Disusun Oleh:
Puji syukur kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, karena atas berkat dan rahmatnya,
makalah berjudul “Energi Surya (Solar Thermal Energy)” dapat terselesaikan dengan baik.
Makalah ini dibuat untuk memenuhi tugas mata kuliah Teknologi Energi Terbarukan
dan sekaligus untuk menambah wawasan dan pengetahuan kita akan energi. Pada makalah
ini disampaikan pengertian, prinsip dasar energi surya (solar thermal energy), peralatan
utama yang digunakan dalam prosesnya dan update teknologi yang digunakan baik konsep
dasar pengembangannya maupun teknologinya. Penulis sadar bahwa dalam pembuatan
makalah ini masih banyak sekali kekurangan. Oleh karena itu, kritik dan saran yang
membangun dari berbagai pihak sangat penulis harapkan, agar makalah ini dapat menjadi
lebih baik lagi.
Akhir kata, penulis ucapkan terima kasih kepada pihak-pihak yang telah membantu
dalam penulisan makalah ini dari awal hingga akhir. Besar harapan penulis agar makalah ini
dapat bermanfaat bagi para pembaca dan bagi penulis sendiri.
Penulis
ii
DAFTAR ISI
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
iii
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
1
sedangkan kebutuhan konsumsi bahan bakar minyak terus meningkat, hal ini berdampak
pada krisis energi. Pengembangan PLTS (Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya) sangat
cocok untuk daerah terpencil atau pedesaan yang pada umumnya mendapat sinar radiasi
matahari yang tergolong tinggi seperti di daerah timur Indonesia. PLTS juga mempunyai
keuntungan utama karena sifatnya ramah lingkungan.
1.2 TUJUAN
Tujuan dari penulisan makalah ini adalah:
1.3 MANFAAT
Hasil dari penulisan ini diharapkan dapat memberikan manfaat dan informasi serta
menambah wawasan bagi pembaca mengenai apa itu Energi Termal Surya,
pemanfaatannya serta kebaruan dari teknologi energi tersebut.
2
BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
3
Gambar.1 Pola Gerak Semu Tahunan Matahari
Pada tanggal 21 Maret dan 23 September Matahari terbit tepat di titik timur dan
tenggelam tepat di titik barat, pada tanggal 22 Juni Matahari terbit dan tenggelam sejauh
23,5º ke arah utara dari titik timur dan barat, sebaliknya pada tanggal 22 Desember
Matahari berada 23,5º ke arah selatan dari titik timur dan barat. Posisi Matahari ketika
berada di dua titik terakhir disebut dengan soltitium, yang artinya pemberhentian
Matahari. Hal tersebut karena pada saat itu perubahan deklinasi Matahari sangat lambat
seolah-olah berhenti. Sebaliknya pada titik ekuinox, yakni ketika lintasan Matahari
berada tepat pada titik timur dan barat, perubahan deklinasi berlangsung cepat (Slamet
Hambali, 2012).
Harga bahan bakar fosil semakin tinggi mulai pertengahan decade 70-an, sehingga
energi matahari menjadi pusat perhatian sebagai salah satu sumber energi yang dapat
diperbaharui (renewable) (Vries DKK, 2011). Dalam waktu sehari energi matahari yang
tersedia mungkin tidak mencukupi kebutuhan energi secara sempurna, maka dibutuhkan
tempat penyimpan energi sebagai komponen yang tak terpisahkan dari suatu rancang
bangun sistem energi matahari (Reynold dan Perkins, 1983).
Mulai pada awal abad dua puluh kolektor sinar matahari digunakan untuk
memanaskan air. Panjang gelombang radiasi matahari yang diterima di permukaan bumi
berada pada daerah 0,29 sampai 2,5 μm. Emisi radiasi dari matahari ke bumi
menghasilkan intensitas radiasi surya yang hampir tetap di luar atsmosfer bumi. Solar
Constant (konstanta surya) Gsc = 1367 W/m2 (World Radiation Center (WRC))
merupakan energi dari matahari setiap satuan waktu yang diterima suatu satuan area
4
permukaan tegak lurus dengan arah perambatan radiasi pada jarak rata-rata bumi-
matahari di luar atmosfer.
Energi surya adalah energi yang berupa sinar dan panas dari matahari (radiasi energi
dalam bentuk panas dan cahaya yang dipancarkan oleh matahari). Didapat dengan
mengubah energi panas surya melalui perlatan tertentu menjadi sumberdaya dalam
bentuk lain. Energi surya menjadi salah satu sumber pembangkit daya selain air, uap,
angin, biogas, batubara, dan minyak bumi. Energi ini dapat dimanfaatkan dengan
menggunakan serangkaian teknologi seperti pemanas surya, fotovoltaik surya, listrik
panas surya, arsitektur surya, dan fotosintesis buatan. Jika dilihat pada proses penyerapan,
pengubahan, dan penyaluran energi surya, teknologi energi surya secara umum
dikategorikan menjadi dua kelompok, yakni teknologi pemanfaatan aktif dan teknologi
pemanfaatan pasif. Teknologi pemanfaatn aktif dimana sinar matahari diubah secara
langsung menjadi listrik dengan sel fotovoltaik, sedangkan untuk teknologi pemanfaatan
pasif dimana sinar matahari digunakan untuk memperoleh panas. Makalah ini akan
membahas lebih mendalam teknologi pemanfaatan pasif (Energi Surya Termal).
5
Gambar.2 Sistem memasak surya
Sistem kerja solar water heater dibantu oleh yang namanya tabung air panas
atau storage tank yang fungsinya hampir sama seperti sebuah termos. Kemudian
tabung tersebut akan disambungkan dengan sebuah panel konektor yang fungsinya
sebagai tempat untuk memanaskan air. Panel ini terdiri dari plate absorber yang
bertindak seakan sebagai kompor serta pipa-pipa penghubung yang mengalirkan air
panas dari panel konektor ke tabung air. Pipa air dingin yang menuju ke tabung air
mengalir ke panel konektor ini dan terjadilah proses pemanasan air. Panas air yang ada
di dalam tabung bersuhu sekitar 60 derajat Celsius dan karena adanya dorongan air
dingin, maka air panas itu akan mengalir menuju ke kran. Proses ini juga ada
percampuran antara air panas dengan air dingin agar didapat suhu air panas yang aman
dan tidak berlebihan.
