific-sized hole bored in it. Most orifices are of the concentric type, but
eccentric, conical (quadrant), and segmental designs are also available.
In practice, the orifice plate is installed in the pipe between two flanges. Acting as the primary
device, the orifice constricts the flow of liquid to produce a differential pressure across the plate.
Pressure taps on either side of the plate are used to detect the difference. Major advantages of
orifices are that they have no moving parts and their cost does not increase significantly with
pipe size.
Conical and quadrant orifices are relatively new. The units were developed primarily to measure
liquids with low Reynolds numbers. Essentially constant flow coefficients can be maintained at
R values below 5000. Conical orifice plates have an upstream bevel, the depth and angle of
which must be calculated and machined for each application.
The segmental wedge is a variation of the segmental orifice. It is a restriction orifice primarily
designed to measure the flow of liquids containing solids. The unit has the ability to measure
flows at low Reynolds numbers and still maintain the desired square-root relationship. Its design
is simple, and there is only one critical dimension the wedge gap. Pressure drop through the unit
is only about half that of conventional orifices.
Integral wedge assemblies combine the wedge element and pressure taps into a one-piece pipe
coupling bolted to a conventional pressure transmitter. No special piping or fittings are needed to
install the device in a pipeline.
Metering accuracy of all orifice flowmeters depends on the installation conditions, the orifice
area ratio, and the physical properties of the liquid being measured.

Venturi tubes have the advantage of being able to handle large flow volumes at low pressure
drops. A venturi tube is essentially a section of pipe with a tapered entrance and a straight throat.
As liquid passes through the throat, its velocity increases, causing a pressure differential between
the inlet and outlet regions.
The flowmeters have no moving parts. They can be installed in large diameter pipes using
flanged, welded or threaded-end fittings. Four or more pressure taps are usually installed with the
unit to average the measured pressure. Venturi tubes can be used with most liquids, including
those having a high solids content.

Flow tubes are somewhat similar to venturi tubes except that they do not have the entrance cone.
They have a tapered throat, but the exit is elongated and smooth. The distance between the front
face and the tip is approximately one-half the pipe diameter. Pressure taps are located about one-
half pipe diameter downstream and one pipe diameter upstream.

Flow Nozzles, at high velocities, can handle approximately 60 percent greater liquid flow than
orifice plates having the same pressure drop. Liquids with suspended solids can also be metered.
However, use of the units is not recommended for highly viscous liquids or those containing
large amounts of sticky solids.

Pitot tubes sense two pressures simultaneously, impact and static. The impact unit consists of a
tube with one end bent at right angles toward the flow direction. The static tube's end is closed,
but a small slot is located in the side of the unit. The tubes can be mounted separately in a pipe or
combined in a single casing.
Pitot tubes are generally installed by welding a coupling on a pipe and inserting the probe
through the coupling. Use of most pitot tubes is limited to single point measurements. The units
are susceptible to plugging by foreign material in the liquid. Advantages of pitot tubes are low
cost, absence of moving parts, easy installation, and minimum pressure drop.

Elbow tap meters operate on the principle that when liquid travels in a circular path, centrifugal
force is exerted along the outer edges. Thus, when liquid flows through a pipe elbow, the force
on the elbow's interior surface is proportional to the density of the liquid times the square of its
velocity. In addition, the force is inversely proportional to the elbow's radius.
Any 90 deg. pipe elbow can serve as a liquid flowmeter. All that is required is the placement of
two small holes in the elbow's midpoint (45 deg. point) for piezometer taps. Pressure-sensing
lines can be attached to the taps by using any convenient method. The difference in pressure on
the outside and inside walls, caused by centrifugal force, can be measured with a differential
pressure transducer. Figure 2 shows a typical installation.
Pressure measurements are obtained by placing taps at 45- degree angles on opposite sides of the
elbow. The size of each of the two taps should not exceed one-eighth of the pipe diameter. Flow
is calculated according to the following formula:

where W = flow in pounds per hour
r = elbow radius (inches)
D = elbow diameter (inches)
h = differential pressure (inches H
2
0)
p = density in lbs/ft
3


Target meters sense and measure forces caused by liquid impacting on a target or drag-disk
suspended in the liquid stream. A direct indication of the liquid flow rate is achieved by
measuring the force exerted on the target. In its simplest form, the meter consists only of a
hinged, swinging plate that moves outward, along with the liquid stream. In such cases, the
device serves as a flow indicator.
A more sophisticated version uses a precision, low-level force transducer sensing element. The
force of the target caused by the liquid flow is sensed by a strain gage. The output signal from
the gage is indicative of the flow rate. Target meters are useful for measuring flows of dirty or
corrosive liquids.
Variable-area meters, often called rotameters, consist
essentially of a tapered tube and a float, Fig. 3. Although
classified as differential pressure units, they are, in reality,
constant differential pressure devices. Flanged-end fittings
provide an easy means for installing them in pipes. When
there is no liquid flow, the float rests freely at the bottom of
the tube. As liquid enters the bottom of the tube, the float
begins to rise. The float is selected so as to have a density
higher than that of the fluid and the position of the float
varies directly with the flow rate. Its exact position is at the
point where the differential pressure between the upper and
lower surfaces balance the weight of the float.
Because the flow rate can be read directly on a scale mounted
next to the tube, no secondary flow-reading devices are
necessary. However, if desired, automatic sensing devices
can be used to sense the float's level and transmit a flow signal. Rotameter tubes are
manufactured from glass, metal, or plastic. Tube diameters vary from 1/4 to greater than 6 in.
Positive-Displacement Meters
Operation of these units consists of separating liquids into accurately measured increments and
moving them on. Each segment is counted by a connecting register. Because every increment
represents a discrete volume, positive-displacement units are popular for automatic batching and
accounting applications. Positive-displacement meters are good candidates for measuring the
flows of viscous liquids or for use where a simple mechanical meter system is needed.



Reciprocating piston meters are of the single and multiple-piston types. The specific choice
depends on the range of flow rates required in the particular application. Piston meters can be
used to handle a wide variety of liquids. A magnetically driven, oscillating piston meter is shown
in Fig. 4. Liquid never comes in contact with gears or other parts that might clog or corrode.

Oval-gear meters have two rotating, oval-shaped gears with synchronized, close fitting teeth. A
fixed quantity of liquid passes through the meter for each revolution. Shaft rotation can be
monitored to obtain specific flow rates.

Nutating-disk meters have a moveable disk mounted on a concentric sphere located in a
spherical side-walled chamber. The pressure of the liquid passing through the measuring
chamber causes the disk to rock in a circulating path without rotating about its own axis. It is the
only moving part in the measuring chamber.
A pin extending perpendicularly from the disk is connected to a mechanical counter that
monitors the disk's rocking motions. Each cycle is proportional to a specific quantity of flow. As
is true with all positive-displacement meters, viscosity variations below a given threshold will
affect measuring accuracies. Many sizes and capacities are available. The units can be made
from a wide selection of construction materials.

Rotary-vane meters are available in several designs, but they all operate on the same principle.
The basic unit consists of an equally divided, rotating impeller (containing two or more
compartments) mounted inside the meter's housing. The impeller is in continuous contact with
the casing. A fixed volume of liquid is swept to the meter's outlet from each compartment as the
impeller rotates. The revolutions of the impeller are counted and registered in volumetric units.
Helix flowmeters consist of two radically pitched helical rotors geared together, with a small
clearance between the rotors and the casing. The two rotors displace liquid axially from one end
of the chamber to the other.

Velocity Meters
These instruments operate linearly with respect to the volume flow rate. Because there is no
square-root relationship (as with differential pressure devices), their rangeability is greater.
Velocity meters have minimum sensitivity to viscosity changes when used at Reynolds numbers
above 10,000. Most velocity-type meter housings are equipped with flanges or fittings to permit
them to be connected directly into pipelines.


Turbine meters have found widespread use for accurate liquid measurement applications. The
unit consists of a multiple-bladed rotor mounted with a pipe, perpendicular to the liquid flow.
The rotor spins as the liquid passes through the blades. The rotational speed is a direct function
of flow rate and can be sensed by magnetic pick-up, photoelectric cell, or gears. Electrical pulses
can be counted and totalized, Fig. 5.
The number of electrical pulses counted for a given period of time is directly proportional to
flow volume. A tachometer can be added to measure the turbine's rotational speed and to
determine the liquid flow rate. Turbine meters, when properly specified and installed, have good
accuracy, particularly with low-viscosity liquids.
A major concern with turbine meters is bearing wear. A "bearingless" design has been developed
to avoid this problem. Liquid entering the meter travels through the spiraling vanes of a stator
that imparts rotation to the liquid stream. The stream acts on a sphere, causing it to orbit in the
space between the first stator and a similarly spiraled second stator. The orbiting movement of
the sphere is detected electronically. The frequency of the resulting pulse output is proportional
to flow rate.

Vortex meters make use of a natural phenomenon that occurs when a liquid flows around a bluff
object. Eddies or vortices are shed alternately downstream of the object. The frequency of the
vortex shedding is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid flowing through the meter,
Fig. 6.
The three major components of the flowmeter are a bluff body strut-mounted across the
flowmeter bore, a sensor to detect the presence of the vortex and to generate an electrical
impulse, and a signal amplification and conditioning transmitter whose output is proportional to
the flow rate, Fig. 7. The meter is equally suitable for flow rate or flow totalization
measurements. Use for slurries or high viscosity liquids is not recommended.



Swirl Meter
The principle of operation of a swirl flowmeter is as follows. The meter body has a set of blades
welded at the inlet, called the swirler. These blades impart a tangential velocity (or swirl) to
liquids, gases or vapors. The fluid is then accelerated by a reduction in the meter body bore. A
piezoelectric sensor is located in the center of the meter at the point of maximum fluid velocity.
Flow is then decelerated as it approaches the meter outlet by an increase in meter body bore. A
deswirler is welded to the meter body near the outlet. This deswirler eliminates the tangential
velocity imparted to the fluid at the inlet so that other instrumentation downstream of the meter
will not be affected by its operation.
A swirl flowmeter consists of the flowmeter body and an electronics housing (the electronics
can be remote mounted for safety or convenience). Swirlmeters are only available with flanged
meter bodies. A wafer option is not available, as there is for vortex meters. Swirlmeters use the
same sensors and electronics as vortex meters, only the meter bodies differ in design.
Swirlmeters are most cost effective with stainless steel construction, although Hastelloy is also
offered. Swirlmeters are available in sizes from 1 to 16 inches, and have options for ANSI 150,
300 or 600 mating flanges.



Conada Effect Flowmeter & Momentum Exchange Flowmeter.
While vortex shedding flowmeters are the most recognized types of oscillating flow
measurement devices, less well known are meters based on the Coanda Effect, and the
phenomenon known as momentum exchange.
The Coanda Effect is named after aerodynamicist Henri-Marie Coanda, who discovered that a
free jet emerging from a nozzle or conduit will follow a nearby surface and attach to it. Fluid
flowing through the meter body bends toward and attaches to a sidewall. A portion of the flow is
diverted through a feedback passage, however, and pushes the stream toward a sidewall on the
opposite side of the meter body, which also has a feedback passage through which a portion of
the flow is diverted. The fluid from this feedback passage pushes the stream back toward the
sidewall to which it was initially attached, and the self-initiating, self-sustaining process is
repeated. A sensor, located in one of the two feedback passages, detects the presence and
absence of flow. The frequency of the pulse signals is linear with volumetric flow rate.
The momentum exchange flowmeter is similar to the Coanda model, but relies on a different
mechanism to create oscillations. Unlike the Coanda meter, the momentum exchange meter does
not have sidewalls. The shape of the meter body creates a main flow that passes through the
nozzle and towards one side of the meter body or the other. This creates a flow pulse in a
feedback passage, exerting a force on the main jet and deflecting it so it exerts a force on the
fluid in the opposite passage. The pattern repeats continuously, creating a self-sustaining
oscillation. Like the Coanda meter, it has a sensor in one of the feedback passages that detects
the pulsing of fluids.
While most oscillating flowmeters -- including the Coanda fluidic flowmeter -- require turbulent
flows to function, the momentum exchange meter does not, enabling its use with high-viscosity
fluids.
Like other types of oscillating flowmeters, benefits include minimum maintenance, high stability
and relatively inexpensive purchase cost. However, they are limited to use on pipes four inches
in diameter or less. Use of larger pipes would create too few pulses per gallon for accurate
measurement.

