Dosen Pengampu:
Dr. Dra. Erni Asneli Asbi M.Si
Disusun Oleh:
BAB I .......................................................................................................................... 3
PENDAHULUAN ..................................................................................................... 3
Latar Belakang........................................................................................................ 3
Rumusan Masalah....................................................................................................6
BAB II ........................................................................................................................ 7
BABIV.......................................................................................................................22
PENUTUP ................................................................................................................ 22
Kesimpulan ............................................................................................................ 22
Saran ...................................................................................................................... 22
Anak Jalanan merupakan fenomena yang sudah tidak asing lagi di Indonesia.
Semakin menjamurnya jumlah anak jalanan yang berkeliaran di jalan
mengakibatkan permasalahan yang cukup besar di Indonesia, terutama pada kota-
kota besar seperti Jakarta, Medan, dan Surabaya. Kota Medan sebagai kota
metropolitan juga tidak terlepas dari masalah anak jalanan. Keberadaan anak
dijalanan, merupakan sesuatu yang sangat dilematis. Selain mencari nafkah untuk
mendapakan uang yang membuatnya bertahan hidup, keberadaan anak dijalanan
sering menganggu ketertiban umum dan hak mereka sebagai anak untuk
mendapatkan kasih sayang, pendidikan dan penghidupan yang layak tidak
terpenuhi sehingga dapat merusak kehidupan mereka dimasa depan. Mereka
merupakan kelompok sosial yang sangat rentan dari berbagai tindakan fisik,
emosi, seksual ataupun kekerasan sosial lainnya. Berbagai upaya untuk
menangani keberadaan anak jalanan telah dilakukan pemerintah. Salah satunya
dengan mengeluarkan kebijakan terkait perlindungan dan hak anak.
Berdasarkan Intruksi Presiden No 3 tahun 2010 tentang pembangunan program
yang berkeadilan, ditetapkan sebuah Program Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak (PKSA)
sebagai program prioritas nasional, yang didalamnya termasuk Program
Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak Jalanan (PKS-Anjal) dengan Lembaga Kesejahteraan
Sosial Anak (LKSA) sebagai wadah yang melaksanakan Program Kesejahteraan
Sosial Anak Jalanan.Dalam menangani keberadaan anak jalanan, salah satu
Lembaga Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak dalam hal ini Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat
(LSM), menganggap perlu adanya suatu pelayanan bagi anak jalanan. Banyak
LSM yang melakukan pelayanan terhadap anak jalanan tetapi hasilnya kurang
maksimal. Hal ini dijelaskan oleh Departemen Sosial (2005): Program pembinaan
anak jalanan di LSM-LSM dapat dikatakan belum maksimal karena masih belum
banyak inovasi baru yang dilakukan dan banyak juga program pembinaan yang
dilakukan tidak berkelanjutan yang berdampak banyak anak jalanan kembali
kepekerjaan awal mereka di jalanan dan semakin kompleks permasalahan yang
mereka hadapi. Selain program pembinaan, permasalahan lainnya didalam
pelayanan sosial yang diberikan terletak pada pelayanan yang diberikan masih
sebatas kepada anak jalanan dan belum menyentuh keluarga anak. Tidak hanya itu,
permasalahan umum yang terjadi pada pelayanan sosial adalah minimnya sumber
daya manusia dan minimnya sumber pendanaan. Dengan penjelasan tersebut maka
dibutuhkan penyelesaian yang tepat untuk diberikan kepada anakjalanan. Karena
upaya untuk mewujudkan perlindungan dan kesejahteraan anak dengan memenuhi
hak-haknya telah dirumuskan di dalam UU No. 4 Tahun 1979 tentang
kesejahteraan anak dan UU No. 23 Tahun 2002 tentang perlindungan anak jalanan.
Rumusan Masalah
Berdasarkan latar belakang yang terkait dari presfektif pekerjaan sosial, maka
permasalahan yang di teliti dari peneliti adalah :
1. Apa saja faktor yang menyebabkan munculnya anak jalanan?
2. Apa saja sistem pelayanan pekerjaan sosial terhadap anak jalanan ?
BAB II
KAJIAN TEORI DAN KONSEP
Untuk memahami anak jalanan secara utuh, kita harus mengetahui definisi anak
jalanan. Departemen Sosial RI mendefinisikan anak jalanan adalah anak yang
sebagian besar menghabiskan waktunya untuk mencari nafkah atau berkeliaran di
jalanan atau tempat-tempat umum lainnya. UNICEF memberikan batasan tentang
anak jalanan, yaitu: Street child are those who have abandoned their homes, school
and immediate communities before they are sixteen years of age, and have drifted
into a nomadic street life (anak jalanan merupakan anak-anak berumur dibawah
16 tahun yang sudah melepaskan diri dari keluarga, sekolah dan lingkungan
masyarakat terdekatnya, larut dalam kehidupan yang berpindah-pindah di jalan
raya (H.A Soedijar, 1988: 16). Berdasarkan pengertian di atas maka dapat ditarik
kesimpulan bahwa anak jalanan adalah anak yang berusia 5 18 tahun yang
menghabiskan sebagian besar waktunya untuk mencari nafkah dan atau
berkeliaran di jalanan maupun ditempat umum.
2. Melakukan kegiatan tidak menentu, tidak jelas kegiatannya dan atau berkeliaran
di jalanan atau ditempat umum minimal 4 jam/hari dalam kurun waktu satu bulan
yang lalu, seperti pedagang asongan, pengamen, ojek payung, pengelap mobil,
pembawa belanjaan di pasar dll.
1.Anak-anak yang tidak berhubungan lagi dengan orang tuanya (children of the
street). Mereka tinggal 24 jam di jalanan dan menggunakan semua fasilitas jalanan
sebagai ruang hidupnya. Hubungan dengan keluarga sudah terputus. Kelompok
anak ini disebabkan oleh factor social. psikologis keluarga, mereka mengalami
kekerasan, penolakan, penyiksaan dan perceraian orang tua. Umumnya mereka
tidak mau kembali ke rumah, kehidupan jalanan dan solidaritas sesama temannya
telah menjadi ikatan mereka.
2. Anak-anak yang berhubungan tidak teratur dengan orang tua. Mereka adalah
anak yang bekerja di jalanan (children on the street). Mereka seringkali
diindentikan sebagai pekerja migran kota yang pulang tidak teratur kepada orang
tuanya di kampung. Pada umumnya mereka bekerja dari pagi hingga sore hari
seperti menyemir sepatu, pengasong, pengamen, tukang ojek payung, dan kuli
panggul.
Tempat tinggal mereka di lingkungan kumuh bersama dengan saudara atau teman-
teman senasibnya.
Menurut hasil penelitian Hening Budiyawati, dkk. (dalam Odi Shalahudin, 2000:
11) menyebutkan bahwa faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan anak pergi ke jalanan
berdasarkan alasan dan penuturan mereka adalah karena :
3. Ingin bebas.
5. Pengaruh teman.
Selain itu, menurut Sri Sanituti (1999:5) empat faktor penyebab pokok seorang
anak menjadi anak jalanan antara lain:
Alternatif model penanganan anak jalanan mengarah kepada 3 jenis model yaitu
family base, institutional base dan multi- system base.
a. Identifikasi Masalah
b. Seleksi
c. Intervensi
Kemiskinan
Jika dikaitkan dengan pelayanan sosial yang diberikan kepada anak jalanan,
maka diketahui, RPA merupakan sebuah wadah pelayanan sosial yang
terorganisasi untuk membantu anak jalanan. Dengan demikian, sebagai sebuah
wadah yang membantu anak jalanan, maka bisa dikatakan, bahwa pekerjaan
sosial sedang dilakukan didalam RPA melalui tahapan pelayana sosial yang
diberikan kepada anak jalanan. Pekerjaan sosial sangat berperan penting didalam
pelayanan kepada anak. Pelayanan sosial yang diberikan kepada anak jalanan,
dikenal dengan nama pelayanan kesejahteraan sosial bagi anak.
Merupakan Tahap pertama yang mesti dilalui didalam pelayanan sosial yang
diberikan kepada anak binaan oleh Yayasan. Adapun penjangkauan ditinjau dari
perspkektif pekerjaan sosial menurut Max Siporin (1975 :193) merujuk kepada
engagment, intake dan contract. Adapun Engagment merupakan suatu periode
dimana pekerja sosial mulai berorientasi terhadap dirinya sendiri, khususnya
mengenai tugas-tugas yang ditanganinya. Dalam hal ini, pekerja sosial yang
bekerja dengan anak jalanan mulai berorientasi terhadap dirinya dan tugas-tugas
mengenai anak jalanan yang ditanganinya. Lalu,
proses ini diikuti dengan kontak awal pekerja sosial dengan penerima
pelayanan dalam hal ini anak jalanan dan pihak-pihak terkait yang selanjutnya
diikuti dengan kontrak antarapekerja sosial dan penerima pelayanan.
Assessment
Merupakan tahap kedua yang mesti dilalui oleh anak binaan di Rumah
perlindungan anak. Ditinjau dari perspektif pekerjaan sosial, Dalam kegiatan
Assesment ini, pekerja sosial melakukan identifikasi masalah dan kebutuhan,
menentukan sumber-sumber yang dibutuhkan dalam upaya pemecahan masalah,
mengumpulkan dan menganalisa data serta merumuskan masalah yang dihadapi
penerimapelayanan.
Rencana Pelayanan
Ditinjau dari proses pekerjaan sosial, tahap ini merupakan tahap planning. Max
Siporin (1975:251) memberikan pengertian planning sebagai berikut: “Planning
defined as a deliberate, rational process that involves the choice of actions that are
calcurated to achieve specifik objectives at some future time.” It also is describe
as policy choice and programming in the light of facts.
Projection and application of value.” (Perencanaan didefinisikan sebagai sebuah
perundingan, proses rasional yang melibatkan pilihan, tindakan-tindakan yang
diperhitungkan untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan spesifik di waktu yang akan datang
dan program yang dilihat dari fakta-fakta, proyeksi dan aplikasi nilai-nilai).
Ditinjau dari proses pekerjaan sosial, tahap ini merupakan tahap intervensi
Pada tahap ini dilaksanakan kegiatan-kegiatan pemecahan permasalahan penerima
pelayanan selain itu, dalam pelaksanaan intervensi ini, pekerja sosial dituntut
untuk berusaha melibatkan penerima pelayanan secara aktif pada setiap kegiatan
yang dilakukannya. Adapun kegiatan yang diberikan kepada anak berupa
pendidikan dan pelatihan vocational (kecakapan hidup) seperti pelatihan
keterampilan yang terdiri atas pelatihan menjahit serta komputer,
pembinaan sikap dan mental positif, home visit (kunjungan kerumah atau
keluarga anak jalanan) serta family Develpoment System yang diberikan kepada
orang tua dari anak jalanan yang menjadi anak binaan, lalu selanjutnya ditinjau
dari perspketif Pekerjaan Sosial dilanjutkan dengan tahap evaluasi.
Upaya Peningkatan Sistem Pelayanan Pekerjaan Sosial
Seperti pada analisa saya terhadap anak jalanan yang berada di Jln.
Dr.Mansyur, Padang Bulan, Medan. Di sini saya juga mengaitkan (jurnal yang di
tulis oleh Melisa Amalia Amin, Hj. Hetty Krisnani, Maulana Irfan yang berjudul
pelayanan sosial bagi anak jalanan ditinjau dari presfektif pekerjaan sosial).
Dengan jurnal yang di tulis oleh Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi yang berjudul
Analisis SWOT dalam penerapan program penanganan anak jalanan melalui pola
pembinaan terpadu berbasis kemitraan di kota padang.
Dan adapun langkah intervensi yang saya dapatkan dari artikel ini ialah:
identifikasi kekuatan (Strengths),
program langkah pertama dalam intervensi SWOT, dengan mengidentifikasi
kekuatan program penanganan anak jalanan seperti adanya dukungan dari lembaga
swasta maupun pemerintah untuk memberikan bantuan dana dan pelatian
keterampilan terhadap anak jalanan.Evaluasi Kelemahan (Weaknesses),
program langkah kedua dengan mengevaluasi kelemahan program, seperti
kurangnya sarana dan prasarana yang dimiliki oleh dinas sosial serta kurangnya
anggaran untuk pelaksanaan program penanganan anak jalanan.
Tinjau peluang ( Opportunities) ialah langkah ketiga dengan meninjau peluang
yang ada, seperti adanya kesempatan untuk memberikan pendidikan terpadu dan
pembinaan kewirausahaan untuk mewujudkan meminimalisirkan anak jalanan.
Identifikasi ancaman (Threats) langkah keempat dengan mengidentifikasi
ancaman yang mungkin di hadapi, seperti meningkatnya jumlah anak jalanan
setiap tahunnya dan adanya eksploitasi pada anak oleh orang dewasa yang terjadi
di jalanan.