6
Berdasarkan cara kerjanya pemanas air menggunakan tenaga surya dibedakan menjadi
dua yakni:
Sistem Pasif
sistem pasif mengandalkan konveksi atau dorongan panas pipa untuk
mengedarkan air atau pemanasan cairan dalam system sehingga sistem pemanas
air tenaga surya pasif menggunakan biaya yang lebih rendah dalam prosesnya
dan tidak memerlukan biaya pemeliharaan tinggi, namun untuk efisiensi juga
dapat dikatakana rendah.
Sistem Aktif
Sistem aktif menggunakan satu atau lebih pompa untuk sirkulasi air dan / atau
cairan pemanasan dalam system. Meskipun sedikit lebih mahal, sistem aktif
menawarkan beberapa keuntungan:
a. Tangki penyimpanan dapat terletak lebih rendah dari kolektor, yang
memungkinkan peningkatan kebebasan
b. Dalam desain sistem dan memungkinkan tangki penyimpanan yang sudah ada
untuk digunakan.
c. Tangki penyimpanan dapat selalu disembunyikan dari pandangan.
d. Tangki penyimpanan dapat ditempatkan dalam ruang terkondisi atau semi-
AC, mengurangi kehilangan panas.
e. Tank drainback dapat digunakan.
f. Efisiensi Unggul
g. Peningkatan kontrol atas system
Sistem pemanas air suya aktif modern memiliki pengendali elektronik yang
menawarkan berbagai-macam fungsi, seperti modifikasi pengaturan yang mengontrol
sistem, interaksi dengan pemanas air listrik atau gas-driven cadangan, perhitungan dan
pengurangan energi yang disimpan oleh SWH sebuah sistem, fungsi keselamatan, akses
remote, dan berbagai display informatif, seperti pembacaan suhu.
7
Gambar.5 Sistem Aktif
Gambar.4 Sistem Pasif
8
diterapkan pada sisi yang menghadap matahari dari rakitan penyerap untuk
meningkatkan penyerapan energi matahari. Lapisan penyerap umum adalah cat
enamel hitam.Dalam desain kolektor surya berkinerja lebih tinggi, penutup transparan
adalah kaca soda-kapur setelah mengurangi kandungan oksida besi sama seperti
untuk panel surya fotovoltaik. Kaca juga dapat memiliki pola penetapan dan satu atau
dua lapisan anti-reflektif untuk lebih meningkatkan transparansi .Lapisan penyerap
biasanya merupakan lapisan selektif, di mana selektif berarti memiliki sifat optik
khusus untuk menggabungkan penyerapan tinggi pada bagian
yang terlihat dari spektrum elektromagnetik yang digabungkan dengan
rendahnya pancaran dalam inframerah. Ini menciptakan permukaan selektif , yang
mengurangi emisi energi benda hitam dari penyerap dan meningkatkan kinerja.
9
mengalir masuk dan keluar setiap tabung atau berada dalam kontak dengan pipa
mencapai panas di dalam tabung. Untuk yang terakhir, pipa panas mentransfer panas
ke fluida dalam penukar panas yang disebut "manifold" ditempatkan melintang
sehubungan dengan tabung. Manifolnya dibungkus dengan isolasi(wol kaca) dan
ditutupi oleh pelindung logam atau kotak plastik yang juga digunakan untuk
mendukung pemasangan.
Tabung kaca-logam dievakuasi dibuat dengan lembaran penyerap logam datar
atau melengkung sama dengan pelat datar. Lembaran-lembaran ini disambungkan
ke pipa atau pipa panas untuk membuat "sirip" dan ditempatkan di dalam tabung gelas
borosilikat tunggal. Lapisan anti-reflektif dapat disimpan pada permukaan bagian
dalam dan outers dari tabung tersebut untuk meningkatkan transparansi . Lapisan
selektif dan anti-reflektif (permukaan tabung bagian dalam) tidak akan terdegradasi
sampai vakum hilang. Namun diperlukan segel logam kaca ketat vakum tinggi di satu
atau kedua sisi setiap tabung yang dievakuasi. Segel ini didaur ulang antara suhu
sekitar dan suhu fluida setiap hari dari operasi pengumpul dan dapat menyebabkan
kegagalan pada waktunya.
Gelas-gelas tabung dievakuasi dibuat dengan dua tabung gelas
borosilikat menyatu bersama di satu atau kedua ujungnya (mirip botol vakum atau
labu dewar). Sirip penyerap ditempatkan di dalam ban dalam pada tekanan
atmosfer . Kaca-tabung gelas memiliki segel yang sangat andal, tetapi dua lapisan
kaca mengurangi jumlah sinar matahari yang mencapai penyerap. Lapisan selektif
dapat diendapkan pada tabung borosilikat bagian dalam (sisi vakum tinggi) untuk
menghindari hal ini, tetapi panas kemudian harus mengalir melalui ketebalan kaca
tabung dalam konduksi yang buruk. Selain itu, uap air dapat memasuki area yang tidak
dievakuasi di dalam ban dalam dan menyebabkan korosi penyerap khususnya ketika
terbuat dari bahan yang berbeda ( korosi galvanik ).
Bentuk umum kolektor pelat tabung :
1. Parabolic Through
Terdiri dari reflektor parabola linier yang cahaya terkonsentrasi ke
penerima/receiver diposisikan sepanjang garis fokus reflektor itu.
Penerima/receiver adalah tabung diposisikan tepat di atas tengah cermin
10
parabola dan diisi dengan fluida kerja. Reflektor mengikuti matahari selama
siang hari dengan melacak sepanjang sumbu tunggal. Bersamaan dengan itu,
fluida kerja (misalnya molten-salt) menjadi dipanaskan hingga 150-350°C
kemudian mengalir melalui receiver dan kemudian digunakan sebagai sumber
panas untuk system pembangkit listrik.
Kelebihan :
2. Dish Strilling
Terdiri dari sebuah reflektor parabola yang berdiri sendiri yang mengkonsentrasikan
cahaya ke receiver/penerima diposisikan pada titik fokus reflektor itu. Reflektor
mengikuti Matahari sepanjang dua sumbu. Fluida kerja di receiver/penerima dipanaskan
hingga 250 °C dan kemudian digunakan oleh mesin Stirling untuk menghasilkan listrik.
Tipe ini memiliki efisiensi tertinggi.
11
Gambar.8 Dish Strilling
3. Fresnel reflector
Terdiri dari sebuah reflector tipis,strip cermin datar untuk mengkonsentrasikan
sinar matahari ke tabung melalui fluida kerja yang dipompa. Adapun kelebihan tipe ini
adalah :
Permukaan lebih reflektif dibanding reflektor parabola, untuk menangkap lebih
banyak sinar matahari yang tersedia.