Electromagnetic meters can handle most liquids and slurries, providing that the material being
metered is electrically conductive. Major components are the flow tube (primary element), Fig.
8. The flow tube mounts directly in the pipe. Pressure drop across the meter is the same as it is
through an equivalent length of pipe because there are no moving parts or obstructions to the
flow. The voltmeter can be attached directly to the flow tube or can be mounted remotely and
connected to it by a shielded cable.
Electromagnetic flowmeters operate on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that states
that a voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The liquid
serves as the conductor; the magnetic field is created by energized coils outside the flow tube,
Fig. 9. The amount of voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow rate. Two electrodes
mounted in the pipe wall detect the voltage, which is measured by the secondary element.
Electromagnetic flowmeters have major advantages: They can measure difficult and corrosive
liquids and slurries; and they can measure forward as well as reverse flow with equal accuracy.
Disadvantages of earlier designs were high power consumption, and the need to obtain a full pipe
and no flow to initially set the meter to zero. Recent improvements have eliminated these
problems. Pulse-type excitation techniques have reduced power consumption, because excitation
occurs only half the time in the unit. Zero settings are no longer required.



Ultrasonic flowmeters can be divided into Doppler meters and time-of-travel (or transit) meters.

Doppler meters measure the frequency shifts caused by liquid flow. Two transducers(one to
transmit and the other to receive signal) are mounted in a case attached to one side of the pipe. A
signal of known frequency is sent into the liquid to be measured. Solids, bubbles, or any
discontinuity in the liquid, cause the pulse to be reflected to the receiver element, Fig. 10.
Because the liquid causing the reflection is moving, the frequency of the returned pulse is
shifted. The frequency shift is proportional to the liquid's velocity.


A portable Doppler meter capable of being operated on AC power or from a rechargeable power
pack has recently been developed. The sensing heads are simply clamped to the outside of the
pipe, and the instrument is ready to be used. Total weight, including the case, is 22 lb. A set of 4
to 20 millampere output terminals permits the unit to be connected to a strip chart recorder or
other remote device.
Because solids particles or entrained gases are required for measurement, Doppler meters are not
appropriate for clean liquids. In general, Doppler flowmeters are less accurate than TOF
flowmeters, however, they are less expensive.

Time-of-travel(Transit-Time) meters have transducers mounted on each side of the pipe. The
configuration is such that the sound waves traveling between the devices are at a 45 deg. angle to
the direction of liquid flow. The speed of the signal traveling between the transducers increases
or decreases with the direction of transmission and the velocity of the liquid being measured. A
time-differential relationship proportional to the flow can be obtained by transmitting the signal
alternately in both directions.
A limitation of time-of-travel meters is that the liquids being measured must be relatively free of
entrained gas or solids to minimize signal scattering and absorption.


Mass Flowmeters
The continuing need for more accurate flow measurements in mass-related processes (chemical
reactions, heat transfer, etc.) has resulted in the development of mass flowmeters. Various
designs are available, but the one most commonly used for liquid flow applications is the
Coriolis meter. Its operation is based on the natural phenomenon called the Coriolis force, hence
the name.

Coriolis meters are true mass meters that measure the mass rate of flow directly as opposed to
volumetric flow. Because mass does not change, the meter is linear without having to be adjusted
for variations in liquid properties. It also eliminates the need to compensate for changing
temperature and pressure conditions. The meter is especially useful for measuring liquids whose
viscosity varies with velocity at given temperatures and pressures.
Coriolis meters are also available in various designs. A popular unit consists of a U-shaped flow
tube enclosed in a sensor housing connected to an electronics unit. The sensing unit can be
installed directly into any process. The electronics unit can be located up to 500 feet from the
sensor.
Inside the sensor housing, the U-shaped flow tube is vibrated at its natural frequency by a
magnetic device located at the bend of the tube. The vibration is similar to that of a tuning fork,
covering less than 0.1 in. and completing a full cycle about 80 times/sec. As the liquid flows
through the tube, it is forced to take on the vertical movement of the tube, Fig. 11. When the tube
is moving upward during half of its cycle, the liquid flowing into the meter resists being forced
up by pushing down on the tube.



Having been forced upward, the liquid flowing out of the meter resists having its vertical motion
decreased by pushing up on the tube. This action causes the tube to twist. When the tube is
moving downward during the second half of its vibration cycle, it twists in the opposite
direction.
Having been forced upward, the liquid flowing out of the meter resists having its vertical motion
decreased by pushing up on the tube. This action causes the tube to twist. When the tube is
moving downward during the second half of its vibration cycle, it twists in the opposite
direction. The amount of twist is directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the liquid flowing
through the tube. Magnetic sensors located on each side of the flow tube measure the tube
velocities, which change as the tube twists. The sensors feed this information to the electronics
unit, where it is processed and converted to a voltage proportional to mass flow rate. The meter
has a wide range of applications from adhesives and coatings to liquid nitrogen.
This meter has extremely high accuracy but can also cause a high pressure drop.

Thermal-type mass flowmeters have traditionally been used for gas
measurements, but designs for liquid flow measurements are
available. These mass meters also operate independent of density,
pressure, and viscosity. Thermal meters use a heated sensing element
isolated from the fluid flow path. The flow stream conducts heat
from the sensing element. The conducted heat is directly
proportional to the mass flow rate. The sensor never comes into
direct contact with the liquid, Fig. 12. Through pre-existing built-in
calibrations, the temperature differential is translated to mass flow.
The accuracy of the thermal mass flow device is dependent on the
reliability of the calibrations of the actual process gas or liquid and
variations in the temperature, pressure, flow rate, heat capacity and
viscosity of the fluid. The electronics package includes the flow
analyzer, temperature compensator, and a signal conditioner that
provides a linear output directly proportional to mass flow.


Open Channel Meters
The "open channel" refers to any conduit in which liquid flows with a free surface. Included are
tunnels, nonpressurized sewers, partially filled pipes, canals, streams, and rivers. Of the many
techniques available for monitoring open-channel flows, depth-related methods are the most
common. These techniques presume that the instantaneous flow rate may be determined from a
measurement of the water depth, or head. Weirs and flumes are the oldest and most widely used
primary devices for measuring open-channel flows.

Weirs operate on the principle that an obstruction in a channel will cause water to back up,
creating a high level (head) behind the barrier. The head is a function of flow velocity, and,
therefore, the flow rate through the device. Weirs consist of vertical plates with sharp crests. The
top of the plate can be straight or notched. Weirs are classified in accordance with the shape of
the notch. The basic types are V-notch, rectangular, and trapezoidal.

Flumes are generally used when head loss must be kept to a minimum, or if the flowing liquid
contains large amounts of suspended solids. Flumes are to open channels what venturi tubes are
to closed pipes. Popular flumes are the Parshall and Palmer-Bowlus designs.
The Parshall flume consists of a converging upstream section, a throat, and a diverging
downstream section. Flume walls are vertical and the floor of the throat is inclined downward.
Head loss through Parshall flumes is lower than for other types of open-channel flow measuring
devices. High flow velocities help make the flume self-cleaning. Flow can be measured
accurately under a wide range of conditions.
Palmer-Bowlus flumes have a trapezoidal throat of uniform cross section and a length about
equal to the diameter of the pipe in which it is installed. It is comparable to a Parshall flume in
accuracy and in ability to pass debris without cleaning. A principal advantage is the comparative
ease with which it can be installed in existing circular conduits, because a rectangular approach
section is not required.
Discharge through weirs and flumes are a function of level, so level measurement techniques
must be used with the equipment to determine flow rates. Staff gages and float-operated units are
the simplest devices used for this purpose. Various electronic sensing, totalizing, and recording
systems are also available.
A more recent development consists of using ultrasonic pulses to measure liquid levels.
Measurements are made by sending sound pulses from a sensor to the surface of the liquid, and
timing the echo return. Linearizing circuitry converts the height of the liquid into flow rate. A
strip chart recorder logs the flow rate, and a digital totalizer registers the total gallons. Another
recently introduced microprocessor-based system uses either ultrasonic or float sensors. A key-
pad with an interactive liquid crystal display simplifies programming, control, and calibration
tasks.







Flow measurement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be measured in a
variety of ways. Positive-displacement flow meters accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then
count the number of times the volume is filled to measure flow. Other flow measurement
methods rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to
indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a
known area.
Contents
1 Units of measurement
o 1.1 Gas
o 1.2 Liquid
2 Mechanical flow meters
o 2.1 Piston meter/Rotary piston
o 2.2 Gear meter
2.2.1 Oval gear meter
2.2.2 Helical gear
2.2.3 Nutating disk meter
o 2.3 Variable area meter
o 2.4 Turbine flow meter
o 2.5 Woltmann meter
o 2.6 Single jet meter
o 2.7 Paddle wheel meter
o 2.8 Multiple jet meter
o 2.9 Pelton wheel
o 2.10 Current meter
3 Pressure-based meters
o 3.1 Venturi meter
o 3.2 Orifice plate
o 3.3 Dall tube
o 3.4 Pitot tube
o 3.5 Multi-hole pressure probe
o 3.6 Cone Meters
4 Optical flow meters
5 Open-channel flow measurement
o 5.1 Level to flow
o 5.2 Area / velocity
o 5.3 Dye testing
o 5.4 Acoustic Doppler velocimetry
6 Thermal mass flow meters
o 6.1 The MAF sensor
7 Vortex flow meters
8 Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow meters
o 8.1 Magnetic flow meters
o 8.2 Non-contact electromagnetic flow meters
o 8.3 Ultrasonic flow meters (Doppler, transit time)
o 8.4 Coriolis flow meters
9 Laser Doppler flow measurement
10 Calibration
o 10.1 Transit time method
o 10.2 Tracer dilution method
11 See also
12 References
Units of measurement
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates, such as liters per
second or kilograms per second. These measurements are related by the material's density. The
density of a liquid is almost independent of conditions. This is not the case for gasses, the
densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, composition.
When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy content, as in the sale of natural gas, the
flow rate may also be expressed in terms of energy flow, such as GJ/hour or BTU/day. The
energy flow rate is the volumetric flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or
mass flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit mass. Energy flow rate is usually
derived from mass or volumetric flow rate by the use of a flow computer.
In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol , and the mass
flow rate, the symbol .
For a fluid having density , mass and volumetric flow rates may be related by .
Gas
Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure, are heated or are
cooled. A volume of gas under one set of pressure and temperature conditions is not equivalent
to the same gas under different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through
a meter and "standard" or "base" flow rate through a meter with units such as acm/h (actual cubic
meters per hour), kscm/h (thousand standard cubic meters per hour), LFM (linear feet per
minute), or MSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day).
Gas mass flow rate can be directly measured, independent of pressure and temperature effects,
with thermal mass flow meters, Coriolis mass flow meters, or mass flow controllers.
Liquid
For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might
include gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute or,
when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic metres per second) or acre-feet per day. In
oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by a
current for example) is a sverdrup (Sv) equivalent to 10
6
m
3
/s.
Mechanical flow meters
A bucket and a stopwatch is an analogy for the operation of a positive displacement meter The
stopwatch is started when the flow starts, and stopped when the bucket reaches its limit. The
volume divided by the time gives the flow rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system
of continually filling and emptying buckets to divide the flow without letting it out of the pipe.
These continuously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may take the form of
pistons reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter or
through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears or a helical screw.
Piston meter/Rotary piston
Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known as rotary
piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in
the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (1
1