Pengembangan strategi, berdasarkan hasil analisis SWOT untuk memaksimalkan
kekuatan, memanfaatkan peluang, menekan ancaman, dan meminimalkan
kelemahan dalam program penanganan anak jalanan di berbagai kota yang ada di
indonesia.
BAB IV
PENUTUP
Kesimpulan
Saran
Sebagai seorang pekerja sosial yang bekerja dengan anak, Maka saran yang
bisa diberikan berupa peningkatan pelayanan dengan memperhatikan sistem
lingkungan yang disebut dengan sistem dasar. Dalam perpektif pekerjaan sosial,
sistem lingkungan memiliki kontribusi signifikan dalam proses dan praktek
pekerjaan sosial, Sistem dasar ini merupakan significant factors yang harus
diidentifikasi dan diklasifikasikan oleh pekerja sosial dalam menjalankan peran-
peran profesionalnya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
ABSTRACT – The purpose of this study is to analyze a program using a SWOT analysis (strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) in the street children handling program through a partnership-
based integrated coaching pattern in the city of Padang. This program aims to provide physical, mental
and spiritual training for street children in an integrated manner so that these children are no longer
active on the streets, and make the city of Padang free from street children. This research is a qualitative
research using descriptive method. The data was collected by means of interviews and documentation
studies, interview guides with several prepared questions. Data aids that the author uses cameras,
cellphones, and recording devices. Selection of informants by purposive sampling. To test the validity
of the data by means of triangulation of sources. From the research results it can be revealed that the
strength of this program lies in sufficient human resources, the weakness of this program is the lack of
budget which has an impact on the lack of program implementation and the unequal coaching of the
netted children. Opportunities from this program are MOU with several stakeholders and involve
Battalion 133 / Yudha Sakti. The threat from this program is that there are parents or families of street
children who do not give permission to participate in integrated coaching.
Keywords : SWOT analysis, Treatment Program, Street Children
Corresponding author. Email. mesiariaputri97@gmail.com
How to cite this article. Putri, M. Aria & Alhadi, Z. (2020). Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program
Penanganan Anak Jalanan Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang. Jurnal
Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik (JMIAP) Jurusan Ilmu Administrasi Negara Fakultas Ilmu Sosial
Universitas Negeri Padang, Volume 2 (3), Hal. 106-116.
http://jmiap.ppj.unp.ac.id
ISSN : 2684-818X (Online), ISSN : 2338-7378 (Print)
Copyright©2020. Published by Labor Jurusan Ilmu Administrasi Negara FIS UNP, Padang
106 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
tersebut, sehingga terjadi masalah sosial sebagian besar dari waktu meraka dengan
seperti yang kita lihat ssat ini. berada dijalan, juga pada tempat-tempat
Masalah kesejahteraan sosial satu umum untuk mendapatkan penghasilan dan
diantara sekian banyak masalah sosial bekerja, Hasil yang mereka dapatkan
dalam masyarakat perkotaan yang dipergunakan untuk memabantu hidup
dipengaruhi oleh beberapa hal seperti keluarga mereka. Selanjutnya yang ketiga
kesehatan, pengetahuan, keterampila, fisik adalah anak yang termasuk dalam kategori
dan lain-lain. Akhirnya tidak sedikit dari vurnerable to be street children atau dapat
anggota masyarakat memilih berada dikatan anak jlanan yang mana mereka
ditempat umum menjadi anak jalanan demi tinggal dengan orang tuanya atau kerabat
mempertahankan hidup keluarganya, akan tetapi mereka mereka
berkerja untuk mencari penghasilan
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA dijlanan. Pada kategori ini yang menjadi
Anak jalanan adalah satu diantara faktor dominan pemicu adaah dari segi
banyak masalah sosial di Indonesia yang ekonomi, sehingga mendorong mereka
membutuhkan perhatian secara khusus, untuk menjadi anak jalanan.
karena jika diabaikan akan melahirkan Sebenarnya banyal hal yang menjadi
masalah baru. Anak jalanan cenderung pemicu atau penyebab seorang anak turun
terlibat dengan berbagai masalah seperti mencari penghasilan di jalan dan menjadi
perdagangan anak dan berbagai penyakit, anak jalanan. Di Indonesia sendiri yang
serta akan meningkatnya angka kriminal. menjadi penyebab tumbuh dan
Departemen Sosial RI(2005:5) meningkatnya anak jalanan yaitu karena
mengatakam Anak jalanan merupakan ekonomi pada tahun 1998 silam dimana
anak-anak yang waktunya dihabiskan untuk pada era tersebut masyarakat Indosia
melakukan kegiatan sehari-harinya di mengalami kesulitan ekonomi yang
jalanan,mereka berkeliaran untuk mencari menyebabkan timbul berbagai masalah
nafkah dijalanan maupun ditempat-tempat sosial. Hal ini juga akhirnya melahirkan ide
umum yang lain. Dapat didefinisikan anak penyimpangan sosial pada lingkungan osial
jalanan adalah mereka atau anak yang umur anak untuk mengekploitasi anak secara
mereka berada dibawah 17 tahun ekonomi, contoh salah satunya yaitu dengan
menghabiskan sebagian besar waktu melakukan aktivitas di jalanan.
dijalanan atau ditempat umumlainnya. Ciri- Abu Huraerah dalam Astri (2014)
ciri mereka adalah mengenakan pakaian mengemukan ada beberapa hal yang
kotor dan kusam, bertato, penampilan tidak menjadi penyebab anak jalanan muncul
terururs. yaitu Orang tua mendorong anak untuk
Sunusi membedakan anak jalanan dalam bekerja untuk memabntu perekonomian
tiga kategori, yang berdsar pada pekerjaan, keluarga yang sulit, adanya kasus-kasus
waktu serta hubungan mereka dengan orang kekerasan dan perlakuan-perlakuan yang
tua (Suradi, 2011: 316-317). Pertama, salah terhadap anak sehingga anak kabur
Children of the sreet, adalah anak yang dan lari ke jalanan, Kesulitas yang menbuat
hidupnya dijalan sepanjang waktu dan anak terancam putus sekolah disebabkan
tinggal dijlanan juga. Mereka tidak pergi orang tua yang tidak mampu lagi dalam
bersekolah dan sudah tidak punya membiayai dan membayar uang untuk
hubungan keluarga dengan orang tua. Dapat sekolah, makin banyaknya anak yang
dikatan mereka hidup sendiri secara total, memilih hidup dijalanan karena biaya sewa
memperjuangkan hidupnya sendiri secara rumah yang mahal ataupun malah
fisik maupun psikologis. Kedua, children meningkat, munculnya persaingan kerja
on the street, anak pada kategori kedua ini pada orang dewasa dijalan sehingga anak-
adalah anak-anak yang menghabiskan anak terpuruk dan melakukan pekerjaaan-
108 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
pekerjaan beresiko tinggi yang mengancam berkerja sejak dini, Pergi ke kota dan
keselamatan mereka dan adanya eksploitasi bekerja, salah satunya dijalanan. Ketiga
pada anak oleh orang dewasa yang terjadi tingkat makroalah faktor yang terhubung
dijalanan. Anak jalanan menjad korban dengan struktur masyarakat ( struktur ini
pemerasan dan juga ekploitasi seksual pada diaggap punya hubungan sebab akibat yang
anak perempuan di jalanan. Dan sangat berpengaruh dalam hal ini yaitu,
menimbulkan masalah baru. Banyak ahli sebab banyakanya waktu yang dihabiskan
telah menyebutkan faktor kuat yang dijalanan akan berakibat pada banyaknya
mendorong anak turun ke jalanan. uang yang dapat dikumpulkan.
Selain itu faktor internal, faktor eksternal Kota Padang adalah salah satu diantara
pun diduga kuat menjadi penyenab muncul kota di Indonesia yang mash berkutat
dan meningkatnya fenomena diatas. dengan permasalahan anak jalanan. Jumlah
Surjana dalam Andriyani Mustika anak jalanan di Kota Padang terbilang
(2012:211) menyatakan ada tiga faktor kuat cukup tinggi. Mereka berkeliaran
yang menjadi penyebab anak untuk turun ke disepanjang jalan-jalan di Kota Padang.
jalanan. Pertama tingkat mikro, ini adalah Anak-anak tersebut berasal dari berbagai
faktur yang terhubung langsung antara anak daera di Sumatera Barat dan ada yang dari
dan keluarganya. Ada beberapa yang dapat luar provinsi.
teridentifikasi dari mengapa anak lari dari Karenanya Pemerintah Kota Padang
rumah lalu menjadi anak jalanan sudah membuat peraturan-peraturan daerah
(contohnya anak yang hidup bersama orang terkait anak jalanan yaitu Peraturan Daerah
tua yang kasar, mereaka terbiasa Nomor 1 tahun 2012 Pasal 6 tentang
menggunakan kekerasa pada anak seperti Pmbinaan Anak.Jalanan, Gelandangan,
memukul mereka, menganiaya dan Pengemis, Pengamen, dan Pedagang
menampar karena kesalahan kecil yang Asongan(selanjutnya ditulis Perda
mereka lakukan) dan jika hal ini sudah No.1.Tahun 2012). Diperkuat dengan
lewat batas toleransi si anak , maka anak Peraturan Walikota Padang Nomor 41
tersebut lebih cenderung pergi dari rumah Tahun 2017 mengenai cara-cara pembinaan
dan pilihan mereka adalah hidup dijalanan, untuk anak-anak jalanan. Mengingat
disuruh untuk bekerja sedagkan kondisi keberadaan anak-anak jalanan ini akan
mereka masih bersekolah, dalam membahayakan diri sendiri dan juga orag
berpetualangg dan diajak teman bermain- lain disekitarnya, bukan tidak mungkin
main. Penyebab yang berasal dari keluarga mereka jadi sasaran macam-macam
yaitu telantar, tidk mampunya orang tua kejahatan anak seperti eksploitasi anak,
memnuhi kebutuhan dasar, kondisi yg tindak kekerasan pada anak-anak, dan
berpengaruh pada psikologis karena adanya kesewenang wenangan. Sehingga masalah
penolakan dari keluarga, adanya salah anak jalanan ini perlu adanya kebijakan dan
perawatan dan didikan dari orang tua program untuk menangani masalah ini. Carl
sehingga anak menerima kekerasan fisik Friedrich (Indiahono 2009:18)
dan mental dirumah. mendefinisikan kebijakan adalah tindakan
Kedua tingkat meso, yang menjelaskan yang diusul oleh seseorang yang mengarah
faktor agama atau kepercayaan untuk mencapai sebuah tujuan.Wiliam N.
berhubungan langsung dengan faktor Dunn (Pasolong 2007:39) juga menyatakan
masyarakat. Sebab yang teridentifikasi bahwa kebijakan publik merupakan pilihan-
yaitu dalam komunitas masyarakat tidak pilihan anatara satu dan yang lainnya
mampu atau miskin anak merupakan aset berhubungan erat dan dibuet oleh lembaga
untuk maningkatkan dan membantu dan pejabatpemerintah dalam bidang yang
perekonomian dalam keluarga . Oleh meyangkut tugas-tugas dari pemerintah,
karnanya mereka mengajarkan untuk
109 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
mengurangi atau meminimalisir weakness Dinas Sosial Kota Padang, Batalyon 133/
atau kelemahan yangg ada untuk Yudha Sakti, Badan Amil Zakat Nasional
memanfaatkan peluang-peluang yang Kota Padang.Jenis data yang penulis
muncul. Ketiga strategi ST (kekuatan- gunakandalam penelitian ini adalah jenis
ancaman) adalah sebuah strategi yang data sekunder dan jugajenis data primer.
dipergunakan oleh instansi dan perusahaan Penelitian ini menggunakan teknik
dengan pemanfaatan secara optimal aspek triangulasi sumber, karena pada penelitian
kekuatan dan mengurangi berbagai ini data didapatkan dari berbagai sumber
ancaman yang ada. Selanjutnya keempat karenanya lebih cocok menggunak teknik
strategi WT(kelemahan dan ancaman) triangulasi sumber.
strategi ini digunakan untuk pengurangan
kelemahan dalam rangka pengurangan dan HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
menghindar dari ancaman. Analisis SWOT
Pada penelitian ini penulis menganalis Menurut Sondang P. Siagian
apa yang menjadi kekuatan, kelemahan, mengatakan analisis SWOT adalah
peluang, dan ancaman pada program instrumen jitu untuk melakukan sebuah
penanganan anak jalanan melalui pola analisis strategi, letak keampuhan analisis
pembinaan terpadu berbasis kemitraan di SWOT ada pada keahlian para penentu
Kota Padang. Yang menjadi tujuan dari strategi untuk memaksimalkan kekuatan,
program ini adalah terlaksananya memanfaatkan faktor peluang menekan
penanganan anak jalanan melalui pola ancaman dan juga meminimalkan
pembinaan fisik, mental, spiritual, kelemahan. Menurut Ruslan SWOT
penanganan melalui pola pendidikan merupakan sebuah kegiatan riset oleh
terpadu, dan pola pembinaan Hubungan masyarakat untuk menganalisis
kewirausahaan secara terpadu untuk suatu program atapun kebiajakan untuk
mewujudkan Kota Padang bebas anak melihat faktor-falktor SWOT yang mana
jalanan adalah keuatan, kelemahan, peluang dan
ancaman. Dapat penulis tarik kesimpulan
METODE PENELITIAN bahwasanya analisis SWOT merupakah
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif sebuah metode yang digunakan untuk
yang menggunakan metode menganalisis program berdarkan strenghts,
deskriptif.Menurut Bogdan dan Taylor weakness,opportunites, dan threats.