Lebih murah daripada reflektor parabola.
Fresnel reflektor dapat digunakan dalam berbagai ukuran.
12
penerima/receiver berisi fluida kerja, yang dapat berupa air laut. Fluida kerja di
receiver/penerima dipanaskan hingga 500°C dan kemudian digunakan sebagai sumber
panas untuk pembangkit listrik atau energi sistem penyimpanan. Pengembangan Power-
tower kurang maju dibanding dengan parabolic trough , tetapi mereka menawarkan
efisiensi yang lebih tinggi dan lebih baik kemampuan penyimpanan energi.
Shell and Tube adalah jenis umum dari alat penukar panas, biasanya digunakan
dalam kondisi tekanan relatif tinggi, yang terdiri dari sebuah selongsong yang
didalamnya disusun suatu anulus dengan rangkaian tertentu (untuk mendapatkan luas
permukaan yang optimal). Fluida mengalir di selongsong maupun di anulus sehingga
terjadi perpindahan panas antar fluida dengan dinding anulus sebagai perantara.
Beberapa jenis rangkaian anulus misalnya; triangular, segiempat, dll.
13
Gambar.11 Heat Exchanger
14
2.4 POTENSI ENERGI SURYA TERMAL DI INDONESIA
Pemanfaatan energi surya termal sangat dipengaruhi oleh jumlah radiasi yang
diterima dari matahari. Jumlah radiasi yang diterima biasa disebut dengan DNI (Direct
Normal Irradiation). DNI adalah jumlah solar radiasi yang diterima oleh suatu
permukaan yang terletak tegak lurus dengan sudut datangnya sinar matahari. Sudut
optimal penerima DNI oleh suatu lensa dapat diukur oleh pyrheliometer. Berdasarkan
penelitian Jacobson,dkk angka DNI yang dpat diterima oleh Colector Solar Panel (CSP)
di Indonesia tidak terlalu tinggi. Oleh karena itu, teknologi ini tidak dapat menghasilkan
energi listrik secara optimal jika diterapkan di Indonesia. Didukung oleh biaya
pembuatan dan perawatan CSP juga cukup tinggi (Khan & Arsalan, 2016). Beberapa
negara dengan DNI tertinggi di dunia yang dapat memanfaatkan potensi energy ini
adalah :
Africa ±13 jt km2
Australia ± 6 jt km2
Bagian tengah amerika selatan ± 1.2 jt km2
China± 1.2 jt km2
USA± 1 jt km2
Mexico ± 0.37 jt km2
India ± 0.11 jt km2
EU ± 0.02 jt km2
15
2.5 KENDALA PEMANFAATAN ENERGI SURYA TERMAL DI INDONESIA
Kendala pemanfaatan sumber energi surya termal di Indonesia :
Letak geografis indonesia yang berdampak pada sinar matahari rata-rata Indonesia
yang hanya menjangkau kinerja collector suhu low-medium. Dimana collector tipe ini
hanya menghasilkan panas.
Pengembangan teknologi penyimpanan/Storage yang belum optimal untuk
penyimpanan panas.
Dengan kondisi yang ada, pemanfaatan sumber energi surya lebih diarahakan pada
pemanfaatan teknologi sel surya atau sel photovoltaic dibanding teknologi termal.
16
BAB III
UPDATE TEKNOLOGI
Berdasarkan teori Holland (1965) menunjukkan bahwa jarak antara kaca penutup dan
plate absorbsi adalah faktor penting dalam design collector surya. Kehilangan panas biasanya
terjadi secara konveksi alami dari plate menuju kaca penutup, dimana secara teoritis
diprediksi memiliki hubungan empiris. Hubungan empiris tersebut terus diteliti dalam
beberapa dekade, beberapa diantaranya adalah:
17
Nahar and Garg (1980) meninjau kembali hubungan empiris antara plate absorbs dan
kaca penutup FPC. Berdasarkan penelitian ditemukan bahwa nilai optimum jarak antara
plate absorbs dan kaca penutup adalah sekitar 50 mm. jika jarak diperbesar maka dapat
menyebabkan “bayangan” pada plate absorsi sehingga jumlah sinar yang dapat
diabsorbsi berkurang.
Pemodelan numeric untuk konveksi juga dikembangkan kembali oleh koulibaly,dkk
(2015), berdasarkan penelitian yang dilakukan terhadap konveksi bebas yang terjadi
pada FPC dengan jarak yang divariasikan 25,30,40,dan 50 mm diperoleh nilai optimum
pada jarak 50 mm.
Pengaruh panjangnya FPC terhadap kehilangan panas juga dianalisa oleh beberapa
peneliti, diantaranya koulibaly,dkk (2015) dan Goncalves,dkk (2016) yang
menyimpulakan bahwa penambahan panjang FPC meningkatkan koefisien konveksi
perpindahan panas, yang berdampak pada semakin banyaknya kehilangan panas yang
terjadi dari collector ke lingkungan. Hal ini disebabkan panas yang dihasilkan pada
setiap titik sepanjang FPC berbeda. Sehingga, disimpulkan bahwa kehilangan panas
yang disebabkan oleh panjang FPC lebih signifikan dibanding dengan kehilangan
panas oleh jarak plate absorbsi-kaca penutup.
Terhadap kesimpulan yang diperoleh dalam penelitian mengenai efisiensi FPC, Hirasawa
melakukan pengembangan dan menemukan cara lain untuk mengurangi koefisien konveksi
perpindahan panas disepanjang FPC guna meningkatkan efisiensi ialah dengan menggunakan
Transparant Insulation Material (TIM). Adapun TIM yang digunakan berbahan layer nyilon
berdiameter 0,05 mm dengan jarak 2 mm per bagian. Pada penelitian diamati kehilangan
panas konveksi yang terjadi sebesar 7% pada temperature absorber 100 oC. Demikian
penelitian terus dikembangkan baik dalam hal pemilihan material TIM maupun jarak antar
TIM disepanjang FPC.
18
Gambar.13 Ilustrasi Konveksi Internal FPC tanpa dan menggunakan
Barrier/TIM
Rafael,dkk(2019) turut andil dalam penelitian pengembangan optimasi FPC
menggunakan TIM melalui evaluasi koefisien kehilangan panas dan effisiensi thermal ketika
ditambahkan TIM/ Barrier secara tegak lurus. Penelitian menggunakan instrument yang sama
untuk setiap FPC. Instrument terdiri dari sensor, control,dan monitor untuk setiap FPC.