2
in). The piston
meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each
rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and,
sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display are advanced.
Gear meter
Oval gear meter
An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more oblong gears
configured to rotate at right angles to one another, forming a T shape. Such a meter has two
sides, which can be called A and B. No fluid passes through the center of the meter, where the
teeth of the two gears always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off
the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is protruding into the measurement chamber,
while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity holds a fixed volume of fluid in a measurement
chamber. As the fluid pushes the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in the measurement
chamber on side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet port will
be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will
now close off the fluid from entering side B. This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is
metered through alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating gears can
transmit a signal to an electric reed switch or current transducer for flow measurement. Though
claims for high performance are made, they are generally not as precise as the sliding vane
design.
[1]

Helical gear
Helical gear flow meters get their name from the shape of their gears or rotors. These rotors
resemble the shape of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped structure. As the fluid flows through the
meter, it enters the compartments in the rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. Flowrate is calculated
from the speed of rotation.
Nutating disk meter
This is the most commonly used measurement system for measuring water supply in houses. The
fluid, most commonly water, enters in one side of the meter and strikes the nutating disk, which
is eccentrically mounted. The disk must then "wobble" or nutate about the vertical axis, since the
bottom and the top of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. A partition
separates the inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives direct indication of the
volume of the liquid that has passed through the meter as volumetric flow is indicated by a
gearing and register arrangement, which is connected to the disk. It is reliable for flow
measurements within 1 percent.
[2]

Variable area meter
The variable area (VA) meter, also commonly called a rotameter, consists of a tapered tube,
typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by fluid flow and pulled down by
gravity. As flow rate increases, greater viscous and pressure forces on the float cause it to rise
until it becomes stationary at a location in the tube that is wide enough for the forces to balance.
Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most
common. Some are designed to spin visibly in the fluid stream to aid the user in determining
whether the float is stuck or not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids but are
most commonly used with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure flow down to 1%
accuracy.
Turbine flow meter
The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of
the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm,
etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.
The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine
blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady
rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.
Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow.
[3]
Turbine
meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the measuring
element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is
generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than
displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial users, fire
protection, and as master meters for the water distribution system. Strainers are generally
required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or
other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally available
for 4 to 30 cm (1
1

2
12 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of
bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal
alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but are greatly affected by the flow
profile and fluid conditions.
Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with approvals for the high flow rates required
in fire protection systems. They are often approved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or
Factory Mutual (FM) or similar authorities for use in fire protection. Portable turbine meters may
be temporarily installed to measure water used from a fire hydrant. The meters are normally
made of aluminum to be light weight, and are usually 7.5 cm (3 in) capacity. Water utilities often
require them for measurement of water used in construction, pool filling, or where a permanent
meter is not yet installed.
Woltmann meter
The Woltmann meter comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow, much like
a ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flow meter.
[4]
They are commonly referred to
as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.
Single jet meter
A single jet meter consists of a simple impeller with radial vanes, impinged upon by a single jet.
They are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the EU.
Paddle wheel meter
This is similar to the single jet meter, except that the impeller is small with respect to the width
of the pipe, and projects only partially into the flow, like the paddle wheel on a Mississippi
riverboat.
Multiple jet meter
A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates
horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports
direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the
flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter except that the ports
direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the circumference of the
element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear on the impeller and its shaft.
Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical action of
the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm,
lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow
focused on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power
and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with the force of
the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid direction
to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.
Current meter


A propeller-type current meter as used for hydroelectric turbine testing.
Flow through a large penstock such as used at a hydroelectric power plant can be measured by
averaging the flow velocity over the entire area. Propeller-type current meters (similar to the
purely mechanical Ekman current meter, but now with electronic data acquisition) can be
traversed over the area of the penstock and velocities averaged to calculate total flow. This may
be on the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The flow must be kept steady during the
traverse of the current meters. Methods for testing hydroelectric turbines are given in IEC
standard 41. Such flow measurements are often commercially important when testing the
efficiency of large turbines.
Pressure-based meters
There are several types of flow meter that rely on Bernoulli's principle, either by measuring the
differential pressure within a constriction, or by measuring static and stagnation pressures to
derive the dynamic pressure.
Venturi meter
A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors measure the
differential pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure
flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire
times.The coefficient of discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The first large-
scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed by Clemens Herschel who used
them to measure small and large flows of water and wastewater beginning at the end of the 19th
century.
[5]



ISO 5167 Orifice Plate
Orifice plate
An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow; it constricts the flow, and
measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a
crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice:
concentric, eccentric, and segmental.
[6][7]

Dall tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than an
orifice plate. As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring
the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is typically
measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have
significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely used for
measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks. Differential pressure produced by a dall tube higher
than venturi tube and nozzle, all of them having same throat diameters.
Pitot tube
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by
determining the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic
pressure and hence fluid velocity. Also see Air flow meter.
Multi-hole pressure probe
Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more
than one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or more holes (depending on the
type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the
instrument to measure the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after
appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the
velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in a
"plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector. Also see
Annubar.
Cone Meters


8inch (200mm) V-Cone Flowmeter shown with ANSI 300# raised face weld neck flanges
Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched in 1985 by
McCrometer in Hemet, CA. While working with the same basic principles as Venturi and Orifice
type DP meters, cone meters dont require the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone
acts as a conditioning device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements
are between 0-5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for an orifice plate or 22 diameters for
a Venturi. Because cone meters are generally of welded construction, it is recommended they are
always calibrated prior to service. Inevitably heat effects of welding cause distortions and other
effects that prevent tabular data on discharge coefficients with respect to line size, beta ratio and
operating Reynolds Numbers from being collected and published. Calibrated cone meters have
an uncertainty up to +/-0.5%. Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty of +/-5.0%.
Optical flow meters
See also: Optical flow Sensor
Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural
and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path.
in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam.
The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse
signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light
on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By
measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as
where is the distance between the laser beams and is the time interval.
Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not
dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The
operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in
challenging environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure,
high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.
Optical flow meters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable
measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not
change, optical flow meters do not require periodic calibration after their initial commissioning.
Optical flow meters require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points
typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less
maintenance and is less prone to errors.
Commercially available optical flow meters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster
than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the
measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to atmospheric
pollution.
[8]

Open-channel flow measurement
Level to flow
The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind weir or in flume a hydraulic
structure using various secondary devices (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure
are common methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula
of the form where is the flow rate, is a constant, is the water level, and
is an exponent which varies with the device used; or it is converted according to empirically
derived level/flow data points (a "flow curve"). The flow rate can then integrated over time into
volumetric flow. Level to flow devices are commonly used to measure the flow of surface waters
(springs, stream, and rivers), industrial discharges, and sewage. Of these, weirs are used on flow
streams with low solids (typically surface waters), while flumes are used on flows containing
low or high solids contents.
[9]

Area / velocity
The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement and the average
velocity of the flow is measured directly (Doppler and propeller methods are common). Velocity
times the cross-sectional area yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow.
Dye testing
A known amount of dye (or salt) per unit time is added to a flow stream. After complete mixing,
the concentration is measured. The dilution rate equals the flow rates.
Acoustic Doppler velocimetry
Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to record instantaneous velocity components at
a single point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements are performed by measuring the
velocity of particles in a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect.
[10]

Thermal mass flow meters


Temperature at the sensors varies depending upon the mass flow
Thermal mass flow meters generally use combinations of heated elements and temperature
sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its
flow with a knowledge of the fluid's specific heat and density. The fluid temperature is also
measured and compensated for. If the density and specific heat characteristics of the fluid are
constant, the meter can provide a direct mass flow readout, and does not need any additional
pressure temperature compensation over their specified range.
Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of thermal mass flow meters on a
microscopic scale as MEMS sensors; these flow devices can be used to measure flow rates in the
range of nanolitres or microlitres per minute.
Thermal mass flow meter (also called thermal dispersion flowmeter) technology is used for
compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most gases can be
measured as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive. For more aggressive gases, the
meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy), and pre-drying the gas also helps to
minimize corrosion.
Today, thermal mass flow meters are used to measure the flow of gases in a growing range of
applications, such as chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that are difficult for
other flow metering technologies. This is because thermal mass flow meters monitor variations
in one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature, thermal conductivity, and/or specific
heat) of gaseous media to define the mass flow rate.
The MAF sensor
In many late model automobiles, a mass airflow sensor (MAF sensor) is used to accurately
determine the mass flowrate of intake air used in the internal combustion engine. Many such
mass flow sensors utilize a heated element and a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the
air flowrate. Other sensors use a spring-loaded vane. In either case, the vehicle's electronic
control unit interprets the sensor signals as a real time indication of an engine's fuel requirement.
Vortex flow meters
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a shedder bar) in the
path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created.
The vortices trail behind the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex
trail is called the Von Krmn vortex street after von Krmn's 1912 mathematical description of
the phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional
to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of the shedder bar is a sensor for
measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal,
which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. Since the
frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate
is calculated using the cross sectional area of the flow meter. The frequency is measured and the
flow rate is calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation where is
the frequency of the vortices, the characteristic length of the bluff body, is the velocity of
the flow over the bluff body, and is the Strouhal number, which is essentially a constant for a
given body shape within its operating limits.
Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow meters


A magnetic flow meter at the Tetley's Brewery in Leeds, West Yorkshire.
Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can
correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the
characteristics of the fluid.
Magnetic flow meters
Magnetic flow meters, often called "mag meter"s or "electromag"s, use a magnetic field applied
to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity
perpendicular to the flux lines. The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned
perpendicular to the flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work is
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid
and a nonconducting pipe liner. The electrodes must not corrode in contact with the process
fluid; some magnetic flowmeters have auxiliary transducers installed to clean the electrodes in
place. The applied magnetic field is pulsed, which allows the flowmeter to cancel out the effect
of stray voltage in the piping system.
Non-contact electromagnetic flow meters
A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). A LFF measures
the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a liquid metal in
motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case the characteristic length of the magnetic field
is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in
the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity
measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.
Ultrasonic flow meters (Doppler, transit time)
There are two main types of Ultrasonic flow meters: Doppler and transit time. While they both
utilize ultrasound to make measurements and can be non-invasive (measure flow from outside
the tube, pipe or vessel), they measure flow by very different methods.