dalam Moleong(2005:4) definisi penelitian Penelitian ini menggambarkan susuatu
kualitatif adalah penelitian yang hasilnya program penanganan anak jalanan melalui
berupa data deskriptif dalam bentuk kata- pola pembinaan terpadu di Kota Padang.
kata yang tertulis ataupun dari perkataan
dari orang-orang dan juga sikap atau Kekuatan Program Penanganan Anak
perilaku yang diamati oleh penulis. Lebih Jalanan Melalui Pola Pembinaan
lanjut Moleong (2007:11) menyatakan yang Terpadu di Kota Padang
dimakasud penelitian.kualitatif yaitu Strenghts (kekuatan) merupakan kondisi
penelitian yang tujuannya adalah untuk dan kemampuan yang dimiliki oleh
memahami kejadian tentang apa-apa yang organisasi yang sifatnya positif, yang
terjadi keada subjek penelitian seperti membuat organisasi menjadi mungkin
tindakan, motivasi maupun persepsi dan untuk mempunyai keuntungan dan
lain sebagainya, dan penyajian dalam data memungkinkan organisasi untuk
dalam bentuk rangkaian kata dan bahasa pencapaian tujuan. Yang menjadi kekuatan
yang konteksnya ilmiah dengan dalam program penanganan anak jalanan
pemanfaatan berbagai metode. Lokasi melalui pola pembinaan terpadu di Kota
penelitian di Kota Padang diantaranya Padang yaitu sumber daya manusia yang
111 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
sudah mencukupi baik dari dari Dinas melakukan penjaringan dan penjangkauan
Sosial Kota Padang sendiri maupund dari terhadap anak jalanan di Kota Padang,
instansi yang bermitra, seperti Batalyon mengantar anak jalanan yang terjaring ke
133/Yudha Sakti yang mempunyai tenaga Batalyon 133/ Yudha Sakti untuk diberikan
atau sumber daya manusia yang cukup pembinaan.
untuk program ini. Dinas Kesehatan Kota Padang bertugas
Dari Dinas Sosial sendiri sudah memfasilitasi anak jalanan untuk dilakukan
mempunyai tim khusus yang siap cek kesehatan fisik sebelum mengikuti
menangani persoalan maupun pembinaan, melakukan rujukan pada
permasalahan terkait program, saat ini pemeriksaan lanjutan bagi anak jalanan
Dinas Sosial setidaknya punya 15 orang di untuk mendapatkan pelayanan kesehatan
tim efektif penanganan program ini. Dan beranjutan bagi anak pada kasus penyakit
untuk Batalyon 133 Yudha Sakti, Air tertentu. Kementrian Agama Wilayah Kota
Tawar, mereka punya lebih dari cukup Padang memberikan pendidikan dan
personil untuk melatih anak jalanan, pemahaman spiritual terhadap anak jalanan
banyaknya personil yang terlibat dalam dalam bentuk bimbingan keagamaan
pembinaan ini juga tergantung pada berapa selama anak jalanan dalam pembinaan.
jumlah anak jalanan yang akan dilatih pada Lembaga Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak
tahun itu. Selama ini mereka tidak pernah (LKSA)/ Panti Asuhan bertugas
kekurangan anggota dan selalu siap untuk memfasilitasi atau menampung anak
melatih anak-anak tersebut. jalanan yang sudah dibina, bagi anak yang
Selain itu kekuatan dari program in yaitu tidak memiliki orang tua dan keluarga/ anak
melakukan pembinaan secara terpadu tidak layak tinggal bersama orang tua atau
dengan bermitra bersama beberapa pihak keluarga.
yang mempunyai tugas dan fungsi Dinas Pendidikan Kota Padang bertugas
masing.salah satunya dengan melibatkan memfasilitasi anak jalanan yang sudah
TNI AD yaitu Batalyon 133/Yudha Sakti dibina untuk dapat kembali ke lingkup
yang mana satu-nya di Indonesia dilakukan pendidikan formal dan non formal sesuai
oleh Dinas Sosial Kota Padang, untuk dengan tingkat pendidikan mereka.
memberikan materi pembinaan fisik dan Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Imam
mental kepada anak-anak jalanan yang ikut Bonjol Padang bertugas memberikan
dalam pembinaan yang diharapkan untuk workshop dan motivasi terhadap anak
memberikan efek jera kepada anak-anak jalanan yang telah dibina untuk
jalanan dan tidak lagi beraktivitas di berwirausaha dan mengikuti keterampilan,
jalanan. memfasilitasi anak jalanan yang sudah
Berikut beberapa instansi yang terlibat dibina untuk dapat melanjutkan pendidikan
dan tugas masing-masingnya yaitu Dinas ke jenjang pedidikan yang lebih tinggi.
Sosial Kota Padang bertugas melakukan Dinas Tenaga Kerja dan Perindustrian Kota
koordinasi dengan lintas ektor terkait dalam Padang bertugas memfasilitasi anak jalanan
rangka kegiatan penanganan anak jalanam, yang sudah dibina untuk dapat mengikuti
melakukan assesment kepada anak jalanan pelatihan keterampilan kerja dan pelatihan
oleh Saka Bakti Pekerja Sosial (Sakti kewirausahaan, memfasilitasi anak yang
Pekoso) perlindungan anak di Kota Padang, sudah dibina untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan
mendampingi tenaga kesehatan selama sesuai dengan keterampilan yang sudah
proses pemeriksaan kesehatan. Dinas Sosial dimiliki oleh anak-anak tersebut.
Provinsi Sumatera Barat memfasilitasi Badan Amil Zakat Nasional Kota
bimbingan berkelanjutan berupa pelatihan Padang dan CSR Semen Padang)
keterampilan bagi anjal dari Kota Padang. memberikan dukungan dan bantuan dana
Satuan Polisi Pamong Praja bertugas dalam pelaksanaan kegitan pembinaan anak
112 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
jalanan di Kota Padang, namun Badan Amil jalanan sebelum mereka mendapat
Zakat Nasional Kota Padang hanya pembinaan lanjutan dan setelah mendapat
memberikan batuan dalam sekali pembinaan sebelum kembali kepada orang
pelaksanaan program, yaitu pada tahap awal tua mereka. Saat ini Dinas Sosial Kota
pelaksanaan di tahun 2017. Rumah Ceria Padang memanfaatkan LKSA/Panti untuk
BBPPKS Regional I Sumatera memberikan menanmpung mereka sebagai rumah
dukungan psikologis dan bimbingan mental serbaguna, baik sebelum pembinaan
sosial dalam menentukan pola asuh dan maupun setelah pembinaan jika ada
kepribadian anak jalanan. diantara mereka yang tidak dijemput
keluarga, tidak punya keluarga, ataupun
Kelemahan Program Penanganan Anak tidak layak inggal bersama orang tua,
Jalanan Melalui Pola Pembinaan seperti orang tua yang suka melakukan
Terpadu di Kota Padang kekerasan terhadap anak.
Weakness (Kelemahan) merupakan
kekurangan pada kondisi suatu organisasi Peluang Program Penanganan Anak
seperti keuangan, dan fasilitas yang Jalanan Melalui Pola Pembinaan
terbatas. Yang menjadi kelemahan pada Terpadu di Kota Padang
program penanganan anak jalanan melalui Opportunities (peluang) adalah hal-hal
pola pembinaan terpadu di Kota Padang dan juga situasi yang menguntungkan untuk
adalah kurangnya anggaran. Pada tahun organisasi. Pada program penanganan anak
2017 pada saat program pertama kali jalanan melalui pola pembinaan terpadu di
dijalankan, hanya mengandalkan anggaran Kota Padang yang menjadi yang menjadi
dari Badan Amil Zakat Nasional dan SCR peluang adalah MOU atau bermitra dengan
Semen Padang, yang mana tidak mampu beberapa pihak dalam program ini.
mengakomodir semua anak yang terjaring Komunikasi yang baik antar stakeholders
pada tahun tersebut untuk mengikuti yang terlibat dalam program penanganan
pembinaan terpadu. Pada tahun 2018 sudah anak jalanan melalui pola pembinaan
ada DPA Anggaran sendiri, namun dana terpadu ini adalah kunci keberhasilan
yang ada juga belum mampu program. Dan juga untuk pertama kalinya
mengakomodir anak-anak yang terjaring dan jugasatu-satunya di Indonesia Dinas
untuk merata mendapatkan pembinaan. Sosial Kota Padang mengajak bidang
Tidak semua anak jalanan yang terjaring militer atau melibatkan TNI yaitu Batalyon
mendapat pembinaan terpadu bersama 133/Yudha Sakti untuk bermitra dalam
Batalyon 133 Yudha Sakti Air Tawar. penanganan anak jalanan. Pada saat
Selain itu kurangnya anggaran juga pembinaan fisik mental spiritual bersama
berdampak pada minimnya pelaksanaan batalyon diharapkan anak-anak yang ikut
program penanganan anak jalanan melalui pembinaan untuk mendapatkan efek jera
pola peminaan terpadu ini. Program ini dan tidak lagi beraktivitas di jalanan.
pembinaan terpadu bersama Batalyon Dan juga untuk dibagian anggaran Dinas
133/Yudha Sakti baru bisa dijalankan satu Sosial Kota Padang akan memperluas lagi
kali dalam satu tahun, padahal anak yang MOU dengan dinas-dinas yang lain
terjaring terglong banyak setiap tahunnya terutama dari segi keuangan, itu dengan
dan pembinaan pun belum merata untuk dinas DPKA, Bappeda, Dinas Koperasi
semua anak. UMKM.
Kemudian fasilitas yang dimiliki Dinas
Sosial dalam penanganan anak jalanan juga
belum memadai. Dinas Sosial Kota Padang
belum mempunyai rumah singgah sebagai
tempat penampungan sementara anak
113 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
anggaran. Keempat ancaman dari program Purwanto, Erwan Agus, Dyah Ratih. 2012.
ini adalah lemahnya pengawasan orang tua Implementasi Kebijakan Publik
terhadap anak mereka dan adanya Konsep dan Aplikasinya di Indonesia.
penolakan dari orang tua atau dari keluarga Yogyakarta:Gava Media.
anak jalanan yang akan dibina, mereka
tidak mengizinkan anaknya mengikuti Agustino, Leo. 2014. Dasar-dasar
pembinaan karena anggapan mereka Kebijakan Publik. Bandung: Pustaka
pembinaan bersama TNI adalah penyiksaan Setia.
untuk anak, dan juga rendahnya
pengawasan orang tua terhadap anak. Bungin. Burhan. 2003. Analisis Data
Penelitian Kualitatif. Jakarta: PT
DAFTAR KEPUSTAKAAN Gravindo Persada.
Arikunto, Suharsimi dan Jabar, Cepi Winarno, Budi. 2007. Kebijakan Publik:
Safruddin Abdul. 2008. Evaluasi Teori dan Praktek. Yogyakarta: Media
ProgramPendidikan:Pedoman Pessindo.
Teoretis Praktis bagi Mahasiswa dan Parsons, Wayne. 2006. Public Policy.
Praktisi Pengantar Teori dan Praktis Analisis
Pendidikan: Jakarta: Bumi Aksara. Kebijakan. Dialihbahaskaan oleh Tri
Indiahono, Dwiyanton. 2009. Kebijkan Wibowo Budi Santoso. Jakarta:
Publik Berbasis Dynamic Policy Kencana.
Analysis. Yogyakarta: Grava Media. Hafsah, J. 2000. Kemitraan Usaha Konsepsi
Sugiyono, 2017. Metode Penelitian dan Strategi. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar
Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, Kombinas. Harapan.
Bandung: Alvabeta. Sulistiyani, Ambar Teguh. 2004. Kemitraan
Madani, Muhlis. 2011. Dimensi Interaksi dan Model–Model Pemberdayaan.
Aktor dalam Perumusan Kebijakan Yogyakarta,Penerbit Gaya Media.
Publik. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu. Siagian, Sondang P. (2002). Manajemen
Dunn N. Dunn, 1999. Pengantar Analisis Stratejik. Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara.
Kebijakan Publik. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Kusnadi. (2000). Pengantar Manajemen
Mada University Press. Strategi. Malang: Universitas
Moleong, J. Lexy. 2013.Metode Penelitian Brawijaya Malang.