Barrier
19
Sebanyak FPC akan diuji pada saat yang sama, lingkungan yang sama, dan jumlah
serta jenis fluida yang sama. Ke 4 FPC divariasikan berdasarkan jumlah sekat yang
digunakan. 1,2,3,dan 4 sekat. Effiesiensi thermal akan dibandingkan untuk setiap keadaan
guna mencari kondisi terbaik.
Radiasi matahari diserap oleh absorber pelat hitam, kemudian panas yang dihasilkan
ditransfer ke fluida kerja yang mengalir dalam pipa-pipa dibawah absorber. Pemakaian
absorber pelat hitam tersebut dimaksudkan untuk mengisolasi energi radiasi surya yang sudah
mengenai absorber dengan maksimal ditransfer ke fluida kerja. Keseimbangan energi panas
pada kolektor pelat datar pada persamaan:
Dimana:
𝐴𝑐 = Luas permukaan kolektor ( m2)
𝑈𝐿 = Koefisien kehilangan panas kolektor (W/m2.K)
𝑇𝑝𝑚 =Temperatur Permukaan pelat / Temperatur absorber (K)
𝑇𝑎 = Temperatur udara lingkungan/ Temperatur ambient (K)
S = Energi Radiasi Matahari (W/m2)
τα = Koefisien transmisi-absorber
(Duffie, 2006).
20
Temperature utama dari pelat penyerap (Tpm) sulit untuk menghitung atau mengukur
nilainya. Oleh kerena itu fungsi desain kolektor saat radiasi memasuki kondisi fluida yang
bertujuan untuk menghubungkan kinerja dari kolektor ke temperatur fluida yang tidak
diketahui. Berikut dua faktor efisiensi kolektor F’ & FR yang diperkenalkan oleh Hottel-
Whiller-Bliss untuk memungkinkan penggunaan utama atau temperatur fluida masukan yang
terlihat pada persamaan:
Dimana:
𝐹′ = Faktor efisiensi kolektor
𝐹𝑅 = Faktor removel kolektor panas
𝑇𝑚 = Temperatur rata-rata fluida dalam kolektor (K)
R
Efisiensi Kolektor
Efisiensi dari kolektor dapat didefinisikan sebagai perbandingan antara panas yang berguna
dari kolektor dengan intensitas dari radiasi surya pada persamaan:
Dimana;
𝜂 = Efisiensi Kolektor (%)
𝑞𝑢 = Nilai kalor (Qalor utilty) (J)
𝐴𝑐 R = Luas Permukaan Kolektor (m2)
S = Itensitas Radiasi (Watt/m2)
ṁ = Laju Aliran fluida (kg/det)
21
Cp = Panas spesifik (J/kg K)
𝑇𝑚 R = Temperatur rata-rata fluida dalam kolektor (K)
𝑇𝑖 = Temperatur masuk fluida (K)
𝐹′ = Faktor efisiensi kolektor
𝐹𝑅 R = Faktor penghapusan kolektor panas
Τα = Koefisien transmisi-absorber
Kerugian kalor dari absorber terjadi pada bagian atas, samping dan bawah absorber, sehingga :
Dimana:
𝑈𝐿 = koefisien kerugian kalor total;
𝑈𝑡 = koefisien kerugian kalor bagian atas;
𝑈𝑏 = koefisien kerugian kalor bagian bawah;
𝑈𝑒 = koefisien kerugian kalor bagian samping
22
Dimana dengan mempergunakan persamaan Empiric S.A. Klein yang telah dimodifikasi oleh
Agarwal dan Larson, maka kerugian kalor bagian atas dapat dicari menggunakan persamaan:
Dengan :
ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 5.7 + 3.8v (W/m2.K)
ƒ = (1 – 0.04 ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 0.0005 ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑2 ) (1 + 0.091 N)
C = 250 (1 – 0.0044(β – 90o))
Keterangan :
v = Kecepatan angin diatas permukaan cover paling atas (m/s)
N = Jumlah penutup
𝜀𝑐 = Emisivitas cover
𝜀𝑝 = Emisivitas pelat absorber
ζ = Konstanta Stefan Boltzman (5.67x10−8 W /m2 .K4)
𝑇𝑝 = Temperatur pelat absorber (K)
𝑇𝑎 = Temperatur lingkungan (K)
23
Dimana:
𝑘 = konduktivitas termal insulator bagian bawah; 𝐿 = tebal insulator.
Dimana:
UA = k/L x keliling kolektor x ketebalan kolektor.
24
Melalui hasil yang diperoleh oleh Rafael,dkk (2019) disimpulkan bahwa :
Penambahan jumlah sekat tidak mempengaruhi penyerapan radiasi matahari ke
collector,namun hanya mengurangi kehilangan panas ke lingkungan pada beberapa
keadaan.
Slope kurva FPC merujuk pada parameter koefisien panas yang hilang, melalui
efisiensi yang ditunjukkan grafik. Pada 1 TIM diperoleh efisiensi 76,1%, 2 TIM
diperoleh efisiensi 76,4%, 3 TIM diperoleh efisiensi 76,9%, dan 4 TIM diperoleh
efisiensi 76,1%.
Efisiensi paling optimum ditunjukan oleh 3 TIM,sehingga dapat dikorelasikan bahwa
Koefisien panas yang hilang paling rendah diperoleh 3 TIM,bukan 4 TIM. Jumlah
sekat tidak secara pasti merujuk pada tingkatan efisiensi. Sehingga diperlukan
penelitian lebih lanjut tentang jarak optimum antar sekat dalam FPC agar dapat
mendesain panjang FPC dengan jumlah sekat yang harus digunakan.