Schematic view of a flow sensor.
Ultrasonic transit time flow meters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic
pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow. This time difference is a measure for the
average velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit
times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of sound can be calculated. Using the two
transit times and and the distance between receiving and transmitting transducers
and the inclination angle one can write the equations:
and
where is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and is the speed of sound.
With wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can also be used to measure volume flow
independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.
[11]

Ultrasonic Doppler flow meters measure the Doppler shift resulting from reflecting an ultrasonic
beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by
the movement of the particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For
the Doppler principle to work there must be a high enough density of sonically reflective
materials such as solid particles or air bubbles suspended in the fluid. This is in direct contrast to
an ultrasonic transit time flow meter, where bubbles and solid particles reduce the accuracy of
the measurement. Due to the dependency on these particles there are limited applications for
Doppler flow meters. This technology is also known as acoustic Doppler velocimetry.
One advantage of ultrasonic flow meters is that they can effectively measure the flow rates for a
wide variety of fluids, as long as the speed of sound through that fluid is known. For example,
ultrasonic flow meters are used for the measurement of such diverse fluids a liquid natural gas
(LNG) and blood.
[12]
One can also calculate the expected speed of sound for a given fluid; this
can be compared to the speed of sound empirically measured by an ultrasonic flow meter for the
purposes of monitoring the quality of the flow meter's measurements. A drop in quality (change
in the measured speed of sound) is an indication that the meter needs servicing.
Coriolis flow meters
Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of
mass flow can be obtained in a coriolis flow meter. Furthermore a direct measure of the density
of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas
or liquid that is measured; the same measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas and bitumen
without recalibration.
Coriolis flow meters can be used for the measurement of natural gas flow.
[13]

Laser Doppler flow measurement
A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will be partially scattered with a change in
wavelength proportional to the particle's speed (the Doppler effect). A laser Doppler velocimeter
(LDV), also called a laser Doppler anemometer (LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small volume
in a flowing fluid containing small particles (naturally occurring or induced). The particles
scatter the light with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted wavelength can be used to directly,
and with great precision, determine the speed of the particle and thus a close approximation of
the fluid velocity.
A number of different techniques and device configurations are available for determining the
Doppler shift. All use a photodetector (typically an avalanche photodiode) to convert the light
into an electrical waveform for analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is divided into
two beams. In one general LDV class, the two beams are made to intersect at their focal points
where they interfere and generate a set of straight fringes. The sensor is then aligned to the flow
such that the fringes are perpendicular to the flow direction. As particles pass through the
fringes, the Doppler-shifted light is collected into the photodetector. In another general LDV
class, one beam is used as a reference and the other is Doppler-scattered. Both beams are then
collected onto the photodetector where optical heterodyne detection is used to extract the
Doppler signal.
[14]

Calibration
Even though ideally the flowmeter should be unaffected by its environment, in practice this is
unlikely to be the case. Often measurement errors originate from incorrect installation or other
environment dependent factors.
[15][16]
In situ methods are used when flow meter is calibrated in
the correct flow conditions.
Transit time method
For pipe flows a so-called transit time method is applied where a radiotracer is injected as a pulse
into the measured flow. The transit time is defined with the help of radiation detectors placed on
the outside of the pipe. The volume flow is obtained by multiplying the measured average fluid
flow velocity by the inner pipe cross section. This reference flow value is compared with the
simultaneous flow value given by the flow measurement to be calibrated.
The procedure is standardised (ISO 2975/VII for liquids and BS 5857-2.4 for gases). The best
accredited measurement uncertainty for liquids and gases is 0.5%.
[17]

Transit time animation
Tracer dilution method
The radiotracer dilution method is used to calibrate open channel flow measurements. A solution
with a known tracer concentration is injected at a constant known velocity into the channel flow.
Downstream where the tracer solution is thoroughly mixed over the flow cross section, a
continuous sample is taken and its tracer concentration in relation to that of the injected solution
is determined. The flow reference value is determined by using the tracer balance condition
between the injected tracer flow and the diluting flow..
The procedure is standardised (ISO 9555-1 and ISO 9555-2 for liquid flow in open channels).
The best accredited measurement uncertainty is 1%.
[17]

Tracer dilution animation
See also
Air flow meter
Airspeed indicator
Annubar
Automatic meter reading
Flow meter error
Ford viscosity cup
Gas meter
Laser Doppler velocimetry
Mass flow meter
Mass flow rate
Orifice plate
Primary flow element
Stream gauge
Thorpe tube flowmeter
Volumetric flow rate
Water meter
References
1. Furness, Richard A. (1989). Fluid flow measurement. Harlow: Longman in association with the
Institute of Measurement and Control. p. 21. ISBN 0582031656.
2. Holman, J. Alan (2001). Experimental methods for engineers. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-
07-366055-4.
3. American Gas Association Report Number 7
4. Arregui, Cabrera, Cobacho, Integrated Water Meter Management, p. 33
5. Herschel, Clemens. (1898). Measuring Water. Providence, RI:Builders Iron Foundry.
6. Liptk, Flow Measurement, p. 85
7. American Gas Association Report Number 3
8. Flare Metering with Optics
9. Hydraulic structures
10. Chanson, Hubert (2008). Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry (ADV) in the Field and in Laboratory:
Practical Experiences. in Frdrique Larrarte and Hubert Chanson, Experiences and Challenges in
Sewers: Measurements and Hydrodynamics. International Meeting on Measurements and
Hydraulics of Sewers IMMHS'08, Summer School GEMCEA/LCPC, Bouguenais, France, 1921
August 2008, Hydraulic Model Report No. CH70/08, Div. of Civil Engineering, The University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, Dec., pp. 4966. ISBN 978-1-86499-928-0.
11. Drost, CJ (1978). "Vessel Diameter-Independent Volume Flow Measurements Using Ultrasound".
Proceedings of San Diego Biomedical Symposium 17: 299302.
12. American Gas Association Report Number 9
13. American Gas Association Report Number 11
14. Adrian, R. J., editor (1993); Selected on Laser Doppler Velocimetry, S.P.I.E. Milestone Series, ISBN
978-0-8194-1297-3
15. Cornish,D (1994/5) Instrument performance.Meas.Control,27(10):323-8
16. Roger C.Baker. Flow Measurement Handbook.Cambridge university press. ISBN 978-0-521-
01765-7
17. Finnish Accreditation Service






Flow Measurement (BAGIAN VI)
5.7.3 Ringkasan Umum
Pakailah dan kerusakan adalah masalah karena jumlah kontak antara bagian dan sebagai tersebut
hanya dapat digunakan dengan cairan bersih. Kehidupan kerja perangkat ini juga tergantung
pada fluida yang diukur, ini berhubungan dengan padat membangun-up dan suhu dari cairan.
Mereka adalah rintangan ke jalan yang mengalir dan akibatnya menyebabkan kerugian tekanan.
Kesalahan dapat terjadi karena kebocoran di sekitar gigi atau piston, tetapi dikurangi dengan
menggunakan cairan yang memiliki ketahanan beberapa mengalir. cairan kental tersebut
memiliki kemampuan untuk menutup kecil jarak bebas. Namun jika cairan terlalu kental maka
bisa mantel batin ruang perangkat dan mengurangi volume berlalu sehingga menyebabkan
kesalahan lebih lanjut.
Cair meter displacement positif adalah salah satu yang paling umum dan banyak digunakan alat
untuk mengukur debit untuk transfer tahanan. Mereka adalah sederhana dan mudah untuk
mempertahankan oleh petugas perawatan berkala.
5.7.4 Aplikasi Keterbatasan
Overspeed dapat merusak meter perpindahan positif. Ketika tekanan outlet perlu dipertahankan
karena adanya penurunan tekanan tidak dapat diterima di seluruh meter, maka cukup umum
untuk tekanan inlet ditingkatkan.
Spesifikasi lakukan bervariasi, tetapi pada umumnya mereka terutama cocok untuk, pelumas
bersih dan non-abrasif aplikasi.
Filter mungkin diperlukan untuk menyaring dan membersihkan puing-puing cairan sebelum
meter. Reguler pemeliharaan penambahan jelas dalam kasus ini. Penurunan tekanan
ditambahkan juga perlu dipertimbangkan, terutama jika perawatan berkala tidak dilakukan.
Keterbatasan pada suhu operasi dapat membuktikan menjadi faktor penghambat. Jika kebocoran
tidak terjadi dan dikalibrasi untuk, dapat berubah dengan suhu sebagai viskositas bervariasi.
Salah satu keterbatasan utama dengan bentuk pengukuran aliran adalah bahwa meter adalah
didorong oleh aliran. Khususnya dalam hal gigi oval meter, gaya yang dibutuhkan untuk
memutar tindakan gigi tidak konstan dan hasil di pulsations. Pulsations ini mungkin dapat
membuat penggunaan jenis meter mustahil, khususnya di dikendalikan aplikasi yang
memerlukan aliran tunak.
meter perpindahan positif menjadi terbatas ketika pengukuran volume tinggi diperlukan. Mereka
terutama digunakan untuk aplikasi volume rendah.
Sebagai perbandingan, mereka lebih mahal daripada flowmeters magnetik, tetapi memiliki
menambah keunggulan karena mampu mengukur cairan non-konduktif.
5.7.5 Keuntungan
- Bisa mengukur cairan non-konduktif.
- Sangat akurasi tinggi.
- Terpengaruh oleh viskositas.
- Tinggi Rangeability hingga 10:1.
5.7.6 Kekurangan
- Cairan Bersihkan hanya, hidup terbatas karena aus.
- Beberapa kehilangan tekanan dipulihkan.
- Memerlukan cairan kental, tidak cocok untuk gas.
- Terbatas berbagai operasi.
- Kegagalan mekanis cenderung menyebabkan penyumbatan dalam pipa.
- Biaya.
5.8 Pengukuran Arus Ultrasonic
Ada dua jenis pengukuran aliran ultrasonik:
- Transit waktu pengukuran
- Efek Doppler
Perbedaan mendasar adalah bahwa metode waktu transit harus digunakan untuk bersih cairan,
sedangkan tipe refleksi Doppler digunakan untuk kotor, tipe aliran lumpur.
5.8.1 Transit waktu
Waktu flowmeter perangkat-transit mengirimkan pulsa energi ultrasonik diagonal di
pipa. Transit-waktu diukur dari ketika pemancar akan mengirimkan pulsa ketika penerima
mendeteksi denyut nadi.
Setiap lokasi berisi pemancar dan penerima. Pulsa dikirim alternative hulu dan hilir dan
kecepatan aliran dihitung dari waktu perbedaan antara dua arah.


Gambar 5.36
Transit waktu pengukuran
5.8.2 Teknik I nstalasi
Desain yang tersedia yang memungkinkan instalasi dan penghapusan transduser tanpa
mengganggu aliran proses. Namun ada tiga opsi utama yang tersedia:
- Dilengkapi bagian pipa
- Clamp pada
- Transduser dipasang di-situ
Opsi pertama adalah di mana produsen memasok bagian pipa dilengkapi dengan transduser
terpasang pabrik. Unit ini memiliki keunggulan yang dikalibrasi oleh produsen untuk memenuhi
spesifikasi. Tunjangan harus dilakukan ketika memasang bagian ini pipa - sesuatu yang dapat
mempersulit instalasi yang ada.
Clamp-on transduser memiliki keuntungan tambahan yang mudah untuk menginstal. Mereka
dipasang di luar pipa yang ada. Karena tidak ada bagian pipa harus diinstal maka jenis flowmeter
mudah dipasang ke sistem yang ada. Mereka dapat diinstal pada logam, plastik dan pipa
keramik.
Karena mereka yang portabel dan non-intrusif, penjepit-pada perangkat menyediakan cara yang
baik penentuan debit arus tidak diketahui dalam instalasi yang ada.
Sebuah pilihan yang lebih murah adalah dengan memasang transduser ke dalam pipa. Ini
memerlukan memasuki dan perawatan kebutuhan pipa yang akan diambil untuk memastikan
sudut yang benar dan toleransi yang dipatuhi. Metode ini biasanya membutuhkan kalibrasi oleh
pengguna setelah diinstal.
5.8.3 Aplikasi Keterbatasan
Clamp-on desain yang terbatas karena media yang berbeda di mana sinyal ultrasonik
melewati. Untuk hasil yang optimal, sebuah-konduktif perjalanan suara dibutuhkan antara
transduser dan cairan proses di dalam pipa. Couplings adalah tersedia untuk mengurangi efek
tetapi cukup mahal.
5.8.4 Khas Aplikasi
aliran ultrasonik waktu pengukuran-Transit cocok untuk cairan bersih. Beberapa proses cairan
umum lebih terdiri dari air, gas cair dan gas alam.
5.8.5 Efek Doppler
Perangkat Efek Doppler bergantung pada objek dengan kepadatan bervariasi dalam flowstream
untuk mengembalikan energi ultrasonik,. Dengan Efek Doppler meteran seberkas ultrasonic
energi ditransmisikan diagonal melalui pipa. Bagian dari energi ultrasonic tercermin kembali
dari partikel dalam aliran yang bervariasi kepadatan. Karena objek bergerak, yang tercermin
energi ultrasonik memiliki frekuensi yang berbeda. Jumlah perbedaan antara sinyal asli dan
kembali sebanding dengan aliran kecepatan.