Kualitatif. Bandung: PT Rosdakary. Ruslan, Rosadi. (2003). Metode Penelitian
Mulyadi, Dedy. 2015. Studi Kebijakan dan Public Relations Dan
Pelayanan Publik. Bandung. Alfabet. Komunikasi.Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo
Persada.
Nugroho, D.Riant. 2004. Kebijakan Publik,
formulasi, Implementasi dan Evaluasi. Kotler, Philip & Kevin Lane Keller. (2009).
Jakarta: Gramedia. Manajemen Pemasaran. Edisi 13. Edisi
Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Erlangga.
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Administrasi Publik. Bandung. Bantuan Operasional Sekolah. Jurnal
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1.
115 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
Mesi Aria Putri, Zikri Alhadi| Analisis SWOT dalam Penerapan Program Penanganan Anak Jalanan
Melalui Pola Pembinaan Terpadu Berbasis Kemitraan di Kota Padang
116 | Jurnal Mahasiwa Ilmu Administrasi Publik |Volume 2 | Nomor 3| Tahun 2020 | (Hal. 106-116)
PELAYANAN SOSIAL BAGI ANAK JALANAN DITINJAU DARI PERSPEKTIF
PEKERJAAN SOSIAL
aminmelisa@gmail.com
Abstrak
Artikel ini membahas pelayanan sosial bagi anak jalanan yang dilakukan oleh salah satu Lembaga
Sosial. Bagi lembaga sosial yang memberikan pelayanan kepada anak jalanan melalui rumah
singgah, maka pelayanan yang diberikan menurut perspektif pekerjaan sosial dapat menggunakan
model pelayanan Half-Way House Services. Adapun model pelaksanaan pelayanan menurut strategi
ini dapat menggunakan teori proses pekerjaan sosial yang terdiri atas Engagement, Intake &
Contract, Assessment, Planning, Intervention, Evaluation & Termination. Pada artikel ini, Salah
satu lembaga sosial memberikan pelayanan kepada anak jalanan melalui pelatihan keterampilan,
family development dan home visit. Dimana, sebelum menentukan bentuk pelayanan, lembaga ini
sudah menggunakan proses pekerjaan sosial dan didalam pemberian pelayanan, masih dibutuhkan
usaha untuk meningkatkan pelayanan bagi lembaga ini. Upaya untuk meningkatkan pelayanan
ditinjau dari perspektif pekerjaan sosial dapat menggunakan sistem dasar yang terdiri atas sistem
pelaksana perubahan, sistem klien, sistem sasaran dan sistem kegiatan.
Kata Kunci : Anak Jalanan, Pelayanan, Pekerjaan Sosial
Pendahuluan
Anak Jalanan merupakan fenomena Tabel 1.1 Masalah Kesejahteraan Sosial di
yang sudah tidak asing lagi di Indonesia. Kota Bandung Pada Tahun 2011
Semakin menjamurnya jumlah anak jalanan
yang berkeliaran di jalan mengakibatkan No Jenis Masalah Satuan Jumlah
permasalahan yang cukup besar di Indonesia, 1 Gelandangan Orang 948
terutama pada kota-kota besar seperti Jakarta,
Bandung, dan Surabaya. Kota Bandung 2 Pengemis Orang 4.162
sebagai kota metropolitan juga tidak terlepas
dari masalah anak jalanan. Walaupun untuk 3 Wanita Tuna Susila Orang 549
tahun 2014 jumlah anak jalanan sulit untuk
diperkirakan, akan tetapi data terakhir yang 4 Bekas Narapidana Orang 364
diperoleh dari BPS Kota Bandung (2012)
5 Anak Jalanan Orang 4861
dalam Rancangan Pembangunan Jangka
Menengah Daerah Kota Bandung 2014-2018
mengenai masalah kesejahteraan sosial di Sumber Data: BPS Kota Bandung Dalam
Bandung pada tahun 2011 menunjukan bahwa Angka, 2012
jumlah anak jalanan masih banyak dan dapat
dilihat pada tabel 1.1 dibawah ini. Keberadaan anak dijalanan, merupakan
sesuatu yang sangat dilematis. Selain mencari
nafkah untuk mendapakan uang yang
membuatnya bertahan hidup, keberadaan anak
dijalanan sering menganggu ketertiban umum jalanan dan belum menyentuh keluarga anak.
dan hak mereka sebagai anak untuk Tidak hanya itu, permasalahan umum yang
mendapatkan kasih sayang, pendidikan dan terjadi pada pelayanan sosial adalah
penghidupan yang layak tidak terpenuhi minimnya sumber daya manusia dan
sehingga dapat merusak kehidupan mereka minimnya sumber pendanaan.
dimasa depan. Mereka merupakan kelompok
sosial yang sangat rentan dari berbagai Dengan penjelasan tersebut maka
tindakan fisik, emosi,seksual ataupun dibutuhkan penyelesaian yang tepat untuk
kekerasan sosial lainnya. diberikan kepada anak jalanan. Karena upaya
untuk mewujudkan perlindungan dan
Berbagai upaya untuk menangani kesejahteraan anak dengan memenuhi hak-
keberadaan anak jalanan telah dilakukan haknya telah dirumuskan di dalam UU No. 4
pemerintah. Salah satunya dengan Tahun 1979 tentang kesejahteraan anak dan
mengeluarkan kebijakan terkait perlindungan UU No. 23 Tahun 2002 tentang perlindungan
dan hak anak. Berdasarkan Intruksi Presiden anak jalanan. Realisasi dari peraturan negara
No 3 tahun 2010 tentang pembangunan ini salah satunya bisa terwujud dengan
program yang berkeadilan, ditetapkan sebuah dilaksanakannya rumah singgah, rumah
Program Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak (PKSA) perlindungan anak atau rumah perlindungan
sebagai program prioritas nasional, yang sosial anak, mobil sahabat anak, panti
didalamnya termasuk Program Kesejahteraan persinggahan dan program-program lainnya
Sosial Anak Jalanan (PKS-Anjal) dengan untuk anak jalanan yang mana pasal
Lembaga Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak (LKSA) didalamnya menjelaskan bahwa usaha
sebagai wadah yang melaksanakan Program kesejahteraan anak terdiri atas usaha
Kesejahteraan Sosial Anak Jalanan. pembinaan, pengembangan, pencegahan dan
Dalam menangani keberadaan anak rehabilitasi yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah
jalanan, salah satu Lembaga Kesejahteraan dan atau masyarakat sebagai dasar dari hak
Sosial Anak dalam hal ini Lembaga Swadaya anak untuk tumbuh dan berkembang.
Masyarakat (LSM), menganggap perlu
adanya suatu pelayanan bagi anak jalanan. Di Bandung, Sebagai salah satu contoh,
Banyak LSM yang melakukan pelayanan Yayasan Saudara Sejiwa merupakan salah
terhadap anak jalanan tetapi hasilnya kurang satu rumah singgah dan dikenal dengan nama
maksimal. Hal ini dijelaskan oleh Departemen Rumah Perlindungan Anak (RPA) yang turut
Sosial (2005): mendukung dan membantu pemerintah dalam
membina anak jalanan agar anak tidak
Program pembinaan anak jalanan di kembali kejalanan. Pelayanan yang diberikan
LSM-LSM dapat dikatakan belum oleh Rumah Perlindungan Anak yang dikelola
maksimal karena masih belum banyak Yayasan Saudara Sejiwa pada umumnya
inovasi baru yang dilakukan dan banyak sama dengan pelayanan yang diberikan
juga program pembinaan yang yayasan lainnya.
dilakukan tidak berkelanjutan yang
berdampak banyak anak jalanan Hanya saja, perbedaan pelayanan sosial
kembali kepekerjaan awal mereka di yang diberikan terletak pada tahap pelayanan
jalanan dan semakin kompleks yang diberikan. Dan tahapan ini menentukan
permasalahan yang mereka hadapi. jenis kegiatan yang dilaksanakan.
(Departemen Sosial. 2005. Petunjuk Berdasarkan hasil observasi awal kepada
Teknis Pelayanan Sosial Anak Jalanan) Rumah Perlindungan Anak (RPA) yang
dikelola yayasan, diketahui bahwa layanan
Selain program pembinaan, yang diberikan bagi anak jalanan saat ini
permasalahan lainnya didalam pelayanan berupa penjangkauan, Assessment, rencana
sosial yang diberikan terletak pada pelayanan pelayanan, persiapan kegiatan, dan kegiatan
yang diberikan masih sebatas kepada anak yang sedang berjalan berupa pelatihan
keterampilan yang terdiri atas pelatihan pekerjaan sosial, maka akan selalu berkaitan
menjahit serta komputer, pembinaan sikap dengan proses pekerjaan sosial.
dan mental positif, home visit (kunjungan
kerumah atau keluarga anak jalanan) serta Proses pekerjaan sosial mempunyai
family Develpoment System yang diberikan tahapan pertolongan yang berbeda-beda.
kepada orang tua dari anak jalanan yang Adapun salah satu ahli, Max Siporin (1997)
menjadi anak binaan, diakhiri dengan dalam Wibhawa (2010) menjelaskan bahwa
terminasi. proses pekerjaan sosial terdiri atas :
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Abstract
Globally, over 100 million children are living on the street, most of them in less
developed countries, and the number is expected to rise as countries urbanize
(Endris and Sitota in Int J Educ Liter Stud 7:94–99, 2019; Raemdonck and Seedat-
Khan in Child Fam Soc Work 23:297–306, 2017). These children face numerous
problems on the streets including but not limited to abuse, neglect, stigma, and
social exclusion. This paper examined the role of social protection in building social
cohesion using a comprehensive qualitative content analysis. The study affirmed
that social protection for street children builds social cohesion. Male street children
who are beneficiaries of social protection program reciprocated by supporting oth-
ers developed self-esteem and built relationship across socio-cultural barriers. The
female counterparts on the other hand reported providing in-kind services, built rela-
tionships with their families, and created platforms to mentor other girls. The chil-
dren have managed to reduce public resentment and developed a sense of belonging.
The study has demonstrated the value of social protection for street children and the
resultant social cohesion.
Résumé
À l’échelle mondiale, 100 millions d’enfants vivent dans la rue, dans des pays moins
développés pour la plupart, et ce nombre devrait augmenter à mesure que les pays
s’urbanisent (Endris et Sitota 2019 ; Raemdonck et Seedat-Khan 2017). Ces enfants
sont confronté·e·s à de nombreux problèmes dans la rue, notamment la maltraitance,
la négligence, la stigmatisation et l’exclusion sociale. Ce document étudie le rôle de
la protection sociale dans la construction de la cohésion sociale à l’aide d’une ana-
lyse qualitative de contenu. Selon l’étude, la protection sociale des enfants des rues
renforce la cohésion sociale. Les enfants des rues de sexe masculin qui bénéficient du
programme de protection sociale ont rendu la pareille en soutenant d’autres enfants,
Vol.:(0123456789)
E. O. Ongowo
Introduction
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and remained connected to the streets (Stef-
fen 2012). Nakuru County was one of the epicenters of PEV and is currently a
host to 2,005 street persons according to Ministry of Labour and Social Pro-
tection-MLSP (2018) national census of street persons. This probably explains
the Nakuru County Government’s prioritization of rehabilitation and reintegra-
tion of street children and construction of street children drop in and rehabilita-
tion center (GoK 2018). However, the renovation of the center may need to be
backed up by other social services that would ensure a reduction in the number
of children on the streets through preventive and mitigation measures.
On the streets, the children face numerous problems including violence, sex-
ual exploitation, early pregnancies, hunger, harsh weather conditions, ill health,
stigmatization, discrimination in the hands of security agents, and social exclu-
sion from developmental, civic, and diminished opportunities for a decent future
(Gwanyemba et al. 2016, Hossain and Alemi 2016). These problems compro-
mise the future opportunities of the street children consequently create a path to
criminality that threatens national security and social cohesion. Social protec-
tion is one of the mechanisms often deployed to mitigate such problems. In this
article, social protection is conceived to be the entirety of policies and programs
that protect people against poverty and risks to their livelihoods and well-being
(Burchi et al. 2022). In this article, social protection will be the social assistance
that is provided to the street children in both formal and informal.
The overall objective of this article was to examine the effect of social protec-
tion programs on the vulnerability of street children and social cohesion. Social
cohesion in this context is conceived as both vertical and horizontal relations
among members of society and the state as characterized by a set of attitudes
and norms that include trust, inclusive identity, and cooperation for the common
good” (Burchi et al. 2022).
This article relies on two sources of information: a comprehensive qualitative
content analysis of key informant interviews with government officials who were
purposively selected and in-depth interviews with street children who were ben-
eficiaries of social protection.
This article has provided in-depth qualitative information on the value of
social protection for street children. In addition, the article has documented the
value of providing social protection for vulnerable children and the consequent
social cohesion that is generated in their adulthood.