25
BAB IV
Energi surya disebut-sebut oleh banyak orang sebagai sumber energi utama di masa
depan, banyak sekali keunggulan yang didapatkan dari sumber energi surya terutama energi
surya termal ini diantaranya energi surya merupakan sumber energi terbarukan yang tidak
dapat habis, tidak seperti bahan bakar fosil yang akhirnya akan habis. Setelah bahan bakar
fosil habis, dunia akan memerlukan alternatif sumber energi yang baik, dan energi surya jelas
terlihat sebagai salah satu alternatif terbaik. Energi surya termal merupakan sumber energi
yang ramah lingkungan karena tidak memancarkan emisi karbon berbahaya yang
berkontribusi terhadap perubahan iklim seperti pada bahan bakar fosil. Setiap watt energi
yang dihasilkan dari matahari berarti kita telah mengurangi pemakaian bahan bakar fosil, dan
dengan demikian kita benar-benar telah mengurangi dampak perubahan iklim. Penelitian
terbaru melaporkan bahwa rata-rata sistem rumah surya mampu mengurangi 18 ton emisi gas
rumah kaca di lingkungan setiap tahunnya. Energi surya juga tidak memancarkan oksida
nitrogen atau sulfur dioksida yang berarti tidak menyebabkan hujan asam atau kabut asap.
Dan keuntungan utama dari jenis pembangkit listrik energi surya termal ini adalah bagaimana
ia dapat menyimpan tenaga hingga delapan jam penyimpanan energi panas garam cair setelah
matahari terbenam, yang memungkinkan penggunaan daya saat dibutuhkan.
Matahari merupakan sumber energi yang benar-benar bebas untuk digunakan oleh
setiap orang. Tidak ada yang memiliki Matahari, jadi setelah Anda menutupi biaya investasi
awal, pemakaian energi selanjutnya dapat dikatakan gratis. Lebih banyak energi matahari
yang kita gunakan maka semakin sedikit kita bergantung pada bahan bakar fosil. Ini berarti
akan meningkatkan ketahanan dan keamanan energi, karena akan mengurangi kebutuhan
impor minyak dari pihak asing. Dalam jangka panjang energi surya akan menghemat
pengeluaran uang untuk energi. Biaya awalnya memang cukup signifikan, namun setelah
beberapa waktu Anda akan memiliki akses ke energi yang benar-benar gratis, dan jika sistem
rumah tenaga surya menghasilkan energi yang lebih dari yang Anda butuhkan, di beberapa
negara perusahaan listrik dapat membelinya dari Anda, yang berarti ada potensi keuntungan
ekstra terlibat. Ada juga banyak negara yang menawarkan insentif keuangan untuk
menggunakan energi surya.
26
Namun, untuk di indonesia sendiri sumber energi surya yang lebih banyak digunakan
adalah energi surya dengan sistem photovoltaik. Pemanfaatan energi surya termal di
Indonesia masih dilakukan secara tradisional. Para petani dan nelayan di Indonesia
memanfaatkan energi surya untuk mengeringkan hasil pertanian dan perikanan secara
langsung. Sistem energi surya termal di Indonesia belum dikembangkan menjadi pembangkit
listrik seperti sistem photovoltaik dikarenakan kolektor terkonsentrasi yang dipakai untuk
mengumpulkan panas pada sistem ini membutuhkan radiasi matahari yang sangat tinggi untuk
bisa memanaskan garam cair agar bisa menjadi uap yang memutar turbin untuk menghasilkan
listrik. Suhu yang harus dicapai adalah sekitar 300-5000C, sehingga masih sangat susah di
lakukan di Indonesia dibandingkan dengan sistem photovoltaik yang tidak begitu
membutuhkan suhu panas yang tinggi untuk menghasilkan listrik. Namun, berdasarkan
perhitungan biaya sistem surya termal jauh lebih ekonomis dibandingkan sistem photovoltaik
sehingga harapannya semoga energi dengan sistem surya termal ini dapat segera
direalisasikan di Indonesia.
27
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Boedoyo, Mohamad Sidik. “Potensi Dan Peranan PLTS Sebagai Energi Alternatif Masa
Depan Di Indonesia.” Jurnal Sains Dan Teknologi Indonesia 14, no. 2 (2012): 146–52.
Garcia, Rafael Paiva, Santiago del Rio Oliveira, and Vicente Luiz Scalon. “Thermal
Efficiency Experimental Evaluation of Solar Flat Plate Collectors When Introducing
Convective Barriers.” Solar Energy 182, no. November 2018 (2019): 278–85.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.02.048.
Irawan, Riski. “Pembuatan Dan Pengujian Kolektor Surya Pelat Datar ( Flat-Plate Collectors )
Kondisi Steady Berdasarkan Standar En 12975” 12975 (2016): 61.
Listrik, Pembangkit, Tenaga Surya, Skala Rumah, Tangga Urban, and Nyoman S Kumara.
“Dan Ketersediaannya Di Indonesia” 9, no. 1 (2010).
“Pembuatan Kolektor Pelat Datar Sebagai Pemanas Air Energi Surya Dengan Jumlah Penutup
Satu Lapis Dan Dua Lapis,” n.d., 1–7.
Rahardjo, Irawan, and Ira Fitriana. “Analisis Potensi Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya Di
Indonesia.” Strategi Penyediaan Listrik Nasional Dalam Rangka Mengantisipasi
Pemanfaatan PLTU Batubara Skala Kecil, PLTN, Dan Energi Terbarukan, P3TKKE,
BPPT, Januari, 2005, 43–52.
http://www.geocities.ws/markal_bppt/publish/pltkcl/plrahard.pdf.
Syamsu, Danny, and Kristian Selleng. “Efektifitas Kolektor Energi Surya Pada Konfigurasi
Paralel-,” 2000, 10–16.
Yandri, Valdi Rizki. “Prospek Pengembangan Energi Surya Untuk Kebutuhan Listrik Di
Indonesia.” Jurnal Ilmu Fisika | Universitas Andalas 4, no. 1 (2012): 14–19.
https://doi.org/10.25077/jif.4.1.14-19.2012.
28
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Solar Energy 182 (2019) 278–285
Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The increase of renewable sources in power generation is a global concern. Research and development of re-
Solar flat plate collector newable energy devices use are leading to changes in the global energy mix. In this scenario, solar energy has a
Transparent insulation great potential for new applications. Thus, this study analyzes possible improvements in the thermal efficiency of
Free convection in cavities solar flat plate collectors commonly used in domestic water heating systems. The influence of the inclusion of
Solar energy thermal efficiency
convective barriers inside the air cavity located between the absorber plate and the glass cover is evaluated
based on the increase of the thermal efficiency in the solar collector. The use of these barriers limits the space
between the absorber plate and the glass cover, which may reduce heat losses in some conditions. The ex-
perimental analysis was performed using four solar collectors with one to four convective barriers. The results
obtained were compared with a reference solar collector, without any barrier. An instrumented test bench was
built to measure the flat plate solar collector thermal efficiency. The results showed that there was no significant
variation in solar radiation absorption since the maximum thermal efficiency remains unchanged. However, the
barriers inclusion implies in changes in heat loss. The experimental data shown that changes in heat loss are
−2,2%, −5,3% and 2,9% for two, three and four barriers, respectively. In this way, the convection barriers are
able to reduce the heat loss in two cases, but increase the heat loss in one case. This result indicates that there is
an optimal number of convective barriers for each solar collector design.