Gambar 5.37
Efek Doppler
Hal ini sangat umum hanya untuk satu sensor yang akan digunakan. Ini berisi transmitter dan
penerima. Ini juga dapat dipasang di luar pipa.
5.8.6 Aplikasi Keterbatasan
Sebagai Doppler flowmeter bergantung pada refleksi dari flowstream tersebut, karena itu
membutuhkan berukuran cukup padat atau gelembung. Hal ini juga diperlukan bahwa aliran
menjadi cepat cukup untuk mempertahankan jumlah yang sesuai padatan dan gelembung dalam
suspensi.
Tinggi frekuensi Doppler flowmeters yang tersedia, tetapi terbatas pada cairan pembersih.
5.8.7 Ringkasan - Umum
flowmeters ultrasonik Kebanyakan dipasang pada bagian luar pipa dan dengan demikian
beroperasi tanpa datang di kontak dengan cairan. Selain tidak menghalangi aliran, mereka tidak
terpengaruh oleh korosi, erosi atau viskositas. Kebanyakan ultrasonik flowmeters bi-directional,
dan rasa aliran arah baik.
5.8.8 Keuntungan
- Cocok untuk pipa dengan diameter besar.
- Tidak ada penghalang, tidak ada kerugian tekanan.
- Tidak ada bagian yang bergerak, masa operasi panjang.
- Cepat respon.
- Terpasang pada instalasi yang ada.
- Tidak dipengaruhi oleh sifat fluida.
5.8.9 Kekurangan
- Akurasi tergantung pada profil aliran.
- Fluida harus transparan akustik.
- Menyebabkan Kesalahan dengan membangun dalam pipa.
- Hanya mungkin dalam aplikasi yang terbatas.
- Mahal.
- Pipa harus penuh.
5.8.10 Aplikasi Keterbatasan
Turbulensi atau bahkan berputar-putar dari fluida proses dapat mempengaruhi sinyal ultrasonik.
Dalam aplikasi khas aliran harus stabil untuk mencapai arus baik pengukuran, dan biasanya
memungkinkan pipa lurus yang memadai dan hilir yang transduser melakukan hal ini. Bagian
lurus pipa hulu akan perlu 10 untuk diameter pipa 20 dengan persyaratan hilir dari 5 diameter
pipa.
Untuk meter waktu transit, sinyal ultrasonik diperlukan untuk melintasi seluruh aliran, karena itu
cairan harus relatif bebas dari padatan dan gelembung udara. Apa-apa dari kerapatan yang
berbeda (lebih tinggi atau lebih rendah) dari fluida proses akan mempengaruhi sinyal ultrasonik.
Ringkasan 5.8.11
flowmeters Doppler tidak akurasi tinggi atau perangkat kinerja tinggi, tapi jangan menawarkan
bentuk murah dari pemantauan aliran. dimaksud operasi mereka untuk cairan kotor, dan
menemukan aplikasi dalam pembuangan kotoran, lumpur dan air limbah proses. Menjadi
tergantung pada karakteristik suara, perangkat ultrasonik tergantung pada profil aliran, dan juga
dipengaruhi oleh perubahan suhu dan kepadatan.
Meter Mass Flow 5.9
pengukuran aliran massa memberikan account yang lebih akurat cairan, dan tidak terpengaruh
oleh densitas, tekanan dan temperatur (seperti pengukuran volumetrik).
Meskipun meter paling dapat menyimpulkan laju aliran massa dari pengukuran debit, ada
beberapa cara untuk mengukur aliran massa langsung:
- The Coriolis meter
- Massa flowmeter Termal
- Kepadatan Radiasi
5.9.1 The Coriolis Meter
Pengaruh Coriolis
Dasar dari meteran Coriolis adalah Hukum Kedua 'Newtons of Motion, dimana:
Force = Massa x Percepatan.
Cara konvensional untuk mengukur massa benda adalah untuk timbang. Dalam penimbangan,
gaya adalah diukur dengan percepatan dikenal (9.81m/sec 2). Jenis Prinsip pengukuran tidak
mudah atau mungkin dengan cairan bergerak, terutama dalam pipa.
Namun, dimungkinkan untuk memanipulasi rumus di atas dan menerapkan sebuah gaya yang
dikenal dan mengukur, sebagai gantinya, percepatan untuk menentukan massa.


Gambar 5,38
Prinsip efek Coriolis
Efek Coriolis menyebabkan gaya perlambatan pada bagian yang berputar pipa saat aliran
bergerak keluar, sebaliknya menghasilkan uang muka pada bagian pipa untuk aliran bergerak
menuju sumbu rotasi.

Gambar 5.39
Aplikasi Coriolis kekuatan untuk meter
Ketika seksi penuh pipa dipindahkan sekitar sumbu dalam gerakan osilasi, yang bagian keluar
dari pipa terbelakang (atau melambat) dan bagian return maju (atau dipercepat), menghasilkan
twist dalam pipa.
Coriolis Meter
Gaya diterapkan untuk berosilasi aliran pipa dan efek Coriolis adalah prinsip digunakan untuk
menentukan percepatan karena torsi (jumlah memutar). Sensor yang digunakan untuk mengukur
jumlah twist di flowtubes dalam meter sebagai akibat dari getaran flowtube dan lendutan akibat
aliran massa. Jumlah puntir diukur adalah sebanding dengan laju aliran massa dan diukur dengan
magnetic sensor dipasang pada tabung.
Perkembangan pada meteran pipa Coriolis dilingkarkan dilakukan untuk tetap menggunakan
pipa lurus. Hal ini dilakukan dengan membuat pipa lurus dan sejajar. Gaya diterapkan oleh pipa-
pipa berosilasi pada frekuensi resonan. Hal ini memiliki keuntungan mengurangi kehilangan
tekanan dalam pipa.



Gambar 5.40
Coriolis meter konstruksi
Straight Melalui Meter
Perkembangan ke Coriolis meter diketik dilingkarkan adalah lurus melalui pipa versi, yang
memiliki keuntungan tambahan kehilangan tekanan rendah.
Gerakan rotasi dalam jenis meter disediakan oleh pipa-pipa dan bergetar gaya Coriolis
berkembang di dalam pipa. Pipa-pipa bergetar di resonan mereka frekuensi dan sensor
digunakan untuk mendeteksi pergerakan pipa. Karena tidak ada aliran sensor mendeteksi
gerakan yang sama, namun ketika arus cair ada perbedaan antara osilasi dari dua pipa. Hal ini
disebabkan sebagai aliran dipercepat pada inlet dan perlambatan pada outlet. Seperti sebelumnya
dengan antihan, perbedaan dalam fase osilasi sebanding dengan aliran massa.


Gambar 5,41
Dasar prinsip 'Straight Melalui' pipa (a) tanpa cairan, dan
(B) dengan aliran fluida
(Courtesy of Endress & Hauser)
Keuntungan
- Langsung, dalam aliran massa pengukuran-line.
- Independen suhu, tekanan,, konduktivitas densitas dan viskositas.
- Sensor mampu menularkan aliran massa, kerapatan dan informasi suhu.
- Densitas tinggi kemampuan.
- Konduktivitas independen.
- Cocok untuk pengukuran hidrokarbon.
- Cocok untuk pengukuran kepadatan.
Kekurangan
- Biaya.
- Terkena getaran.
- Instalasi biaya.
- Penyesuaian titik nol.
Aplikasi Keterbatasan
- Temperatur tinggi.
- Getaran.
- Jumlah gas dalam cairan.
- Terbatas untuk laju aliran rendah.
- Terbatas untuk ukuran pipa sampai 150mm.
Ringkasan
Coriolis meter menyediakan langsung, in-line dan arus pengukuran massa akurat yang
independen suhu,, viskositas tekanan dan kepadatan. Aliran massa, kerapatan dan suhu bisa
diakses dari sensor satu. Mereka juga dapat digunakan untuk hamper aplikasi apapun saat
dikalibrasi.
Untuk kontrol kritis, laju aliran massa adalah metode pengukuran dan disukai karena Coriolis
meter akurasi mereka menjadi sangat umum untuk aplikasi yang memerlukan kontrol yang
sangat ketat. Selain aplikasi transfer tahanan, mereka digunakan untuk proses kimia dan
penanganan cairan mahal.
5.9.2 Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Dua jenis utama alat ukur arus massa termal adalah:
- Termal Anemometer
- Suhu naik flowmeter
Thermal anemometer
Anemometer termal yang bekerja dengan mengukur disipasi panas dari probe dimasukkan ke
dalam baris. Jumlah panas yang diambil dari probe tergantung pada kecepatan fluida dan
densitas, tetapi juga merupakan ukuran langsung dari laju aliran massa. The temperatur juga
diukur untuk perhitungan. Mereka juga disebut sebagai 'Hot kawat probe '.
Probe dapat menjadi suhu sekarang atau konstan konstan.
Pada jenis arus konstan, arus tetap dilewatkan melalui probe yang menyebabkan pemanasan
dalam probe. Seperti laju aliran bervariasi, demikian juga jumlah panas yang diambil dari
probe dan karena itu perubahan suhu. Suhu diukur untuk memperoleh aliran.


Gambar 5.42
Thermal massa flowmeters
Untuk tipe temperatur konstan, umpan balik diperlukan untuk mempertahankan konstan
suhu. Sebagai aliran mempengaruhi perubahan suhu, kebutuhan saat ini akan diatur untuk
menjaga suhu probe. Laju aliran ditentukan oleh kekuatan diperlukan untuk memanaskan probe.
Dalam membandingkan dan suhu konstan jenis arus konstan terlihat bahwa perangkat temperatur
konstan memiliki respon yang lebih cepat mengalir perubahan.
Perangkat ini terutama digunakan untuk gas dan tergantung pada profil aliran. Mereka Oleh
karena itu terbatas jika perubahan profil aliran karena mereka hanya mengukur pada satu titik di
flowstream tersebut. Keterbatasan mereka mirip dengan tabung pitot, yang juga merupakan
penyisipan sebuah perangkat ke flowstream.
Untuk mencapai aliran laminar, 10 diameter pipa lurus yang diperlukan hulu dari
sensor. Kemudian perkembangan sensor ini menggabungkan nozzle penyejuk yang konsentrat
aliran ke sensor.
Probe temperatur harus menonjol ke flowstream, dan karena itu mungkin mudah rusak oleh
korosi dan erosi. Selain ketahanan system terganggu oleh tonjolan ke dalam aliran fluida,
meningkatkan peluang kebocoran.
Keuntungan
- Waktu respon cepat, 0.5milliseconds <.
Kekurangan
- Membutuhkan 10 diameter pipa lurus hulu.
- Memiliki keterbatasan mirip dengan tabung pitot.
Kenaikan suhu flowmeter - tipe penyisipan
flowmeters Kenaikan suhu bekerja berdasarkan prinsip pemanasan flowstream tersebut. Dengan
memanaskan flowstream pada satu titik, suhu dapat diukur baik hulu dan hilir dari titik
pemanasan. Menghitung perbedaan antara suhu memberikan informasi tentang laju aliran.


Gambar 5.43
Rise 'Prinsip' Suhu metode
Metode ini memerlukan pengukuran sebenarnya pemanasan fluida proses. Hal ini Oleh karena
itu terbatas pada aplikasi gas pada laju alir rendah.
Seperti probe kawat panas, sensor suhu dan pemanas harus menonjol ke yang flowstream, dan
karenanya dapat mudah rusak oleh korosi dan erosi. Juga ketahanan sistem terganggu oleh
tonjolan ke dalam aliran fluida, meningkatkan peluang kebocoran.
Kekurangan
- Cocok untuk gas rendah arus saja.
- Sesuai dengan erosi dan korosi.
- Lebih penyadapan poin, meningkatkan peluang kebocoran.
Kenaikan suhu flowmeter - tipe eksternal
Perkembangan dari jenis penyisipan penginderaan telah pindah pemanasan dan merasakan unsur
ke luar pipa untuk mengatasi masalah dengan menekan poin. Dengan membatasi poin
penyadapan, peluang kebocoran (dan pemeliharaan yang terkait) adalah sangat berkurang, jika
tidak dihilangkan.