The rest of the article proceeds as follows: “Methodology” section explains
the methodology used; “Nature of the Existing Social Protection Services” sec-
tion presents the discussions on the nature of the social protection services pro-
vided to street children in the area under research. “Effects of Social Protection
for Street Children on Social Cohesion” section analyzes the effects of social
protection services for street children on social cohesion. “Effects of Social Pro-
tection for Street Children on Social Inequality” section discusses their effects
on social inequality. “Conclusions and Policy Recommendations” section con-
cludes and offers some policy recommendations.
E. O. Ongowo
Methodology
The study used qualitative content analysis, a method that systematically describes
the meaning of qualitative material. In this study, the qualitative material involved
analysis of conversation or verbal data from key informant interviews, in-depth
interviews, and review of existing data on social protection.
The population of the study was children who have benefited from social protection,
specifically social assistance from charitable children’s institutions, and have since
graduated from the program. These children were identified by the four charitable
children’s institutions in Nakuru County that provide various social services to street
children. The total number of children identified who had graduated from the institu-
tions was 12 (7 boys and 5 girls) with varied ages. Simple random sampling (lottery
method) was used to identify the 12 out of the 20 who had graduated from the CCI.
The low number of children involved in the study was attributed to a number of fac-
tors. The duration that it takes to rehabilitate the children from the streets provides
them with educational support and the consequent graduation from the institution.
The unequal number of girls compared to boys is attributed to the few number of
CCIs that provide services to girls and the few number of girls on the streets com-
pared to the boys. This therefore affects the number of children who are eventually
recruited into the institutions.
In addition, key informants were government officials with the responsibility of
child protection and improvement of their welfare. They include County Director of
Children Services (CDCS), two Sub-County Children Officers, two Area Advisory
Council members, and three Volunteer Children Officers. Four managers of institu-
tions that provide social transfers and services to street children were also included
in the study.
The data were collected using In-depth interview guide, Key Informant Interview
guide, and content analysis. The interviews were recorded to allow the researcher to
replay during transcription. The interviews were analyzed using Conventional Con-
tent Analysis (CCA), one of the approaches of Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA).
CCA was deemed appropriate for the study as we sought to qualitatively describe
the effect of social protection on social cohesion. The data analysis was anchored
on Hiesh and Shannon (2005) guidance beginning with reading and re-reading
(immersing self into the original data) all the transcriptions of in-depth interviews,
key informant interviews, and content analysis, developing codes from the transcrip-
tions, defining the codes, and then grouping the codes in categories. From the analy-
sis, 26 codes emerged and were then grouped them into 9 categories, namely, a)
Social transfers, b) Social Services, c) Social Security, d) Social Health Insurance,
e) Organizations/agency, f) Reciprocity g) Social solidarity, h) Social Cohesion, and
A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Social Protection…
i) Social Inequalities. The linkage between these categories was then analyzed and
presented under the specific objectives of the study.
Limitations
The study was limited to children who had benefited from social protection efforts
and graduated from the CCIs in Nakuru City. In addition, the study is limited to the
interpretation of the narratives of the research participants using Conventional Con-
tent Analysis.
Ethical Considerations
In Kenya, Social protection has three components, namely Social Assistance, Social
Security, and Social Health Insurance. Social assistance is the focus of this article
and it includes social transfer schemes, orphans and vulnerable children cash trans-
fers, older persons cash transfers, work-disability, and survivor protection programs
(GoK 2011, 2020). Social transfers include financial and in-kind support granted to
poor and vulnerable households or individuals in order to lessen the effects of pov-
erty among other forms of vulnerability.
Social security on the other hand includes National Social Security Fund (NSSF),
Civil Service Pension Scheme, and Private Retirement Scheme. These are partly
contributory and partly non-contributory. The non-contributory program is univer-
sal and provides a flat basic pension to all Kenyan citizens above age 70. The con-
tributory program on the other hand, covers all those who are formally employed. In
return, the covered families receive a one-time payment the moment the contributing
family member retires, gets work-disabled, or dies (national provident fund). How-
ever, they may choose to transfer part or all of the benefit into an annuity (monthly
pension).
Social health Insurance is also contributory and covers all employees and self-
employed individuals with an income above a minimum threshold. It provides sick-
pay (for up to 180 days a year) and reimburses costs of medical treatment at public
hospitals.
In Kenya, the social protection services offered to street children are largely
social transfers and services that are often provided by the third sector organi-
zations such as charitable children institutions (CCIs) also known as children
homes, welfare organizations such as religious organizations, and altruistic indi-
viduals. These services are provided within the institutions or on the streets and
E. O. Ongowo
they include educational and psychosocial support and in-kind social transfers
including food and clothing, respectively. The objective of third sector organi-
zations is to protect these children from the dangers of the streets consequently
improve their well-being.
Further, street children also receive altruistic transfers provided by individual
members of the society. Most of transfers are in-kind social transfers including
food and clothing donations. These social transfers are often provided to those
within the charitable institutions and also those on the streets.
In other cases, provision of social transfers and services is driven by religious
inspirations to care for the needy by supporting the poor members of the soci-
ety and other vulnerable groups. Islam and Christianity are some of the religious
faiths that advocate for such in-kind services. This is demonstrated by the senti-
ments of a manager of a faith based charitable institution who indicated thus,
“Our religious faith calls on us to be good neighbours; someone who can stand
with you at the point of need. These acts of supporting street children are our
contribution to this neighborliness” (Manager -charitable children institution).
Apart from the religious inspiration, social transfers and provisions are also
deemed as an act of reciprocity. A volunteer children officer reported that they
are driven by the desire and passion to help the needy and vulnerable members of
the society as demonstrated by the narration expressed by a Volunteer Children
Officer: “I cannot stand and watch as children suffer while I can make a con-
tribution however small the contribution is. In addition, these are our children
just like the ones in our families” (Female Volunteer Children Officer). Another
volunteer (male) indicated that, “when I was young, like these children, I was
also helped. I am therefore just thanking my community for helping me”. Similar
sentiments were shared by another female volunteer children officer as shown in
this excerpt; “we must try and ensure that these children get the same assistance
as those in our families”.
These excerpts not only demonstrate reciprocity among the volunteers but also
the desire to address the inequalities that street children face in comparison to
other children in family set up. Further, the spirit of volunteerism demonstrated
by the actions of the volunteers indicates the feeling of responsibility for other
members of the society. The individual therefore develops volunteerism after
receiving social support from other people. This desire to support other mem-
bers of the society because one was supported is consistent with Schuring and
Loewe (2021) assertion that horizontal redistribution yields mutual support based
on reciprocity.
Lastly, other agencies provide social services as a legal obligation. For
instance, Child Welfare Society of Kenya, a state corporation established in 1955
through a gazette notice is obligated, legally, to provide care, protection, welfare,
and adoption of children. Child Welfare Society of Kenya has statutory mandate
to provide services to the marginalized children in line with the Constitution of
Kenya of 2010 Sect. 56. The provision of these services is therefore an obligation
provided for in law. This finding affirms McClleland (2016) assertion that pro-
gressive development recognizes the responsibility of governments in the provi-
sion of welfare services.
A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Social Protection…
The findings of our research show that street children who have received social
transfers and services are more inclined to support other street children (social
solidarity). Interviews with the children who benefited from the social transfers
and services, indicated that the best they can do is to provide services and support
rehabilitation of the newly recruited street children. One of the beneficiaries, now
a student at Egerton University pursuing a degree in clinical medicine received
education support through school fees waiver and in-kind contributions of educa-
tional materials narrated thus;
During holidays, I stay in the institution, sleep with the children eat with
them so that they can realize that one can actually make it after leaving the
streets. In my interaction with them, I teach them life skills, motivate them
and discourage them from using drugs (A 22-year-old male Egerton Univer-
sity Student).
I decided that since I was helped to be what I am today; I will always con-
tribute part of my salary to the institutions so that it can help another child
(A 21-year-old beneficiary of social transfers).
This is further affirmed by another former street child thus; “When I was in the
CCI, sanitary towels were often in short supply. The supplies were so irregular that
we would often go without this important commodity. During that period, I devel-
oped a conviction that when I get a job, I will help other girls not to go through
what I went through. That is why I often donate sanitary towels every 3 months.” (A
22-year-old female former beneficiary of social transfers, now in employment).
Managers in the CCIs that provide social transfers and services to the street
children and government officials agree with the beneficiaries’ sentiments. The
later points out that whenever the rehabilitation procedure succeeds, they are
more motivated and driven to give back to the society. This is achieved by taking
part in the social protection of other street children.
A key component of social cohesion is the networks created by a group and the
accompanying norms of reciprocity that is common among the poor or other vulner-
able populations. These populations draw socio-emotional support from the group
and also resource mobilization to cover risks that may arise. Social transfers and
services build social cohesion among children who were previously on the streets
and therefore cut across the socio-cultural restrictions that last beyond the life of
the social protection efforts. Our research established that the children who were
previously on the streets and received social transfers and care, easily created social
networks that were not limited to those coming from particular streets or from some
socio-cultural groupings. In addition, the social networks created went beyond the
beneficiaries of the social transfers. These social networks are created when children
receive social services, for instance, the school feeding programs, school fees waiver
offered by the schools and these networks lasted beyond that period.
A 22-year-old female beneficiary, who is now running a small-scale enter-
prise, indicated “when we were in the institution, five of us became very close
E. O. Ongowo
Educational support and social care services that enable the children to attend
school in a safe environment provide lifelong opportunities to these children. It also
diminishes their chances of engaging in drugs and criminality hence reducing public
resentment toward them eventually enhancing social cohesion. Social care, in-kind
donations, social transfers, and social services draw children from the streets and the
more they move away from the streets, the less incidences of insecurity.
There is consensus among the children and managers of institutions that “were
it not for the social protection services, many of these children on the streets would
have died long time ago due to intoxication by drugs, shot dead by the police or
killed through mob justice for engaging in crime” (19-year-old male who received
school fees waiver for a Vocational Training).
From the foregoing, educational support and social care reinvigorate the life of
these children in a number of ways. It steers them away from drugs, building their
self-esteem, their careers for the future eventually enabling them to participate in
national affairs. Further, beneficiaries of social care, in-kind donations, and educa-
tional and psychosocial support demonstrate social solidarity, establish social net-
works, and reduce public resentment toward the beneficiaries of social protection,
street children.
Street children who have benefited from social care and services are able to par-
ticipate in societal activities hence develop a sense and feeling of belonging. This
finding affirms Razavi et al (2020) assertion that social protection can contain and
reduce inequalities. A male beneficiary indicated that;
“Since I started receiving social services, I have been able to attend hero’s day
that is celebrated on 20th October every year, participated in clean ups in town and
children parliament sessions. The fact that I was allowed to participate in these
activities has made me feel that I actually belong to this society. In addition, it has
made me more confident that I can speak before a group of people.” (16-year-old
male beneficiary of social care and in-kind social transfers).
The sentiments of the beneficiaries above demonstrate the value of social transfers
and care in addressing social inequalities, opening avenues for productive opportuni-
ties, improving social inclusion, and ultimately contributing to social cohesion.
In sum, our findings demonstrate that social protection programs can unfold signifi-
cant positive effects on the sense of belonging of the beneficiaries and horizontal
trust, hence enhancing horizontal social cohesion. Both beneficiaries (former street
children) and managers of the CCIs agree that social protection has not only contrib-
uted to enhancing social capital and addressing social inequalities, but also a critical
intervention which, if scaled up, has the potential of enhancing social cohesion.
Social transfers and services are predominantly provided by third sector organiza-
tions such as CCIs, welfare organizations, and altruistic individuals that are often
constrained in terms resources. Therefore, the number of beneficiaries of the social
transfers and services is also limited. The Kenya government can enhance social
cohesion by increasing investment and coverage of the social protection efforts to
cater for children who are not in a family environment. As a result, more people
including street children would benefit from social protection consequently enhanc-
ing social cohesion.
Further, the increased investment on the children in CCIs will have ripple effect
expanding the reach to other children. This has been demonstrated by the acts of
reciprocity shown by the former beneficiaries who out of free will made decisions to
support other needy children. This implies that more investment has the potential of
increasing the number of beneficiaries and the more the beneficiaries, the more the
people who would willing to give back to the society.
This article has demonstrated that social transfers and services contribute to the
building of social cohesion that transcend socio-cultural demarcations. With more
investment and increased number of beneficiaries of social protection, Kenya, a
multi-cultural society would break the social barriers that emanate from the social
cultural differences to become a more socially cohesive society.
The Basic Education Act 2013 of Kenya gives effect to the Constitution of Kenya
2010 article 53 that provides for free and compulsory basic education. Despite this
legal and constitutional provision, parents and guardians are still expected to pro-
vide other basic education requirements such as uniforms, pay for lunch, writing
A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects of Social Protection…
materials among others. These education requirements impede the street children
from accessing educational services consequently denying them future opportuni-
ties. This article has demonstrated that educational support and social care open up
opportunities for street children by enabling them to build lifelong careers. The gov-
ernment of Kenya through the Ministry of Education needs to expand the scope of
basic education act 2013 to ensure that these barriers are reduced to the minimum
consequently increase access to education. In addition, provision of educational sup-
port is key to opening up opportunities for the street children and hence reduces
potential future criminal behavior developed on the streets.