1. Introduction Giovannetti et al. (2014), where the authors improve the transparency
of the glass for solar collector use. Another important study was pro-
Solar energy is now an important source of renewable energy pre- posed by Nikolić and Lukić (2015), verifying the use of reflection sys-
sent in the world energy mix. Several countries have developed tech- tems to improve energy availability.
nologies for direct electricity generation by solar energy, but the use as There is a large number of other studies considering the increase of
a heat source in domestic hot water or air systems still may be better the thermal efficiency by the reduction the heat losses from the col-
exploited. Several new applications of solar energy have been ap- lector top. One of the main studies, developed by Hollands (1965),
pearing and intensifying their use, as shown by works developed by shows that the space between the cover and absorption plate is critical
Esen (2004), Esen et al. (2017). The technology involved in flat plate factor in the design of solar collectors. The losses by natural convection
solar collectors is well established and widely applied domestic heating from the absorption plate to the cover were theoretically predicted by
devices. In commercial facilities, such as in hotels and larger plants, empirical correlations, as the classic one developed by Hollands (1965).
there may be a limitation related to the energy demand and the Other authors have studied this phenomena, Nahar and Garg (1980)
available roof space for the installation of solar collectors. In this case, a presents a review of empirical correlations obtained by several authors.
possible solution is to enhance the efficiency of the solar collectors. Considering all the presented studies, it was found that an optimum
There are several ways to enhance the thermal efficiency of solar value for the spacing of cover-absorber plate is around 50 mm. Ac-
flat plate collectors. For instance, increasing the incident radiation cording to Nahar and Garg (1980), the increment in this spacing in-
absorptivity and the improving the cover glass transparency. Reducing creases the shading in the absorption plate, decreasing the absorbed
the thermal losses to the environment is another way. There are studies energy. A numerical modeling for the convection on this cavity was also
testing all these cases. One that can be highlight is given in reference developed by Koulibaly et al. (2015), considering free convection of air
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rafaelgarcia@ifsp.edu.br (R.P. Garcia), santiago.oliveira@unesp.br (S.d.R. Oliveira), vicente.scalon@unesp.br (V.L. Scalon).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.02.048
Received 23 November 2018; Received in revised form 13 February 2019; Accepted 20 February 2019
0038-092X/ © 2019 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.P. Garcia, et al. Solar Energy 182 (2019) 278–285
in a flat solar collector. The distances analyzed were 25, 30, 40 and structured barrier made of nylon screens, 0.05 mm in diameter and
50 mm and the minimum heat transfer was verified with a 50 mm spaced 2 mm apart. They observed a net reduction of the natural con-
spacing. vection heat loss of 7% to an absorber surface temperature of 100 °C.
The influence of the solar collector length in the heat losses was The authors Baetens et al. (2011) and Cuce et al. (2014) have reviewed
analyzed in some studies developed by Koulibaly et al. (2015) and the state of the art airgel materials that are used as TIMs. The authors
Goncalves et al. (2016). The results show that increasing the length of have identified that the disadvantage of airgel materials is linked to
the solar collector causes the increase of the convective heat transfer their cost. However, the growth of its utility and the increase of its
coefficient and, consequently, major heat loss from the solar collector to production will tend to decrease the price and consequently its viabi-
the environment. Both studies also conclude that the heat losses due to lity.
the increase of length are more significant than the losses due to the Other evaluation of solar collectors with TIMs were performed by
spacing cover-absorber plate. Wong and Eames (2015). The authors presented the development of
The internal convection can be reduced changing the absorption mathematical models to calculate its optical performance. This mod-
plates from flat to an undulating surface. Some tests for this analysis can eling system is based on a 6 mm outer glass plate, a poly-
be seen on Gao et al. (2000) and Varol and Oztop (2008). Both studies methylmethacrylate (PMMA) capillary cell of 22 mm wide and an inner
use numerical analysis to investigate the internal convective heat glass plate of 8 mm. Kessentini et al. (2014) and Marcus (1983) per-
transfer coefficient of flat solar air heater changing geometric and formed a numerical evaluation of the heat transfer in another TIM
physical parameters of the solar collector with a corrugated absorber. schemes. In both studies, Kessentini et al. (2014) and Wong and Eames
Varol and Oztop (2008) also checked the variation of the Nusselt (2015), there was a decrease in the convective heat transfer coefficient
number as a function of the Rayleigh number. They found that the with the use of TIMs in a solar collector. Considering other possibilities,
undulating absorbers have higher Nusselt values for water flow when Riffel et al. (2009) compare the use of TIMs with a film of fluorescent
compared to the values obtained by the flat absorbers. polymer (Teflon) and a double layer of glass on the cover of a solar
Another way of reducing heat losses on top of flat plate solar col- collector. The results show the best efficiency of the use of TIMs com-
lectors is using the TIM (Transparent Insulation Materials). Wong et al. pared to Teflon and a double layer of glass.
(2007), Cadafalch and Cònsul (2014), Sun et al. (2018) directed their In this scenario, many authors note that the use of TIMs for the
studies into the main types of TIMs and their characteristics in terms of optimization of solar collectors must consider many parameters such as
thermal and optical behavior, as well as the benefits that can be ob- the choice of material, dimensions, and proportions. This study is very
tained through their application. Wong et al. (2007) analyzed the important because there is an ideal TIM for each situation as shown by
payback time of these applications in the most diverse geometries. The Platzer (1992). Considering its implementation, Edwards et al. (1976) e
authors highlighted the relevance of using transparent insulation sys- Hollands and Iynkaran (1985) show that the presence of small gaps in
tems in solar collectors in order to increase their efficiency, with the assembly does not affect its effectiveness. Many of the these studies
highlights for colder regions. Peuportier and Michel (1995) carried out evaluate the economic and technical optimization of the flat solar col-
a similar experimental study with TIM application in passive heating lector using transparent insulation.