Gambar 5.44
Thermal flowmeter dengan elemen eksternal dan pemanas
Jenis penginderaan terutama berlaku untuk diameter pipa kecil. Untuk diameter pipa yang lebih
besar, contoh aliran dapat diambil dan penginderaan diterapkan dimcara ini.


Gambar 5.45
Tipe termal flowmeter massa Bypass
Keuntungan
- Menghubungi Non, non intrusif penginderaan
- Obstruksi Tidak untuk aliran
- Mengurangi pemeliharaan
Kekurangan
- Cocok untuk gas rendah hanya arus
- Sesuai dengan erosi dan korosi
Ringkasan
flowmeters massa Thermal terutama digunakan untuk mengukur aliran gas bersih dengan dikenal
kapasitas panas. Mereka umumnya digunakan dalam pemurnian dan kimia industri.
5.9.3 Radiasi Kepadatan
Salah satu batasan flow meter adalah bahwa mereka hanya mengukur aliran volumetrik. Seperti
disebutkan sebelumnya, jika kepadatan dikenal dan konstan, laju aliran massa kemudian dapat
dihitung. Masalah muncul ketika kepadatan bervariasi.
Namun itu mungkin dan cukup dapat diterima praktek untuk menggabungkan aliran volumetric
peralatan dengan alat ukur kepadatan untuk mendapatkan aliran massa akurat pengukuran. Satu
kombinasi tersebut adalah penggunaan magmeter dengan radiasi densitometer.
5.10 Instalasi Pertimbangan
Penuh Pipa Meter
Hal ini sering merupakan persyaratan dalam pengukuran aliran yang tingkat pada pipa akan
dipertahankan. Pilihan kadang-kadang tersedia untuk mempertimbangkan tingkat di pipa, namun
hal ini dapat membuktikan untuk menjadi alternatif mahal.
Hal ini dimungkinkan, dengan mengorbankan tambah tekanan kerugian kecil sangat, untuk
menurunkan bagian pipa mengandung flowmeter sehingga kolam cairan di daerah itu.


Gambar 5.46
Flowmeter tetap penuh ketika dipasang di (a) invert, atau (b) V-bagian
5.11 Dampak terhadap Loop Control Keseluruhan
Ada dua masalah utama pada laju alir yang rendah:
- The aliran minimum
- Kesalahan meningkat
Salah satu masalah utama dengan mengendalikan sistem dari laju alir rentang kontrol. turndown
mendefinisikan aliran minimum dibandingkan dengan maksimal diperingkat mengalir. Masalah
timbul ketika pengendalian pada atau dekat aliran minimum, atau jika aliran diperlukan di bawah
laju aliran minimum.
Masalah lain adalah kesalahan meningkat yang dihasilkan dari laju aliran rendah, khususnya
dengan tekanan perangkat diferensial, dimana laju aliran adalah akar kuadrat dari tekanan.
5.11.1 Arus Minimum
Sebuah flow meter tunggal perlu ukuran untuk aliran maksimum aplikasi,
namun hal ini tidak memungkinkan kontrol yang sesuai pada tingkat aliran lebih rendah. Salah
satu cara untuk meningkatkan rangeability sistem adalah dengan menggunakan pipa paralel. Jika
aliran berkurang maka salah satu berjalan dapat ditutup untuk mempertahankan aliran
peningkatan operasi berjalan. Hal ini akan mengurangi Rangeability diperlukan dan menjaga
akurasi tertinggi sistem.
Ketepatan pengukuran dioptimalkan dengan menjaga laju aliran melalui meter. Katup yang
ditampilkan adalah untuk isolasi berjalan terpisah.


Gambar 5.47
Paralel pengaturan
Kesalahan Peningkatan
Sehubungan dengan orifice meter, plat lubang memiliki kesalahan sekitar 2% dari yang
sebenarnya debit. Masalah muncul dengan pengukuran tekanan diferensial sebagai kesalahan
berada dalam segi persen dari span.

Tabel 5.9
Maksimum perbedaan tekanan kesalahan
Untuk rasio turndown lebih tinggi yang akan dicapai atau dipertahankan, akurasi perlu terus di
cek. Komponen akurasi adalah:
- Akurasi Referensi
- Ambient Pengaruh suhu
- Tekanan statis efek
- Drift Time
Drift time dapat dikurangi dengan kalibrasi teratur dan pengaruh suhu dapat juga dapat dikurangi
dengan menggunakan lampiran cocok atau operasi lingkungan.


Seleksi Tabel 5.12


Tabel 5.10
Flowmeter Kriteria Seleksi
(Courtesy of Fisher Rosemount)
Teknologi Masa Depan 5.13
Teknologi yang lebih baru di flowmeters seperti massa Coriolis, ultrasonik dan pusaran
mengganti flowmeters tekanan diferensial tradisional dan orifice mereka piring dan elemen-
elemen utama membatasi.
Pemilihan teknologi baru, seperti massa Coriolis flowmeter terutama didorong oleh kebutuhan
untuk akurasi tinggi dalam pengukuran. flowmeters ultrasonic menjadi lebih populer karena
meningkatkan akurasi mereka lebih dari versi sebelumnya. Dalam Selain itu mereka adalah non-
intrusif dan memiliki rangeability luas. Vortex flowmeters adalah juga sering digunakan, karena
mereka lebih murah dan dapat mengukur uap, cair dan gas.
5.13.1 Membatasi Faktor
Pertumbuhan teknologi baru ditentukan oleh sejumlah faktor, seperti:
1. Teknologi tradisional.
Teknologi tradisional seperti piring, turbin orifice, dan positif meter perpindahan secara luas
digunakan dalam aplikasi yang ada. Banyak pengguna lebih memilih untuk tinggal dengan
teknologi yang sudah teruji.
2. Tidak ada alasan untuk mengubah
Pengguna umumnya memerlukan alasan yang kuat untuk mengubah ke yang berbeda atau yang
lebih baru teknologi. Sebagai hasilnya, mereka biasanya memilih jenis yang sama flowmeter
ketika memilih pengganti meter.
3. Keakraban
Hal ini cukup sering bahwa teknologi baru tidak dipahami dengan baik oleh pengguna.
4. Persetujuan
teknologi tradisional memiliki keunggulan kuat dalam persetujuan yang diberikan oleh asosiasi
industri.
5.13.2 multivariabel Flowmeters
Perkembangan teknologi dengan pemancar tekanan telah melihat pengenalan multivariabel
flowmeters yang memberikan pengukuran aliran massa disimpulkan. Ada juga permintaan untuk
memperbaiki elemen-elemen utama yang digunakan dengan tekanan pemancar.
Seperti yang disebutkan sebelumnya, sebagian besar volumetrik flowmeters, seperti tekanan
diferensial jenis, rasa satu variabel proses. Ini digunakan untuk menghitung aliran volumetrik
atau menghitung aliran massa.
flowmeters multivariabel ukuran yang lebih dari satu variabel proses dan dapat menghasilkan
lebih dari satu output. Sebuah flowmeter multivariabel mungkin memiliki sensor untuk
diferensial tekanan statis tekanan, dan temperatur proses, yang digunakan untuk menghitung
massa mengalir.
multivariabel teknologi tidak terbatas pada perangkat tekanan diferensial. Magnetic flowmeters
dapat digunakan dengan pengukuran temperatur proses dan kepadatan formula kompensasi
untuk menghitung aliran massa.
Perangkat seperti ini klaim untuk mengukur aliran massa, tetapi pengukuran yang diperoleh
adalah yang dihitung atau nilai disimpulkan daripada pengukuran langsung, seperti yang
diperoleh dengan Coriolis meter. aliran massa Dihitung kurang akurat dibandingkan langsung
pengukuran karena ketidakakuratan dalam variabel yang terlibat.
Hal ini tidak biasa bagi elemen-elemen utama yang akan dibeli dari satu pemasok, dengan
pemancar tekanan dibeli di tempat lain. Produsen mengakui ini keterbatasan dan sedang
mengembangkan perangkat yang tidak terpisahkan. Dengan mengintegrasikan elemen
penginderaan dengan pemancar dalam satu unit, sistem ini mirip lainnya flowmeters paling. Ini
kombinasi juga menyederhanakan dan kalibrasi prosedur instalasi.
Pendekatan ini melihat lebih banyak tekanan sensing perangkat yang tersisa dalam operasi,
dengan kemampuan mengubah elemen-elemen utama, atau perubahan ke flowmeters
multivariabel.
Keterbatasan dalam penginderaan tetap pada perangkat utama. Sebagai flowmeters menjadi lebih
akurat, elektronik menjadi sangat tepat dalam interpretasi mereka dan menyampaikan sinyal,
tetapi tunduk pada akurasi elemen utama.
Masa depan pengukuran aliran adalah tunduk pada pencarian dan pengembangan elemen-elemen
utama diperbaiki, apakah mereka ada atau teknologi baru.

