Lastly, there is need for further research especially a performance score matching
study that would compare the effect of social protection on social cohesion among
former street children as beneficiaries and those who have not benefited from social
protection. This would provide statistical evidence of the contribution of social pro-
tection on social cohesion.
Funding Funding was provided by Government of the Republic of Kenya (NRF 1/PhD/014).
Declarations
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of
interest.
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Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.
Author Acknowledgments
Yumiko Aratani, PhD, is senior research associate and acting This project was funded by the Columbia Center for
director of Family Economic Security at the National Center Homelessness Prevention Studies. Special thanks to Janice
for Children in Poverty. She is lead analyst for Unclaimed L. Cooper, Morris Ardoin, Diana Barnes-Brown, Shannon
Children Revisited. Her research has focused on the role Stagman, Telly Valdellon, and Amy Palmisano.
of housing in stratification processes, parental assets and
children’s well-being.
2
Homeless Children and Youth
Causes and Consequences
4
Overall the number of households with children homeless youth programs report their biological
reporting “severe” housing problems has increased mothers as a main perpetrator of maltreatment.31
from eight percent in 1978 to 13.8 percent in
2005.19 Unmet needs for decent and affordable
Behavioral Health
rental housing have been increasing even before the
current housing crisis.20
Behavioral health problems are predictors of youth
running away from home or becoming homeless.32
Economic Insecurity Higher risks of exposure to violence or trauma can
contribute to behavioral health problems among
In 2005, more than 60 percent of families with homeless children and youth. Unaccompanied
income less than 30 percent of the HUD-adjusted youth are more likely to be depressed and to
area median family income were paying more than have mental health or substance abuse problems
half of their income for rent, and about the same compared with housed youth.33 While runaway
proportion of families were also living in severely and homeless experiences influence mental health
inadequate housing.21 Lack of affordable rental status, youth who experience homelessness exhibit
housing and the current economic recession will more behavioral problems prior to their runaway or
most likely contribute to the increasing number homeless experiences compared with youth without
of homeless families and children. Since the start runaway or homeless episodes, as shown in the
of the recession in December 2007, the number figure below.34
of unemployed individuals has increased by more
than seven million, to 14.5 million, and the unem-
ployment rate has risen to 9.4 percent overall. The Average behavioral health score reported by youth prior
to reported homeless/runaway experiences
unemployment rate is even higher among blue-
collar workers or those with non-professional jobs,
which makes low-income families particularly
3.60
vulnerable to layoffs.22 Among homeless families
with children, more than 80 percent are female- 2.95
headed,23 and 54 percent of children in low-income 2.62
families live with a single parent.24 The majority of
homeless mothers rely on public assistance. 25 1.96
Violence at Home
While nutritious meals are increasingly available at Food insecurity associated with homelessness
soup kitchens and homeless shelters,43 there is little impacts the health of children living in homeless
research on food insecurity based on a national families as well as unaccompanied youth. Based on
sample of children living in homeless families and a small sample, about 45 percent of homeless chil-
unaccompanied youth. Existing research is based dren and youth are overweight or at-risk of being
on adults or limited small samples. A study based overweight due to inappropriate food consump-
on a national sample of homeless adults reports tion,48 and another case study also shows that being
that about 60 percent reported inadequate food overweight and obesity are prevalent among home-
consumption in terms of quantity and preference44 less children and youth.49
as well as frequency of meals. About 40 percent
reported fasting for an entire day and the same Homelessness has been associated with other health
proportion of homeless adults also reported not risks among children and youth. One study reports
being able to afford food during the past month.45 that homeless children are more likely to have fair
This study and others suggest that children living or poor health compared with housed low-income
in homeless families, and unaccompanied youth children, and homeless mothers are more likely
possibly experience more serious food insecu- to report that their children experienced various
rity given their lessened capability to secure food. health problems, such as fevers, ear infection, diar-
Another study found that fruit and dairy products rhea, bronchitis or asthma.50 Based on a city sample,
served for children or youth in homeless shelters, 40 percent of children with homeless experiences
are often below recommended nutritional levels.46 had asthma.51 However, other studies found no
Another study shows that homeless children and significant difference in health outcomes of home-
youth in shelters have inadequate intakes of neces- less and poorly housed children.52
sary nutrition, such as iron, magnesium, zinc or
vitamins.47 Unaccompanied youth, research suggests, are at
a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted
diseases due to risky sexual behaviors, such as incon-
sistent use of condoms, multiple sexual partners or
injection drug use.53 Further, unaccompanied youth
are at high risk of teenage pregnancy and those with
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are also more
likely to be pregnant than those without STDs.54
6
Mental Health and Exposure to Violence Education
or Trauma
Family residential stability is highly associated with
Children living in homeless families and unac- educational success of children and youth62 and
companied youth also have a greater risk of expe- conversely, homelessness contributes to poor educa-
riencing mental health problems, compared with tional outcomes for children and youth. Homeless
their housed peers. It has been reported that young children and youth are significantly more likely to
children with homeless experiences had more report grade retention than their never-homeless
behavioral problems based on the Child Behavior counterparts.63 Former homeless children attended
Check List (CBCL) than housed children.55 A an average of 4.2 schools since kindergarten, while
study on school-aged children of homeless fami- children who never experienced homelessness
lies reported that a higher proportion of homeless attended an average of 3.1 schools.64 An estimated
children experienced mental disorders with impair- 39 percent of sheltered homeless children missed
ment, such as disruptive behavior disorders, social more than one week of school in the past three
phobia, and major depression, as compared to their months and changed school from two to five times
low-income housed counterparts.56 in the last 12 months.65 Absenteeism and school
mobility are among the major mechanisms that
While homeless children and youth are more likely impact school success for children living in home-
to witness or experience violence prior to homeless less families and for unaccompanied youth. Across
episodes, they are also exposed to violence due to age levels, homelessness impacts academic achieve-
the public nature of their lives and vulnerable living ment66 and homeless children’s reading, spelling,
conditions associated with poverty, such as being on and mathematics scores are more often below grade
the streets, in shelters, doubling up with others, or level, compared with housed children.67 Almost
crowded housing.57 Unaccompanied youth are also half of sheltered homeless children merit a special
more vulnerable to physical or sexual victimization. education evaluation.68 Yet, less than 23 percent of
More than one-third of the adolescents met lifetime those with any disability had ever received special
criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). education evaluation or special education services.69
Among those adolescents, an estimated 45 percent Runaway and homeless youth are much less likely to
of PTSD males and 28 percent of females experi- complete high school, compared with those without
enced assault with a weapon; 42 percent of female runaway or homeless experiences.70
runaways experienced sexual assault.58 LGBT
homeless youth have an even higher likelihood of Juvenile Delinquency
being victimized on the streets, compared with their
heterosexual counterparts (59% vs. 33%). Nearly Unaccompanied youth tend to engage in delin-
one in five homeless youth attempted suicide,59 quent survival strategies on the streets and several
and more than half of heterosexual homeless youth factors account for this. First, youth on the streets
had suicidal thoughts while about three-fourths of in particular have few legitimate means to support
LGBT youth have had such thoughts.60 The majority themselves. Second, those with more frequent
of homeless youth on the streets use substances runaway experiences are more likely to be involved
such as tobacco (81%), alcohol (80%), or marijuana in delinquent survival strategies, such as selling
(75%), while those in shelters had slightly lower drugs, shoplifting, burglary, robbery or prostitu-
substance use (52%, 67% and 71% respectively).61 tion.71 Runaway youth are more likely to have been
arrested as juveniles (not including the arrest for
being a runaway).72 A study in Canada shows that
the longer unaccompanied youth experience home-
lessness, the higher the probability of committing a
crime; and further, in addition to being homeless,
the lack of financial assistance from the state also
increases the likelihood of youth being involved in
violent crime.73
Major laws and fiscal policies were designed to In October 2008, President Bush signed the
improve outcomes for children living in homeless Runaway and Homeless Youth Protection Act into
families and unaccompanied youth. These include law, which improved existing programs. It has:
the following: ♦ increased the authorization level of runaway and
♦ The Runaway and Homeless Youth Protection Act home youth act programs (basic center programs
♦ The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act at $150 million and street outreach programs at
$30 million);
♦ 34 CFR Part 200: Improving the Academic
Achievement of the Disadvantaged ♦ mandated that HHS get better national data on
the number of homeless youth;
♦ Housing Subsidy (Section 8 and Public Housing)
Programs ♦ increased the length of stay (in shelter or
temporary housing from 14 to 21 days; in the
♦ Chafee Foster Care Independence Act Transitional Housing Program from 18 to 21
months);
Below, we provide highlights of the provisions of
these laws. ♦ mandated that DHHS complete performance
standards for all RHY programs; and
♦ required DHHS to ensure funded programs that
The Runaway and Homeless Youth
implement the use of positive youth development75
Protection Act perspectives.76
The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act (RHY)
established programs that are administered by the The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance
Family and Youth Services Bureau, the Department Act
of Health and Human Services (DHHS)’ Admin-
istration for Children and Families. The RHY Act The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
includes the following four programs: of 2009 (ARRA) provides $70 million in fiscal
1) Basic Center Programs, which includes emer- year (FY) 2009 funds under the McKinney- Vento
gency shelter and services related to food, Education for Homeless Children and Youth
clothing, counseling, and access to health care program, which is authorized under Title VII-B of
and reunification when possible. the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act. 77
8
Housing Subsidy Programs (Section 8 and
The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act was
originally authorized in 1987 and re-authorized Public Housing)
by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 to
address educational needs of homeless children and There are a variety of housing programs for low-
youth. “Under this program, State educational agen- income families, such as Section 8 programs and
cies (SEAs) must ensure that each homeless child and public housing. Residents are usually required to
youth has equal access to the same free, appropriate pay 30 percent of their income in rent.
public education, including a public preschool educa-
tion, as other children and youth… States and districts Section 8 rental vouchers and public housing
are required to review and undertake steps to revise provide housing assistance to low-income families
laws, regulations, practices, or policies that may act
(in general those with family incomes between 50
as a barrier to the enrollment, attendance, or success
to 80 percent of the median income of the county
in school of homeless children and youth.”
of their residence). Section 8 programs provide
This act uses a broader definition of homelessness vouchers and certificate programs that allow more
and also differs from the previous programs in the than 1.4 million families to live in private housing.79
following ways. It: Public housing includes buildings owned by the
public housing authority and its eligibility is deter-
♦ prohibits states to segregate homeless children
and youth in a school or a program within a
mined based on family income, being elderly, or
school based on their homeless status; disability status. Approximately 1.2 million house-
holds live in public housing units, managed by some
♦ requires states and local educational agencies 3,300 housing authorities.80
(LEAs) to provide transportation to and from school
of origin at the request of the parent or guardian
Other programs where families are required to
(or in the case of the unaccompanied youth, the
liaison);
pay well over 30 percent of their income for units
include low-income housing tax credit (LIHTC)
♦ requires LEAs admit a homeless child or youth and home investment partnership (HOME). The
to the school where enrollment is sought by the
LIHTC provides funding for developers to cover
parent or guardian, if there is a dispute while
costs of low-income housing development through
pending resolution of the dispute;
a federal tax credit. LIHTC currently adds 90,000
♦ makes school placement determinations on the units each year for low-income renters.81
basis of the best interest of the child or youth, and
in determining the best interest, states must keep
a homeless child or youth in the school of origin Chafee Foster Care Independence Act
unless doing so contradicts the wishes of the child
or youth’s parent or guardian; The John H. Chafee Foster Care Independence
♦ mandates that every LEA regardless of McKinney- Program (CFCIP) provides various types of assis-
Vento subgrant receipt designate a local liaison tance to help current and former foster care youths
for homeless children and youth; and make the successful transition to adulthood and
prevent homelessness. Grants are offered to states
♦ enables states that receive an allocation greater
than the state minimum allotment to subgrant to
with a plan to assist youth in a wide variety of
LEAs at least 70 percent and those states with areas, such as help with education, employment,
minimum allotment to subgrant to LEA at least 50 financial management, housing, emotional support
percent. and targeting older youth in foster care as well as
youth aged 18 to 21 who have aged out of the foster
Source: U.S. Department of Education. 2004. Education for
Homeless Children and Youth Program Title VII-B of the McKinney-
care system. In 2002, the Educational and Training
Vento Homeless Assistance Act, as Amended by the No Child Left Vouchers Program (ETV) for Youths Aging out of
Behind Act of 2001 Non-Regulatory Guidance. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education. Page 4-5.