systems in thrombus walls and verified efficiency increases of the order Most of these studies cover structured insulators with different ar-
of 25%. Jia et al. (2018) and Sun et al. (2018) focused on the analysis of chitectures. The honeycomb structure is one of the most common. Thus,
the use of TIMs in building windows, but their results can be used to this work intends to evaluate the influence of the inclusion of horizontal
evaluate and analyze the benefit of applying TIMs to solar collectors. barriers as a form of transparent isolation. The use of this type of as-
Another possible use of this type of insulation is an application in hy- sembly, shown in Fig. 1, can be used with different spacing between the
brid collectors (PVT), where Hussain et al. (2015) demonstrated that it barriers. Garcia et al. (2013) showed, through numerical simulation,
is possible to obtain an expressive increase in the thermal efficiency that there is the formation of a zone of low speed of recirculation in
besides the improvement in the electrical efficiency of the system. certain situations. The formation of this region reduces the coefficient
Osorio et al. (2017) also successfully applied transparent insulation of heat transfer between the plate and the glass, reducing the intensity
systems in parabolic solar concentrators. The application of this type of of the natural convection in that region. In this way, this work intends
insulation in high-temperature systems demands greater care with its to evaluate experimentally the impact of the presence of a defined
structural integrity Rommel and Wagner (1992) showed systems made number of barriers in the efficiency curve of modified solar collectors.
of glass capillary tubes that allowed the application in a stagnation In this context, this study intends to evaluate the heat loss coeffi-
temperature of 261 °C. Wong et al. (2007) divided TIM schemes into cient and thermal efficiency of a flat solar collector when adding per-
four groups classified into barriers parallel to the absorber plate, bar- pendicular barriers. The analysis was performed on a instrumented test
riers perpendicular to the absorber plate, structured barriers and airgel bench. The used instrumentation was identical for all solar collectors.
barriers. Considering this classification, Hirasawa et al. (2013) used a Five commercial solar collectors were tested at the same time to ensure
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several sensors and can correct some parameters during the test run.
The values read by the sensors are also stored on each programming
cycle on the SD memory-card. For these functions, an open platform
control board known as Arduino Mega was used. This board has a
processing capacity and the number of analog and digital ports that was
compatible with the needs of used sensors.
Temperature measurements were very sensitive in calculating the
operating parameters of the solar collector and its thermal efficiency. In
the case of the proposed test, temperatures were measured by a digital
temperature sensor DS18B20. The major advantage of this kind of
sensor is that it has multi-signal multiplexing capability. This sensor has
Fig. 1. Illustrative lateral view of the internal convection flow of the solar a 64-bit serial code that allows multiple sensors to use the same digital
collector without barrier (A) and with Barrier (B).
port. Another important aspect is the fact that this sensor has a mea-
surement uncertainty of 0.5 °C for a range between −10 °C and 85 °C.
the same environmental conditions with the same water flow control. This type of sensor was used in all experiment temperature measure-
The analysis was based on a baseline line solar collector in its original ments including inlet and outlet temperatures of the solar collector,
configuration. Two to four barriers equally spaced were added to the environmental parameters and thermal radiation. For measuring en-
other collectors. Fig. 2 shows an overview of the test stand. The thermal vironmental conditions of temperature and humidity, a solar protection
efficiency of each one is compared to identifying the best conditions. system was constructed using an insulated PVC pipe with forced air
circulation by suction using a cooler. A temperature sensor of type
2. Methodology DS18B20 and a humidity meter with sensor type DHT11 were also
positioned inside the apparatus. In addition to these devices, a shell
In order to evaluate the thermal efficiency of the solar collectors, anemometer and a resistive wind direction sensor were also used to
tests were performed using the procedures described in the Brazilian record environmental conditions during the test.
Standard Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (2009). For this A pyranometer for measurement of thermal radiation was also as-
performance analysis, test benches were constructed with sensors, sembled from previous studies developed in the laboratory. Its principle
controllers, and monitors for each solar collector. All tests were per- operation is based on the correlation of the difference of two tem-
formed using the same model of the solar collector. perature sensors DS18B20 and the intensity of the solar radiation. The
According to the principles demonstrated by different references, sensors were positioned to measure the temperature of a small black
such as Duffie and Beckman (2013) and Kalogirou (2013), the princi- aluminum plate exposed to the sun and the environmental temperature
ples of the standard thermal efficiency test procedure were defined. on pyranometer enclosure. A detailed description of the development
During the experimental tests it is necessary the measurements of for this scheme based on temperature measurements using thermo-
the water flow, inlet and outlet water temperatures, incident solar ra- couples can be seen in Avallone et al. (2018).
diation and the exposed area of the solar collector. Based on the values A water pump was used to perform forced circulation in the solar
obtained in these tests, it was possible to determine the thermal effi- collector circuit. In this system, a sensor YF-S201 was used for flow
ciency of the solar collector under different situations. The test bench measurements. Each flow sensor YF-S201 was previous calibrated and
was built to test up to five simultaneous solar collectors. The tests were positioned according to the number 6 in Fig. 3. During the tests, it was
conducted at a location without buildings, towers, posts or other ele- strongly recommendable that water flow in each solar collector does
ments that could shade the solar collector during the test period. not changes significantly. The water flow is a fundamental parameter in
However, the tests were performed outdoors and they are subject to the calculation of the thermal efficiency of a solar collector. According
variations in solar radiation, wind speed and direction. to the literature, the fluid flow rate should be adjusted to ṁ = 0.02 [kg/
(s m)] for m2 of solar collector opening area, or V̇ = 1.2 [L/(min m)],
2.1. Experimental apparatus according to Standard Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas
(2009). For controlling the flow rate, a device was developed coupling a
The test bench was composed of several components, including in- pressure valve to a stepper motor, as shown in Fig. 3. This device was
strumentation and support. The support for the solar collector has been also controlled by Arduino Mega and adjustments on the water flow
constructed to allow its fixation with variable angle and the necessary could be done in real time. The values of all measurements obtained
hydraulic installation. The slope angle of the solar collector used in the were stored in a SD memory-card in defined time intervals. The re-
tests was based on a optimal condition for winter energy capture. In this cording of these values was performed by the same controller board
case, for the latitude of the city of Bauru-SP (Φ = −22.3°), the optimal Arduino Mega through a suitable shield. These results were later
angle of inclination is β = 32.3°. For simplicity, the angle β = 35° was
used in this assembly. In addition to the angle of inclination, the solar
collectors were oriented northwards, as indicated for southern hemi-
sphere regions Kalogirou (2013).
For the hydraulic connections, polyethylene tubes with 1 in dia-
meter were used at inlet and outlet connections of the solar collector.