Flow Meter 2
Jenis Cairan dan karakteristik aliran
Ada berbagai jenis fluida dengan karakteristik masing-masing yang perlu diketahui saat akan
menentukan jenis flow meter serta persyaratan dari kecepatan aliran fluida seperti :
Besarnya tekanan pressure, Besarnya temperature cairan, penurunan tekanan yang disyaratkan, density
cairan, viscosity dari fluida, konduktivitasnya, tingkat keasaman, dan untuk uap perlu juga diketahui
temperature kerjanya, informasi tentang keselamatan atau toksisitas harus disediakan, data rinci
tentang komposisi fluida, adanya gelembung/busa, soliditas (ukuran kasar atau lembut, partikel, serat),
Perlu finishing jenis coating, dan kualitas tembus pandang / transmisi cahaya (buram, tembus atau
transparan).?
Selain informasi diatasdalam menentukan jenis flow meter, juga perlu informasi adanya jalur pipa saat
installasi seperti Apakah jalur aliran pipa dari flow meter dapat menimbulkan back pressure, apakah
aliran dari fluida tidak selalu mengisi flow tube dengan penuh, apakah terdapat aliran lumpur yang
dapat berkembang ( udara padat-cair), apakah ada aerasi atau adanya gelombang dalam aliran, apakah
terjadi perubahan suhu secara mendadak atau mungkin perlu tindakan pencegahan yang perlu
dilakukan saat dilakukan pembersihan dan pemeliharaan, Informasi-informasi lapangan seperti tersebut
perlu di berikan.
Koneksi, Pipa dan Installasi Flow Meter
Saat melakukan pemasangan flow meter perlu dipertimbangkan bebarap aspek lokasi installasi flow
meter seperti arah aliran hendaknya untuk fluida liquid hendaknya dihindar pemasangan flow
meter posisi vertical dengan arah aliran turun/kebawah, size( ukuran diameter pipa ) Jenis bahan flow
meter, jenis koneksi flow meter, adanya tekukan aliran, adanya valve, adanya getaran pada pipa, atau
medan magnet yang terlalu besar, adanya jalur pipa lurus yang memadai untuk persyaratan
pemasangan jenis flow meter tertentu serta perlu tidaknya kelas food grade.
Para Perencana dalam menentukan jenis flow meter harus tahu apakah ada getaran yang terlalu besar
atau adanya medan magnet atau mungkin di daerah tersebut, apakah tersedia tenaga listrik atau hanya
mengandalkan mekanik atau pneumatik, jika kawasan ini diklasifikasikan untuk daerah yang mudah
terbakar atau mudah meledakatau jika ada persyaratan khusus lain seperti peraturan yang sesuai
dengann sanitary atau tempat yang harus bersih.
Langkah berikutnya adalah untuk menentukan rentang ukur yang dibutuhkan dengan mengidentifikasi
arus minimum dan maksimum (massa atau volumetrik) yang akan diukur. Setelah itu, akurasi
pengukuran aliran yang dibutuhkan ditentukan. Biasanya akurasi ditentukan dalam persentase
membaca yang sebenarnya (AR), dalam persentase rentang dikalibrasi (CS), atau dalam persentase unit
skala penuh (FS). Persyaratan akurasi harus dinyatakan secara terpisah di flowrates minimal, normal,
dan maksimum. Kecuali jika kita tahu persyaratan ini, kinerja flowmeter Anda mungkin tidak dapat
diterima selama rentang penuh.
Dalam aplikasi di mana produk yang dijual atau dibeli berdasarkan pembacaan meter, akurasi mutlak
sangat penting. Dalam aplikasi lain, pengulangan mungkin lebih penting daripada akurasi mutlak. Oleh
karena itu, dianjurkan untuk menetapkan secara terpisah akurasi dan pengulangan persyaratan dari
setiap aplikasi spesifikasi oleh aturan tertentu.
Ketika akurasi flowmeter dinyatakan dalam % CS atau unit % FS, kesalahan besar akan muncul jika flow
rate mengalami penurunan secara drastis. Jika error pengukuran dinyatakan dalam % AR, error secara
han secara absolut tetap sama pada kecepatan aliran yang maksimal maupun yang minimal. Karena
skala penuh (FS) selalu merupakan jumlah yang lebih besar dari rentang dikalibrasi (CS), sebuah sensor
dengan kinerja % FS akan selalu memiliki error yang lebih besar dari satu dengan spesifikasi % CS yang
sama. Oleh karena itu, dalam rangka untuk membandingkan semua jenis yang ditawarkan, disarankan
untuk mengkonversi semua angka error yang muncul ke dalam unit yang sama %AR.
Dalam mempersiapkan spesifikasi flow meter, semua informasi akurasi diubah menjadi unit % seragam
AR dan ini % AR persyaratan yang ditentukan secara terpisah untuk arus minimal, normal, dan
maksimum. Semua spesifikasi flowmeters dan tawaran ang diberikan harus dengan jelas memberikan
informasi baik akurasi dan pengulangan meter pada aliran minimum, normal, dan maksimum.
Jika terdapat kinerja flow meter yang telah cocok dan terdapat dua jenis flow meter yang berbeda type
dimana jenis flow meter pertama memiliki bagian yang begerak sedangkan jenis flowmeter yang kedua
tidak memiliki bagian yang bergerak, pilihlah satu jenis flow meter yang tidak mempunyai bagian yang
bergerak. Flow meter dengan jenis Bagian yang bergerak akan mempunyai potensi sumber masalah,
tidak hanya untuk alasan yang jelas keausan, pelumasan, dan kepekaan terhadap lapisan, tetapi juga
karena bagian yang bergerak membutuhkan banyak ruang pemeriksaan bahwa kadang-kadang
menimbulkan selip ke dalam aliran yang diukur. Bahkan dengan flow meter yang terawat dengan baik
dan dikalibrasi, akan ada variasi flow yang tidak terukur akibat perubahan viskositas fluida dan suhu.
Perubahan suhu juga mengubah dimensi internal meter dan sehingga dibutuhkan konpensasi.
Selanjutnya, jika seseorang bisa mendapatkan kinerja yang sama dari kedua flowmeter penuh dan
sensor titik, umumnya disarankan untuk menggunakan jenis flowmeter tersebut. Karena sensor titik
tidak melihat aliran penuh, mereka membaca secara akurat hanya jika mereka dimasukkan ke
kedalaman di mana kecepatan aliran rata-rata dari profil kecepatan di seluruh pipa. Bahkan jika titik ini
adalah sangat menentukan/penting pada saat kalibrasi, bukan tidak mungkin untuk tetap tidak berubah,
karena profil kecepatan berubah dengan laju aliran, viskositas, suhu, dan faktor lainnya.
Sebelum menentukan flow meter, juga disarankan untuk menentukan apakah informasi flow rate lebih
berguna jika disajikan dalam massa atau unit volumetrik. Ketika mengukur aliran bahan kompresibel,
aliran volumetrik tidak terlalu berarti kecuali kerapatan (dan kadang-kadang juga viskositas) adalah
konstan. Ketika kecepatan (aliran volumetrik) cairan mampat diukur, kehadiran gelembung
ditangguhkan akan menyebabkan kesalahan, karena itu, udara dan gas harus dihapus sebelum cairan
mencapai alat flow meter. Di sensor kecepatan lainnya, liners pipa bisa menyebabkan masalah
(ultrasonik), atau meter akan berhenti berfungsi jika bilangan Reynolds terlalu rendah.
Mengingat pertimbangan-pertimbangan ini, flowmeters massa, yang sensitif terhadap densitas, tekanan
dan variasi viskositas dan tidak terpengaruh oleh perubahan bilangan Reynolds, harus disimpan dalam
perencanaan. Juga sedikit sekali dimanfaatkan dalam industri kimia adalah berbagai flumes yang dapat
mengukur aliran dalam pipa yang tidak penuh dan dapat melewati padatan yang mengambang atau
settleable besar.
back to page
Filed under flow meter, fungsi flow meter, installasi, jenis flow meter
Jenis Flow Meter
19 Maret 2012 Tinggalkan komentar
Jenis Flow meter yang beredar di pasaran cukup banyak dimana jenis flowmeter ini disesuaikan
dengan fungsi flow meter dan aplikasi flow meter di lapangan hal ini penting digunakan sebagai acuan
bagaimana cara memilih jenis flow meter yang sesuai dengan keinginan kita dan berdasarkan cara kerja
flow meter dapat dibagi dalam beberapa jenis flow meter ::
1. Ultrasonic Flow meter
Ultrasonic bisa diartikan banyak hal. Semenjak popular menjadi Portable Ultrasonic flow meter., para
teknisi membayangkan bahwa flowmeter adalah Portable Ultrasonic flowmeter. Bagaimanapun juga ,
ultrasonic flowmeter adalah sebuah alat yang diperluakn untuk mengukur kecepatan aliran, volume,
aliran masa dari cairan atau gas dengan kharakteristik bisa dibawah berpindah-pindah.

Ada beberapa perusahaan yang mencoba mengembangkan teknologi ini untuk aplikasi uap tapi sejauh
in1 aplikasi dari alat ini masih bersifat tidak umum dan terbatas. Ultrasonic flow meter sejauh ini dibuat
dalam segala type dan range aplikasi dari transmit waktu atau Doppler sebagi aliran dasar atau aliran
fluid,rendahnya anemometer untuk menggambarkan mahalnay gas alam sebagai aplikasi transfer
tahanan. Harga untuk sebuah ultrasonic flow meter bisa berkisar antara USD 25 sampai USD 150.000
tergantung pada aplikasinya dan juga ada yang hand held ultrasonic flow meter
Prinsip operasi
Pada dasarnya orang akan membedakan satu teknologi dari dua type tehnik pengukuran tapi hal ini
tidak sepenuhnya benar. Sebuah Ultrasonic flowmeter akan dikategorikan kedalam type Doppler (yang
mana digunakan untuk menggeser prinsip Doppler). Atau peralatan pemindahan waktu yang berupa
mengukur selisih waktu. Perbedaan ini kemungkinan telah membawa alasan yang cukup simple untuk
mengklasifikasikan ultrasonic dengan mudah dalam industry. Jika seseorang mempelajari tehnik
pengukuran ultrasonic flowmeter, mereka akan menemukan beberapa teknologi yang mungkin salah
pengklasifikasian.

Dalam hal ini Doppler flow meter yang mana terdapat Doppler shift yang diukur dengan
menggunakan gelombang continue pada frekuensi yang tetap atau variasi seperti perubahan yang
terjadi dalam Doppler shift yang diukur dengan menggunakan getaran.
Pada Ultrasonic flowmeter Transmisi dari gelombang yang melewati sensor secara tidak langsung
berhubungan dengan fluida dinamakan non contact type. Bisa juga terjadi salah konsepsi atau
penyederhanaan pada waktu transit flowmeter. Beberapa informasi mengklasifikasikan type yang baru
sebagai phase shift dan dibandingkan dengan type lama dilihat pada starting meter menggunakan
transit time dan yang lainnya menggunakan Correlation transit time
Sekarang dibuat kombinasi antara kedua transit tadi dengan technology ultrasound, hal ini
memungkinkan untuk mengetahui secara tepat seberapa banyak fungsi dan kalkulasi dari tehnik yang
actual.
Type Ultrasonic Flow meter ini cukup banyak digemari khususnya bagi mereka yang menginginkan
jenis flow meter yang bisa di pindah2 atau dengan kata lain bisa di bawah kemana-mana atau boleh
dikatakan sebagai flow meter Jinjing . Dan cara pengoprasiannya juga cukup sederhana tinggal di ikat ke
pipa yang akan diukur flownya. Sedangkan untuk keluaran dari flow meter bisa hanya dibaca pada
display dan juga ada yang dilengkapi dengan printer sehingga hasil pengukuran dapat langsung disimpan
berupa hard copy dan ada juga hasil pengukuran disimpan pada memory card berupa soft copy yang
bisa langsung dibaca oleh komputer dengan menggunakan card reader.
2. Glass Tube Flow Meter
Type Galss tube flowmeter banyak digunakan untuk aplikasi pemasangan dengan sistem vertikal dan
beasaran flow rate bisa langsung di baca pada tabung kaca yang mana bahan dari kaca cukup baik yaitu
pyrex glass. Jenis Galss tube flowmeter ini banyak digunakan ketika installasi pipa cairan tidak
mempunyai area horisontal yang memadai sehingga tidak terlalu membutuhkan area yang luas.

Add caption
Untuk aplikasinya Galss tube flowmeter ini hanya maksimal pada temperature 120 derajad celcius,
sedangkan pressure maksimal pada jenis ini tidak terlalu tinggi hanya pada kisaran 10 bars, sedangkan
untk aplikasi Jenis Galss tube flowmeter ini hanya untuk jenis liquid dan gas. Sedangkan jika kita
menginginkan untuk pressure working yang lebih tinggi di kisaran hingga 60 bar bisa digunakan jenis
metal tube flow meter.
3. Thermal Mass Flow Meters

4. Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
5. Positive Displacement PD Meter
6. Turbine Flow Meter
Turbine Flow meter pada dasrnya menggunakan prinsip dari woltmann rotating vane meter, dimana
didalam Flow meter terdapat vane atau turbine atau impeller yang akan berputar saat fluid mengalir
kedalam flow meter sehingga cukup tepat digunakan untuk mengukur fluid yang flow nya rendah
namun punya pressure yang sangat tinggi.
7. Electromagnetic Flowmeter

Magnetic flowmeters pada prinsipnya menggunakan Hukum Faraday tentang induksi elektromagnetik.
Menurut prinsip ini, ketika medium konduktif melewati medan magnet, tegangan yang dihasilkan.
tegangan ini berbanding lurus dengan kecepatan medium konduktif, kerapatan medan magnet, dan
panjang konduktor. Dalam Hukum Faraday, ketiga nilai tersebut dikalikan bersama-sama, bersama
dengan konstan, untuk menghasilkan besarnya tegangan. karena itu cairan yang diukur oleh flowmeter
electromagnetic harus bersifat sebagai conductor electric.


Electromagnetic Flowmeter merupakan jenis flow meter yang mempunyai populasi tertinggi
untuk Flowmeter yang digunakan mengukur aliran fluid baik berupa air atau cairan lainnya baik aliran
yang corosive, kotor dan lumpur. Karena pemakiannya yang cukup banyak sebagian besar para
produsen flow meter mempunyai produk jenis electromagnetic flow meter.