Foster Care was added to the CFCIP. It provides
funding that targets the education and training
needs of youth aging out of foster care. In addition
to the existing authorization of $140 million for the
CFCIP program, the law authorizes $60 million for
♦ Increase housing subsidies to provide perma- ♦ Provide nutritiously adequate food and nutri-
nent housing for children living in homeless tion outreach at shelters and other temporary
families, and unaccompanied youth. Homeless housing. A special supplemental nutrition
families who received housing subsidies are 20 program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC)
times more likely to have housing stability after were designed to reach WIC-eligible families
shelter use, compared with those who did not in homeless shelters, to identify nutrition inad-
receive a subsidy.84 equacies among those homeless families and to
♦ Increase school-based and community-based provide them with nutrition supplements through
health and mental health services, including the WIC food package.89
assessment and screening for homeless children ♦ Provide educational services to facilitate high
and youth. Focus on using a trauma-informed school completion for unaccompanied youth
approach. Homeless youth who used a mobile who dropped out of high school. Those who had
health or mental health unit for five months or a high school equivalent degree were more likely
more were more likely to report being stabi- to have lawful employment.90
lized on medications and counseling, decreased ♦ Provide vocational training and employment
substance use, received regular birth control and services for unaccompanied youth to achieve
immunizations, and treated and referred medical economic self-sufficiency. Approximately 60%
conditions.85 Homeless youth prefer to receive of homeless young adults who participated in job
health care services at clinics that are “youth training class found employment within three
friendly.”86 months following the training.91
♦ Target and increase programs that better ♦ Provide funding to collect data for a national
identify and serve children living in homeless longitudinal sample of children and youth who
families and unaccompanied youth with devel- experienced homelessness as current research is
opmental delays or at-risk developmental delays largely based on selected samples from metro-
and disabilities. politan areas and often do not include those who
♦ Increase funding for transitional and indepen- experience homelessness in non-urban areas.
dent living programs for youth who are aging
out of foster care. Iowa, Texas, Connecticut, Utah,
and Maryland implemented a range of initiatives
including workforce investment strategies to post-
secondary support.87 In Kentucky, the CFCIP
program successfully helped more than 200 youth
attain post-secondary education.88
10
Endnotes
1. Bratt, R. G. 2002. Housing and Family Well-Being. Housing 18. Federal Interagency Forum on Children and Family
Studies 17(1): 13-26. Statistics. 2007. America’s Children: Key National Indicators
of Well-Being 2007. Edited By Federal Interagency Forum on
2. Aaronson, D. 2000. A Note on the Benefits of Homeowner- Children and Family Statistics.
ship. Journal of Urban Economics 47: 356-369.
19. Ibid.
3. National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH). 2008. NCH
Fact Sheet: Homeless Family with Children. Accessed on Dec. 20. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
14, 2008 from: www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/ Affordable Housing Needs 2005: Report to Congress.
families.pdf. 2005. Accessed June 8, 2009 from http://www.huduser.org/
publications/affhsg/affhsgneeds.html.
4. Ibid.
21. See endnote 18.
5. U.S. Department of Education. 2002. Federal Register: 34 Cfr
Part 200 Title I – Improving the Academic Achievement of the 22. U.S. Department of Labor. The Employment Situation: May
Disadvantaged; Final Rule. July 5, 2002. 2009. 2009. Accessed June 8, 2009 from http://www.bls.gov/
news.release/archives/empsit_06052009.pdf.
6. National Center for Family Homelessness. 2009. America’s
Youngest Outcasts: State Report Card on Child Homelessness. 23. The National Center on Family Homelessness. America’s
Newton, MA: National Center for Family Homelessness. Youngest Outcasts. 2009. Accessed June 8, 2009 from http://
www.homelesschildrenamerica.org/.
7. Ibid.
24. National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia
8. Ibid. University Mailman School of Public Health. United States
9. Ibid. Demographics of Low-Income Children. 2009. Accessed
June 8, 2009 from http://www.nccp.org/profiles/state_profile.
10. Burt, M. Understanding Homeless Youth: Numbers, php?state=US&id=6.
Characteristics, Multisystem Involvement, and Intervention
Options, Testimony Given before the U.S. House Committee 25. Bassuk, E. L.; Buckner, J. C.; Weinreb, L. F.; Browne, A.;
on Ways and Means, Subcommittee on Income Security Bassuk, S. S.; Dawson, R.; Perloff, J. N. 1997. Homelessness
and Family Support, June 19, 2007. 2007. Urban Institute. in Female-Headed Families: Childhood and Adult Risk and
Accessed Aug. 11, 2009 from http://www.urban.org/ Protective Factors. American Journal of Public Health 87(2):
UploadedPDF/901087_Burt_Homeless.pdf. 241-248.
11. This is a technical term used by Ringwalt et al. 1998. See 26. The United States Conference of Mayors. 2007. Hunger and
endnote 12 for the details. Homeless Survey: A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness
in America’s Cities, a 23-City Survey, December 2007.
12. Ringwalt, C. L.; Greene, J. M.; Robertson, M. J. 1998. Washington DC: The United States Conference of Mayors.
Familial Backgrounds and Risk Behaviors of Youth with
Thrownaway Experiences. Journal of Adolescence 21(3): Kennedy, A. C. 2007. Homelessness, Violence Exposure, and
241-252. School Participation among Urban Adolescent Mothers. Journal
of Community Psychology 35(5): 639-654.
13. Ibid.
Rukmana, D. 2008. Where the Homeless Children and
14. Ray, N. 2006. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth: Youth Come From: A Study of the Residential Origins of the
An Epidemic of Homelessness. Washington, DC: National Homeless in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Children and Youth
Coalition for the Homeless. Services Review 30(9): 1009-1021.
15. The United States Conference of Mayors. 2007. Hunger and Stainbrook, K. A.; Hornik, J. 2006. Similarities in the Character-
Homeless Survey: A Status Report on Humger and Homelessness istics and Needs of Women with Children in Homeless Family
in America’s Cities, a 23-City Survey, December 2007. and Domestic Violence Shelters. Families in Society-the Journal
Washington DC: The United States Conference of Mayors. of Contemporary Social Services 87(1): 53-62.
16. Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University. Tucker, J. S.; Wenzel, S. L.; Straus, J. B.; Ryan, G. W.; Golinelli,
America’s Rental Housing: Homes for a Diverse Nation. 2006. D. 2005. Experiencing Interpersonal Violence – Perspectives
Accessed June 8, 2009 from http://www.jchs.harvard.edu/publi- of Sexually Active, Substance-Using Women Living in Shelters
cations/rental/rh06_americas_rental_housing.pdf. and Low-Income Housing. Violence against Women 11(10):
1319-1340.
17. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Affordable Housing. 2009. Accessed Sept. 1, 2009 from http:// 27. Rukmana, D. 2008. Where the Homeless Children and
www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/affordablehousing/index.cfm. Youth Come From: A Study of the Residential Origins of the
Homeless in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Children and Youth
Services Review 30(9): 1009-1021.
12
48. Richards, R.; Smith, C. 2007. Environmental, Parental, and 57. Anooshian, L. J. 2005. Violence and Aggression in the
Personal Influences on Food Choice, Access, and Overweight Lives of Homeless Children: A Review. Aggression and Violent
Status among Homeless Children. Social Science & Medicine Behavior 10(2): 129-152.
65(8): 1572-1583.
58. Whitbeck, L. B.; Hoyt, D. R.; Johnson, K. D.; Chen, X. 2007.
Smith, C.; Richards, R. 2008. Dietary Intake, Overweight Victimization and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Runaway
Status, and Perceptions of Food Insecurity among Homeless and Homeless Adolescents. Violence and Victim 22(6): 721-734.
Minnesotan Youth. American Journal of Human Biology 20(5):
550-563. 59. Yoder, K. A.; Whitbeck, L. B.; Hoyt, D. R. 2008.
Dimensionality of Thoughts of Death and Suicide: Evidence
49. Grant, R.; Shapiro, A.; Joseph, S.; Goldsmith, S.; Rigual- from a Study of Homeless Adolescents. Social Indicators
Lynch, L.; Redlener, I. 2007. The Health of Homeless Children Research 86(1): 83-100.
Revisited. Advances in Pediatrics 51: 173-187.
60. Whitbeck, L. B.; Chen, X. J.; Hoyt, D. R.; Tyler, K. A.;
50. Weinreb, L.; Goldberg, R.; Bassuk, E.; Perloff, J. 1998. Johnson, K. D. 2004. Mental Disorder, Subsistence Strategies,
Determinants of Health and Service Use Patterns in Homeless and Victimization among Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Homeless
and Low-Income Housed Children. Pediatrics 102(3): 554-562. and Runaway Adolescents. Journal of Sex Research 41(4):
329-342.
51. Grant, R.; Bowen, S.; McLean, D. E.; Berman, D.; Redlener,
K.; Redlener, I. 2007. Asthma among Homeless Children in 61. Greene, J. M.; Ennett, S. T.; Ringwalt, C. 1997. Substance
New York City: An Update. American Journal of Public Health Abuse among Runaway and Homeless Youth in Three National
97(3): 448-450. Samples. American Journal of Public Health 87: 229-235.
52. Coker, T. R.; Elliott, M. N.; Kanouse, D. E.; Grunbaum, J. 62. Aaronson, D. 2000. A Note on the Benefits of Homeowner-
A.; Gilliland, M. J.; Tortolero, S. R.; Cuccaro, P.; Schuster, M. ship. Journal of Urban Economics 47: 356-369.
A. 2009. Prevalence, Characteristics, and Associated Health
and Health Care of Family Homelessness among Fifth-Grade 63. Rafferty, Y.; Shinn, M.; Weitzman, B. C. 2004. Academic
Students. American Journal of Public Health 99(8): 1446-1452. Achievement among Formerly Homeless Adolescents and Their
Continuously Housed Peers. Journal of School Psychology 42(3):
Wood, D. L.; Valdez, R. B.; Hayashi, T.; Shen, A. 1990. Health 179-199.
of Homeless Children and Housed, Poor Children. Pediatrics
86(6): 858-866. 64. Ibid.
53. Noell, J.; Rohde, P.; Ochs, L.; Yovanoff, P.; Alter, M. J.; 65. Zima, B. T.; Bussing, R.; Forness, S. R.; Benjamin, B. 1997.
Schmid, S.; Bullard, J.; Black, C. 2001. Incidence and Prevalence Sheltered Homeless Children: Their Eligibility and Unmet Need
of Chlamydia, Herpes, and Viral Hepatitis in a Homeless for Special Education Evaluations. American Journal of Public
Adolescent Population. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 28(1): Health 87(2): 236-240.
4-10. 66. See endnote 63.
54. Thompson, S. J.; Bender, K. A.; Lewis, C. M.; Watkins, R. 67. Rubin, D. H.; Erickson, C. J.; Agustin, M. S.; Cleary, S. D.;
2008. Runaway and Pregnant: Risk Factors Associated with Allen, J. K.; Cohen, P. 1996. Cognitive and Academic Func-
Pregnancy in a National Sample of Runaway/Homeless Female tioning of Homeless Children Compared with Housed Chil-
Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 43(2): 125-132. dren. Pediatrics 97(3): 289-294.
55. Shinn, M.; Schteingart, J. S.; Williams, N. C.; Carlin-Mathis, 68. See endnote 65.
J.; Bialo-Karagis, N.; Becker-Klein, R.; Weitzman, B. C. 2008.
Long-Term Associations of Homelessness with Children’s Well- 69. See endnote 65.
Being. American Behavioral Scientist 51(6): 789-809.
70. See endnote 32.
Buckner, J. C.; Bassuk, E. L.; Weinreb, L. F.; Brooks, M. G.
1999. Homelessness and Its Relation to the Mental Health and 71. Whitbeck, L. B.; Simons, R. L. 1990. Life on the Streets – the
Behavior of Low-Income School-Age Children. Developmental Victimization of Runaway and Homeless Adolescents. Youth &
Psychology 35(1): 246-257. Society 22(1): 108-125.
Masten, A. S.; Miliotis, D.; Graham-Bermann, S. A.; Ramirez, 72. Kaufman, J. G.; Widom, C. S. 1999. Childhood Victimiza-
M.; Neemann, J. 1993. Children in Homeless Families: Risks tion, Running Away, and Delinquency. Journal of Research in
to Mental Health and Development. Journal of Consulting and Crime and Delinquency 36(4): 347-370.
Clinical Psychology 61(2): 335-343.
73. Baron, S. W. 2008. Street Youth, Unemployment, and Crime:
56. Anooshian, L. J. 2005. Violence and Aggression in the Is It That Simple? Using General Strain Theory to Untangle the
Lives of Homeless Children: A Review. Aggression and Violent Relationship. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal
Behavior 10(2): 129-152. Justice 50(4): 399-434.
Buckner, J. C.; Bassuk, E. L.; Weinreb, L. F.; Brooks, M. G. 74. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Admin-
1999. Homelessness and Its Relation to the Mental Health and istration for Children and Families. Youth Development Divi-
Behavior of Low-Income School-Age Children. Developmental sion. 2008. Accessed Aug. 2, 2009 from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/
Psychology 35(1): 246-257. programs/fysb/content/youthdivision/index.htm#sub1.