Valves and connections for fixing the water pump, sensors and con-
trollers were also included. Fig. 3 shown the hydraulic scheme of
connections and the identification of all components and sensors in the
test bench.
The solar collector used in the tests was a commercial model man-
ufactured by a local company. This solar collector is typical for re-
sidential applications and conforms to the standard testing procedures,
as determined by local regulations. The thermal efficiency curve was
obtained by a standardization test using a thermal simulator and was
available to whom it may concern. In these tests, a controller handles Fig. 2. Solar collectors test bench overview.
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η=
Q̇
=
ṁ cp (Tb, o − Tb, i ) • the points that had flow values below 2.3 L/(min m) and above
S G Acol (1) 2.5 L/(min m) were discarded;
• only those points where the measured solar radiation intensity was
This equation is usually expanded by using an energy balance on the greater than 100 W/m2 and less than 1300 W/m2 were maintained.
absorber heat surface in the form:
After these previous filters, a Chauvenet statistical analysis Holman
FR
η= [(τα ) − Ul ΔT ] (2011) was also applied. So, this statistical analysis of the experimental
G (2)
data erased some data points based on the standard deviation for the
where the overall heat loss coefficient can be represented by a linear fitting curve. After all these statistical analyzes, the fitting coefficients
correlation with temperature Ul = a1 + a2 ΔT . are determined. However, it is very difficult to obtain a correlation
Although the temperature difference (ΔT ), presented in Eq. (2), is between the heat transfer coefficient and the temperature differences in
usually represented in the literature by ΔT = Tb, i − Ta , the Associação an outdoor test. In this case, wind speed variations are usually more
Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (2009) suggests a different definition. significant than changes in temperature differences. Therefore, the
Therefore, due the necessity of a the use of a solar standard curve for value obtained in the standardization tests of c = 2.7 W/(m2 K2) was
this solar collector, the same definition can be used: used as the default value in all cases. Based on these conditions, the
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R.P. Garcia, et al. Solar Energy 182 (2019) 278–285
experimental data were used to determine the values of a and b for each several days to be able to obtain its thermal efficiency curves. The tests
of the solar collectors. were controlled by a system that allows corrections in operational
However, there is a considerable variation of the values of the ap- parameters, as shown in Fig. 5. Based on these tests, the thermal effi-
proximation of a and b from the experimental data for solar collectors in ciency curve for the reference solar collector was obtained as well as the
different positions. Analyzing the phenomena one could observe that: correction parameters for the other ones in the set.
The collectors used in the tests have the same model and their
• the solar collectors are installed in line, which implies in changes in thermal behavior at each bench position is evaluated. The experimental
the of the external convection coefficient with the position as a procedure is similar to other previously developed studies such as Esen.
function of the wind direction and speed; In this work, three solar collectors are also evaluated in the same
• small constructive changes that can lead to deviations in the thermal conditions and, later, the planned modifications are made. This same
efficiency of different solar collectors of the same type; study also highlights the importance of simultaneous tests as a way to
• the instruments used have some systematic errors that change the guarantee the same conditions of solar radiation, ambient air tem-
measurements uniformly. perature and wind speed in the tests, as performed this in work.
After this step, the solar collectors were modified including glass
Considering one way to compensate this effects, this work proposes barriers inside the cavity for new tests. Only the solar collector used as
a systematic correction of the measured values in order to compare the reference was not modified. Because they were commercial solar col-
results of all other solar collectors with the reference solar collector, lectors, it was impossible to remove the glass cover without breaking it.
located at the end of the line. For this correction, it was proposed the So, the top glass was also changed to another one in the modified solar
introduction of adjustment factors C1, C2 and C3 in the experimental collectors. Fig. 6 shows how the whole process was performed. Glasses
data fitting curve to compensate these discrepancies: with 4 mm thickness were used for the barriers and cover.
The modifications allowed the tests of solar collectors with 2, 3 and
η = (a − C3) − b (C1 ΔT / G − C2)
4 barriers. In all cases, the barriers were included in the air-glass space
− c G (C1 ΔT / G − C2 )2 , (5) generating cavities of the same size. After the modifications, each solar
collector was mounted on the test bench in the same position and
where the values of a and b are the same in all solar collectors and
sensors. The tests were performed in the same way previously pre-
obtained from the reference collector previously described. The values
sented. Considering the results, the thermal efficiency evaluation was
of the correction parameters are obtained from the least squares fitting
later corrected with parameters obtained on the original solar collector
method. The parameters are corrected in order to equalize the results
test. So, the new tests allows the evaluation of thermal efficiency curve
for all solar collectors, regardless of their position. These correction
for each solar collector with modifications.
parameters are related to a collector-instrumentation-position set. So,
when the changes were implemented in a particular solar collector,
their position and instrumentation were not changed in order to allow
3. Results
the application of the same correction factors.
Based on the previous methodology, tests were performed on the
2.3. Experimental procedure four solar collectors of the same model. The tests were performed si-
multaneously to ensure the same environmental conditions. The re-
An apparatus composed by a set of original solar collectors (with no ference solar collector remains the same on all tests. The other ones
changes) was used to evaluate the parameters defined for each solar were subsequently modified including 2, 3 and 4 transverse glass bar-
collector under different conditions. A series of tests was done during riers. For the tests, a commercial solar collector model was used on all
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Table 1
Standard values for the commercial solar collector used in tests.
Coefficient a [%] b [W/(m2K)] c [W/(m2K2)]
Table 2
Coefficients for adjustment of different positions in test apparatus.
Coletor C1 C2 C3
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R.P. Garcia, et al. Solar Energy 182 (2019) 278–285
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Energy 104, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.10.006. <http://www.
aligned test bench. The correction procedure coefficients for each
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the modified solar collectors. based on the direct absorption solar colector using OpenFOAM®. In: Procceedings of
• the baseline solar collector corrected data was similar to data ob- the 16th Brazilian Congress of Thermal Sciences and Engineering. ABCM, pp. 8.
https://doi.org/10.26678/ABCM.ENCIT2016.CIT2016-0203. <http://abcm.org.
tained by the standardization tests.
•
br/anais-de-eventos/CIT2016/0203> .
including different numbers of convective barriers did not modify Hirasawa, S., Tsubota, R., Kawanami, T., Shirai, K., 2013. Reduction of heat loss from
the solar collector transparency. Considering all changes, the effi- solar thermal collector by diminishing natural convection with high-porosity porous
medium. Sol. Energy 97, 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.08.035.
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