Electromagnetic Flowmeter yang paling banyak digunakan dalam aplikasi pengukuran aliran air dan
limbah dan chemical. Sebagaian besar aplikasi dari pemakaian Elecromagnetic flow meter adalah untuk
dunia industri seperti industri makanan, minuman, farmasi, perhotelan dan pengolahan limbah karena
harus menggunakan flowmeter yang memenuhi persyaratan sanitasi.
8. Orifice Flow Meter
Flow meter jenis ini pada prinsip kerjanya menggunakan pressure difference dan bisa digunakan untuk
high temperature maupun high pressure./div&gt;

Orifice flow meter disamping bisa digunakan untuk mengukur aliran liquid, gas juga bisa untuk
diaplikasikan pada aliran Steam. Flow meter yang dibuat dari bahan UPVC, PE dan PP atau PTFE sangat
cocok sekali untuk aplikasi aliran chemical yang corosive. Pada Type Orifice flowmeter ini ada juga yang
diaplikasikan untuk cairan matrial yang berat / kental seperti cairan slude pada proses WWT atau
mengukur gas yang mempunyai humadity yang tinggi.
9. Laminar Mass Flowmeter
10. Rotameter
11.Venturi Flow meters
cara kerja flow meter, flowmeter, Jenis Flow Meter, Ultrasonic flow meter
Filed under Electromagnetic Flowmeter, flowmeter, fungsi flow meter, jenis flow meter, turbine
flow meter, Ultrasonic flowmeter
Memilih Type Flow Meter
19 Maret 2012 Tinggalkan komentar
Jenis Flowmeter
Flow meter merupakan instrumen guna mengukur aliran dari suatu fluida baik liquid ( liquid
flowmeter), sludge ( sludge flow meter) maupun gas ( flow meter gas), baik bertemperatur
rendah hingga temperatur tinggi. Dalam memilih flow meter harus disesuaikan dengan kondisi
fluid dan fungsi flowmeter itu sendiri. Karakteristik dari fluida yang diukur oleh flow
meter sangat luas mulai dari tingkat corosive fluida dimana untuk fluida yang tingkat
keasamannya tinggi mungkin lebih cocok jika menggunakan flowmeter dari bahan PVC / non
logam.
Untuk fluida yang bertemperatur tinggi tentunya digunakan matrial lain. Begitu juga untuk
tingkat kepekatan matrial fluida jenis flow meter harus disesuaikan. Untuk fluida yang
diaplikasikan pada bahan makanan atau obat-obatan yang menuntut bahan pipa dan bahan
flowmeter yang harus food grade lebih cocok kalo dipakai stainles steel SUS 316L. Dan untuk
lingkungan yang corisive seperti di laut mungkin body dan flange flow meter lebih pas jika
menggunakan stainless steel.
Karena dibutuhkan ketelitian dan pemahaman akan karakteristik fluid serta manfaatnya ,
serta cara kerja Flowmeter dan fungsi flow meter itu sendiri. Ada beberapa variabel yang harus
kita tentukan dalam MEMI LI H FLOW METER pada saat penentuan type flow meter dan model
flowmeter yang cocok dengan aplikasi yang kita harapkan, varibel pemilihan flow
meter tersebut dapat dimasukan kedalam pertanyaan sebagai berikut :
1. Jenis Fluid yang akan digunakan pada flow meter : gas, water, chemical, oil , liquid gas,
sludge, dll
2. Pengukuran flow meter hanya pada flow atau total fluid yang mengalir atau kedua2nya
3. Viscosity dari fluid, Kebersihan/kekotoran dari fluid ( lumpur, banyak kotoran atau bersih )
yang mengalir ke flow meter
4. Tujuan dari Flow meter : sebagai alat ukur flow, total volume, control, switch, pengiriman
sinyal electric yang berfungsi sebagai control ataupun data ke komputer atau Hand phone lewat
sms.
5. Perlu tidaknya display pada flow meter atau electronic signal out put or electrical out put.
6. Besaran ( max dan min ) dari Flow rate, working Pressure, Temperature dari fluid yang akan
diukur flow meter
7. Perlu tidaknya sistem kedap air pada flow meter ( water proof) atau area yang mudah terbakar
atau explossive atau yang setandart
8. Penggunaan untuk bahan kimia dan makanan seperti tingkat keasaman dari fluid atau perlu
food grade untuk matrial flow meter yang sering digunakan di industry obat atau makanan dan
minuman.
9. Ukuran dari pipa dimana flow meter ini di install termasuk menggunakan sistem sambungan
flange atau ulir atau fitting
10. Sistem insatallasi flow meter : Vertical atau horizontal
11. Keterangan lain yang diperlukan dalam memilih jenis flow meter karena pada dasarnya flow
meter bisa dibuat/dipesan sesuai dengan keinginan pemesan (custom)
Flow meter mempunyai banyak jenis dan berdasarkan cara kerja dapat dibagi dalam beberapa
type:
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
Electromagnetic Flow Meter
Coriolis Flow Meter
Vortex Flow Meter
Impeller Flow Meter
Glass Tube Flow Meter
Sigh Gauge Flow Meter
Open Channel Flow Meter
Turbine FLow Meter
Thermal mass Flow Meter
Water Meter
Gas Meter
Oriffice Flow Meter
Oval Gear Meter
bahan flow meter, cara kerja flow meter, Flow meter, flowmeter, fungsi flow meter, liquid flowmeter, memilih flow meter, sludge flow meter, type flow
meter, water meter
Filed under bahan flow meter, cara kerja flow meter, flow meter, flowmeter, fungsi flow meter,
liquid flowmeter, memilih flow meter, sludge flow meter, type flow meter, water meter
Fungsi Flow Meter
28 Juni 2011 Tinggalkan komentar
Fungsi Flow meter
Kegunaan flow meter
Jenis Flow meter
Flow meter adalah alat yang digunakan untuk mengetahui adanya suatu aliran matrial ( liquid, gas,
powder ) dalam suatu jalur aliran, dengan segala aspek aliran itu sendiri yaitu kecepatan aliran atau flow
rate dan total massa atau volume dari matrial yang mengalair dalam jangka waktu tertentu atau sering
disebut dengan istilah totalizer.
Dengan diketahuniya parameter dari aliran suatu matrial oleh alat ukur flow meter yang dikirim berupa
data angka dapat juga diteruskan guna menghasilkan aliran listrik atau sinyal yang bisa digunakan
sebagai input pada control atau rangkaian electric lainnya.
Filed under cara kerja flow meter, fungsi flow meter, jenis flow meter
Water Flow Meter
28 Juni 2011 Tinggalkan komentar
Water flow meter atau liquid flow meter atau Flow meter air ada beberapa type yang bisa digunakan
disesuaikan dengan jenis fluid yang mengalir dan fungsi flow meter air sendiri. Yang dimaksud dengan
flow meter air atau water flow meter atau water meter adalah jenis liquid yang mana basenya adalah
water.
Pada dunia industri manufacture, oil and gas, pertambangan, perhotelan, rumah sakit dan lainnya water
flow meter atau flow meter air atau liquid flow meter ini dapat dikelompokan pada jenis liquid air dan
prosesnya :
- Flow meter limbah
- Chemical flow meter
- Flow meter air bersih
- Flow meter air murni ( demin water )
- Raw water Flow Meter
Ada beberapa jenis flow meter yang aplikasinya cocok digunakan pada jenis fluid diatas dimana tetap
mengacu pada cara kerja flow meter dan juga pada aplikasi yang diinginkan oleh para pemakai flow
meter. Untuk Flow meter yang sering digunakan adalah :
- Flow meter electromagnetic / Mag Flow Meter
- Turbine Flow meter
- Ultrasonic flow meter
- Woltman Flow Meter
- Padle Flow meter
Untuk jenis Fluid yang basenya water yang mengandung kotoran baik itu kotoran limbah maupun
karena raw waternya seperti air dari sungai karena adanya kotoran sampah atau pasir, mungkin jenis
flow meter yang cocok adalah Jenis Flow meter yang tidak mempunyai komponen yang bergerak dalam
sensornya atau bisa juga untuk jenis flow meter yang tidak mempunyai contact langsung dengan liquid.
Dimana untuk kedua jenis flow meter ini karena sifat dan cara kerja flow meter membuat karakteristik
sensornya akan lebih awet dan akurasinya lebih terjamin karena tidak terpengaruh adanya kotoran-
kotoran dalam fluid. Namun demikian karena sifat dan karakteristik kerja flow meter ini menuntut
adanya kesempurnaan aliran, seperti tidak boleh adanya rongga-rongga udara karena akan dibaca
sebagai aliran palsu ,yang menyebabkan sensor tidak mampu membaca dengan baik, kecuali jenis
dopler ultrasonic yang harganya sangat mahal. dan untuk electromagnetic flow meter cukup banyak
disukai karena akurasinya cukup memadai dan harganya juga tidak mahal walaupun ada kelemahan
disebabkan jika aliran fluida terjadi turbulen. Namun demikian untuk mengatasi turbulen pada jenis
electromagnetic bisa juga aplikasinya dengan menggunakan air drain ( pembuangan udara ) yang bisa
dipasang setelah electromagnetic flow meter.
Sedangkan untuk fluida dengan base water namun mempunyai PH atau tingkap keasaman atau
kebasan terlalu ekstrim, selain digunakan ultrasonic ( non contac ) bisa juga digunakan
electromagnetic dengan bahan non metal ( Plastic atau PVC) atau jika fluid tersebut bersih bisa
juga digunakan jenis flow meter turbine dengan bahan dari PVC atau mungkin bisa digunakan
matrial stainless steel 316L. Dengan karakteristic elecromagnetic flow meter yang tidak
mempunyai bagian/part yang bergerak dalam tabung flow meter, type electroagnetic flow meter
ini cocok sekali jika dipakai untuk fluida / cairan yang tidak bersih / kotor, baik itu karena
adanya kotoran berupa serat, getah, pasir ataupun rumput dan kotoran lainnya sepanjang cairan
tersebut mengandung conductivity yang di persyaratkan.
Pada dasarnya hampir semua jenis flow meter dapat digunakan untuk aplikasi flow meter yang
menggunakan dasar air. Namu demikian pemilihan jenis flow meter tetap di pertimbangkan agar
kita bisa mendapatkan jenis flow meter yang sesuai dengan aplikasi yang kita perlukan dengan
pertimbangan kecocokan akurasi dan biaya yang di keluarkan baik biaya maintenance maupun
harga flow meter nya itu sendiri. Jenis flow meter atau type flow meter yang sering digunakan
dalam dunia industri untuk flow meter dengan liquid air adalah :
- Turbine flow meter
- Magnetic Flow meer
- Ultrasonic Flow meter
- Vortex Flow meter
- DP Flow Flow meter
























1. 2. Pengukuran Aliran Fluida (Flow Measurements)
Instrumen untuk melakukan pengukuran kuantitas aliran fluida ini disebut flowmeter.
Pengukuran aliran fluida merupakan hal penting dalam flow control (pengendalian aliran). Aliran
diukur berdasarkan besarnya kecepatan fluida yang melewati luas penampang tertentu.
dengan QV adalah laju aliran (m
3
/det), A merupakan luas penampang (m
2
), dan V adalah
kecepatan aliran (m/det).
Empat faktor penting dalam pengukuran aliran fluida dalam pipa adalah Kecepatan fluida, Friksi
atau gesekan fluida dengan pipa, Viskositas atau kekentalan fluida, dan kerapatan fluida.
Salah satu alat ukur aliran fluida adalah Pitot Tubes. Pitot tubes mengukur besaran aliran fluida
dengan jalan menghasilkan beda tekanan yang diberikan oleh kecepatan fluida itu sendiri. Pitot
tubes membutuhkan dua lubang pengukuran tekanan untuk menghasilkan suatu beda tekanan.
Pada pitot tubes ini biasanya fluida yang digunakan adalah jenis cairan dan gas. Pitot tubes
terbuat dari stainless steel dan kuningan. Berikut ini adalah gambar dari pitot tubes.