14
Non-Formal Education for Improving
Educational Outcomes in Street Children
and Street Youth in Developing
Countries: A Systematic Review
Author
Daniel D Shephard
Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
Abstract
This is the protocol for a review and there is no abstract. The objective is as follows:
To assess the effects of non-formal education (NFE) on the educational outcomes of street
children and street youth (SCSY) who live in developing countries.
1. Background
Since the 1970s non-formal education (NFE) has spread throughout the world as a method of
providing education that actually empowers the most excluded members of society. Because of
the empowerment perspective of NFE, its flexibility, and its low cost, NFE has been used
throughout the developing world to provided education to street children and street youth
(SCSY) (Gathenya, 2003; Rodriguez, 2010; Thompson, 2001; Zutshi, 2004). However, despite
the widespread use of NFE, the educational effectiveness of the approach for this vulnerable
population is unclear. Therefore, this review will address this knowledge gap by bringing
together and synthesizing all extant studies that address the effectiveness of non-formal
education for improving the educational outcomes of SCSY.
b. Non-formal education
If proven to be effective in achieving desired outcomes, non-formal education (NFE) programs
may be well suited for serving this population because such programs are characterized by a
participatory, practical and flexible approach (Etling, 1993) that matches the particular needs of
street children (Bar-On, 1998). There is also a theoretical fit between NFE and the
independence and creativity that street children have acquired via their need to navigate the
world of adults as wage-earners. Furthermore, the need of street children to work and make a
li i g ea s that NFE s pra ti al fo us o life-skills and vocational training is more suited to
their needs. This need for an alternative to formal education is arguably even more pronounced
in the developing context where there are not as many service jobs and where many economic
opportunities are in the informal sector. Finally, the flexible schedule of NFE suits the lives of
street children because many of them are working the streets during the day (Aderinto, 2000;
Lemba, 2002) and therefore cannot attend the normal schedule of formal schooling.
In order to make sure that these children have the educational opportunities it would follow
that NFEs must first equip them with the basics of literacy, numeracy, and life-skills training.
Without basic literacy and numeracy it will be difficult for the children to optimally navigate
government services, business dealings, and extended educational/training opportunities. In
addition, without life-skills, these NFE programs run the risk of neglecting to address the daily
circumstances in which these children find themselves.
c. Importance of Review
Most of the extant literature regarding street children focuses on qualitative accounts of their
experiences and descriptive studies of their characteristics (Aderinto, 2000; Ayuku, et al., 2004;
Balachova, Bonner, & Levy, 2009; Bar-On, 1998; Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Lam, 2010; de Millan &
Millan, 2004; Iqbal, 2008; Nalkur, 2009) which sometimes include policy recommendations
without any effectiveness studies to back up such recommendations (Aderinto, 2000; Lemba,
2002).
There is a need for research that addresses the current state of the evidence for effective
practices regarding NFE programs for SCSY. This is especially urgent because of the size of the
Finally, to the best of my knowledge, this will be the first systematic review of interventions
that include street children under the age of 10 as well as the first systematic review to focus
specifically on an educational intervention for street children and street youth.
d. Review Objective
This review will seek to move towards filling this gap in knowledge by collating together all the
best studies on the effectiveness of NFE programs for SCSY that include a counterfactual. This
will enable NFE programs throughout the developing world to provide better educational
programs for the street children and street youth in their area. In the event that no high quality
studies are found, this review will serve to highlight the need for research in this area so that
the millions of street children throughout the developing world can be better served.
Types of Studies
Randomized controlled trials, cluster-randomized trials, factorial trials, concurrent and non-
concurrent comparison trials with matched control groups controlling for baseline
characteristics (including historical control trials,) and regression discontinuity designs are
included. All studies are required to collect the data prospectively to avoid recall bias. Control
groups must have been chosen prospectively in all studies, including non-concurrent
comparison trials, to avoid biasing results by the selection of a control group after the study
was completed. Crossover trials are excluded because the effects of non-formal education
would be hypothesized to result in permanent change (Fletcher, 2009). Any other trial designs
lacking a comparison group are excluded because they cannot rule out the chance that change
was due to the passage of time or to respondent bias when taking the same battery of tests
post-intervention (Greenhalgh, 2010; Littell, Corcoran, & Pillai, 2009). The search includes the
retrieval of published and unpublished studies written in any language in order to avoid
publication bias (Littell, et al., 2009). Study locations were restricted to developing countries
which are defined as any country that falls elo the U ited Natio s highest Hu a
De elop e t I de of Ver High Hu a De elop e t in 2011.
Types of Participants
For the purposes of this review both street children (ages 0-18) and street youth (through age
24)(cf. World Bank; United Nations) are included. This includes both commonly cited categories
of street li i g: o the street a d of the street UNICEF .
The population is defined using the commonly cited Inter-NGO defi itio of street hildre ,
but the age range was extended to include both children and youth for whom the street (in the
widest sense of the word, including unoccupied dwellings, wasteland, etc.) has become her or
his habitual abode and/or source of livelihood and who is inadequately protected, supervised
or directed by responsible adults. (Inter-NGO, 1984)
However, in studies lacking evidence that participants fulfilled the requirements of this
definition, if those studies claim that the participants were street children such a claim is
considered sufficient for inclusion.
The following groups of children and youth are not considered sufficiently similar to be grouped
with SCSY they also fulfill the definition above. Foster children are excluded due to the foster
s ste s pro isio of a ore sta le housi g ir u sta e. I additio , travelers (such as Roma
and Gypsies) are excluded unless they also match the above criteria.
Trials are included if at least 50% of their participants meet this re ie s i lusio riteria.
Types of Interventions
Trials are included if they test the efficacy/effectiveness of non-formal education (NFE)
programs that had a stated purpose of improving the educational and/or vocational outcomes
of street children and street youth.
In order for a program to be considered for inclusion as NFE in this review, it must fulfill the
following criteria:
1. It must be distinct from the formal school system in its schedule, curriculum and
infrastructure.
2. It must seek to match the needs of street children and street youth.
3. It must be longer than three months.
4. It must be voluntary.
The program may provide temporary housing and may connect the participant with another
service that provides long-term housing, but it must not include long-term housing as a
necessary component of the NFE program. Housing for one year or more will be considered
long-term housing. Furthermore, in the case of temporary housing, participants must be free to
leave if they so desire to maintain the participant focus of NFE.
Ho e er, either the sour e of the progra s fu di g, or the ertification level of its teachers,
nor its physical lo atio affe ted the progra s o -formal status for inclusion in this review.
Primary Outcomes
1. Educational Status
1.1. Enrollment in formal/tertiary education
2. Educational Abilities
2.1. Academic Performance
2.2. Cognitive Abilities
2.3. Literacy
Secondary Outcomes
3. Improved Work status
3.1. Measurements Accepted
3.1.1. Increased Earnings
3.1.2. Employed
4. Improved Self-perception
4.1. Measurements Accepted
4.1.1. Improved Self-Efficacy
4.1.2. Improved Self-Esteem
4.1.3. Improved Positive/Negative Affect
5. Improved Quality of Life
6. Change in Negative Behavior
7. Frequency of Abuse
Electronic Searches
The following electronic databases will be searched from their inception through May 2011:
Ovid Medline In-Process & Other British Nursing Index and Archive
Non-Indexed Citations and Ovid Database
Medline PsychInfo
EMBASE LISA
EconLit ERIC
Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals I t l Bi liograph of So ial S ie es
Database ASSIA
Sociological Abstracts
A sensitive search strategy was formulated in an attempt to identify all relevant studies
regardless of language or publication status.
Population
1. Street*
2. Vagabond*
3. Railway*
4. Homeless*
5. Rag-pick* or ragpick* or (rag* adj3 pick*)
6. Gamine*
7. Gutter*
8. Vagrant*
9. Beg or begs or begg*
10. Hawker* or hawking
11. Throwaway* or throw-away* or (throw adj away)
12. Exp Homeless Youth/ or exp Homeless Person/ or exp vagabond/
13. 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 or 7 or 8 or 9 or 10 or 11 or 12
Age
14. Child* or kid*
15. Youth* or young or teen* or minor* or youngster*
Grey Literature
The publication websites of the following international organizations involved in program
evaluation will be searched: WHO, UNESCO, OECD, UNICEF, UNHCR, World Bank, Children
Youth & Economic Strengthening, 3ie, Population Council, Poverty Action Lab, ILO, World
Vision, Save the Children, Covenant House, and Plan International.
Thirty non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working with street children will be contacted
for further studies. In order to ensure that NGOs are distributed throughout the world, five
NGOs will be contacted from each populated continent: Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, South
America, and North America.
Both Google and Google Scholar will also be used to identify additional studies using terms for
homelessness, children, and non-formal education.
Reference Lists
The search will be iterative, in that the reference lists of eligible studies will be searched for
more potential studies. An eligible study is defined as any study that is shortlisted after the
screening of titles and abstracts.
Correspondence
Researchers involved in either non-formal education or street children research will be
contacted for published and unpublished data. Furthermore, authors of potentially eligible
trials will be contacted for additional information as needed.
Clinical Registries
The following trial registries will be searched using terms describing homelessness and non-
formal education (See Appendix ### for details): CenterWatch Clinical Trial Listing Service,
ClinicalTrials.gov Register, Community Research & Development Information Service, Current
Controlled Trials metaRegister of Controlled Trials, WHO International Clinical Trials Registry
Platform, International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number Register.
Selection of Studies
The titles and abstracts of all studies identified will be screened by the first author to shortlist
studies for possible inclusion in the review. The full text versions of the shortlisted studies will
be obtained and scrutinized independently by both authors for final inclusion in the review (DS
and DM) using a flow chart (Appendix A) to assess eligibility based on design, participants and
intervention.
Neither review author will be blinded to the names of study authors, institutions, journals of
publication, or results. Disagreements will be handled by discussion between the reviewers and
if no agreement is reached a third reviewer (MS) will be consulted.
If the heterogeneity of the studies (I2) is less than 75%, a meta-analysis will be conducted using
an additive random effects model, multiplicative random effects model, and a fixed effects
model in order to assess differences in estimates due to the relative weighting of small and
large studies. Sensitivity analyses will also be conducted to test the effect of removing any
studies that are at risk of biasing the results due to study design, population heterogeneity or
intervention heterogeneity. Specific criteria for sensitivity analyses were not set a priori due to
the expected variety in the results; however, all analyses will be reported in full in the final
write-up in order to avoid selective reporting bias.
Treatment Conditions
If an included study contained more than one treatment condition with elements of NFE, then
the review will extract data for the treatment arm that fulfilled the largest percentage of NFE
criteria as set out in the NFE checklist that was designed for this review (Appendix C). If the
treatment arms fulfill an equal number of NFE items, then one arm will be chosen by the review
author. All such decisions will be reported and the study details of all treatment arms will be
reported.
Outcome Data
Multiple Scales
If a study uses more than one scale to assess a single outcome then the author will adhere to
the following protocol:
1. If all the scales were continuous then the continuous data from different scales were
normalized and the mean was calculated.
2. If outcomes were measured using both dichotomous and continuous data, then both
were extracted and analyzed separately – with multiple continuous measurements
being combined according to the method above.
Inclusion/Exclusion Flowchart
1. Is the study clearly about non-SCSY?
a. Yes, EXCLUDE
b. No, Continue
2. Is the study in a developed country?
a. Yes, EXCLUDE
b. No, Continue
3. Is it a non-intervention study?
a. Yes, EXCLUDE
b. No, Continue
4. Is the study quantitative?
a. No, EXCLUDE
b. Yes, Continue
5. Does the intervention have a comparison group?
a. No, EXCLUDE
b. Yes, Continue
6. Is the study assessing the effectiveness of NFE?
a. No, EXCLUDE
b. Yes, Continue
Blinding
Non-R.C.T.
Sampling Method
Participant
Eligibility Criteria
Allocation of participants
Matching Method
Attrition
Data
Measurement Tools
Intervention
Intervention Fidelity
Deliverer Ability
Other Services
Incentives
Unit of Analysis
Data Analysis
Data Imputation
Statistical Control
Post Hoc Analysis
Theory-Based
Included Excluded
Is it an NFE curriculum?
5. Is the education of sufficient length (longer than three months)?
6. Does the school have educational goals?
a. Focus on improving cognitive function
b. Focus on literacy and numeracy
c. Focus on transitioning students into formal or tertiary school
7. Does the school have vocational goals?
a. How to find and maintain a job
b. How to start and run a business
c. How to get into a further vocational/apprenticeship program
8. Does the school have life-skills components of the curriculum?
a. Ho to pro ide for o e s asi eeds of shelter, food, and physical/mental health
b. How to navigate relationships and deal with conflict
c. How to take care of your own health, hygiene, and safety