(Rancang Penelitian)
RESEARCH DESIGN
THE RESEARCH
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
(NO CONTROL OVER EXPOSURE)
(INVESTIGATOR DETERMINE)
WHO EXPOSED OR NOT EXPOSED
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYTIC
DESCRIPTIVE
STUDIES
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS,
SUGGEST FURTHER- MODEL BUILDING
DESCRIPTIVE AND NEW FORMULATION
HYPOTHESIS OF HYPOTHESIS
TEST HYPOTHESIS
- X - SECTIONAL
- CASE-CONTROL STUDY - CLINICAL TRIALS
- COHORT - FIELD TRIALS
5 CRITERIA CAUSAL
ASSOCIATION
1 TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIP --> means exposure to the
causal factor (risk factor) must precede development of
the disease (effect)
2 STRENGHT OF ASSOCIATION (RR> 4) --> Strength
refers to the size/magnitude of RR (not the p value or
degree of statistically significance which can be
increased by increasing the sample size).
3 CONSISTENCY (C) AND REPLICATION (R)
C--> means different studies resulted in the same
association
R--> means repetition of the same study resulted in the
same association.
4 SPECIFICITY/DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP
Apply 5 criteria
satisfied
Conclude
Association is causal
40
100.000 POP
30
20
10
0
< 1 TH 1-4 TH 5-9 TH 10-14 TH 15-19 TH 20+TH
AGE GROUP (YEARS)
PERTUSSIS (WHOOPING COUGH)
INCIDENCE BY AGE GROUP,
UNITED STATES, 1989
60
REPORTED CASES PER
50
100.000 POP
40
30
20
10
0
0-4 TH 5-9 TH 10-14 TH 15-19 TH 20+ TH
AGE GROUP (YEARS)
PREVALENCE OF HAND/ WRIST
CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDER BY SEX,
NEWSPAPER COMPANY A, 1990
16
14
12
% PREVALENCE
10
8
6
4
2
0
MALE FEMALE
SEX
CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES
The comparison is made between a group of persons
who has the disease and a group that does not have
the disease, but the characteristic and/ or exposure of
the two groups are observed in the same time
D+ D- TOTAL
FR + A B A+B
FR - C D C+D
STUDIED POPULATION
D+ COMPARE D-
STUDIED STUDIED
CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTIC
LANGKAH-LANGKAH STUDI CROSS
SECTIONAL
TERPAPAR
TIDAK KASUS
TERPAPAR
POPULASI
TERPAPAR
KONTROL
TIDAK
TERPAPAR
LANGKAH LANGKAH CASE-CONTROL
STUDY
D+ D-
FR + A B
FR - C D
KEUNTUNGAN
1 Kadang kadang merupakan satu satunya
cara untuk kasus yang jarang atau masa
laten/inkubasi yang panjang
2 Hasil cepat, biaya murah
3 Subyek penelitian sedikit
4 Identifikasi lebih dari satu faktor resiko
Kerugian
1 Data mengenai faktor resiko mengandalkan
daya ingat dan atau catatan medik.( recall
bias, memory bias, catatan medik sering
tidak akurat)
2 Kesalahan memilih kontrol yang tepat
(Selection bias)
3 Hanya berkaitan dengan satu penyakit/efek
ODDS RATIO FOR SMOKERS AND NON
SMOKERS
0 7 61 1.0
1-4 55 129 3.7
5-14 489 570 7.5
15-24 475 431 9.6
25-49 293 154 16.6
50 + 38 12 27.6
SUMBER : LILIENFELD
31
COHORT STUDY
SAKIT
TERPAPAR
TIDAK
SAKIT
populasi SAKIT
TIDAK
TERPAPAR
TIDAK
SAKIT
LANGKAH STUDI COHORT
1 Merumuskan pertanyaan penelitian dan
hipotesis.
2 Menetapkan kohort
Menentukan subyek tanpa sakit atau tanpa
problem kesehatan atau tanpa efek.
3 Memilih kelompok kontrol
Kelompok kontrol terbentuk secara alamiah.
4 Identifikasi variabel penelitian dan cara
pengamatannya
Buat definisi faktor resiko dan effect
Risk factors : records, medical
examination, measures of the
environment, questionnaire
Problem : effect -
changes in exposure
Information on outcome/effect :
periodic/non periodic medical
examination, surveillance of death
certificate.
Problem : loss to follow up
5.Analisa hasil
Resiko relatif = A/ (A+B) : C/ ( C+D )
D+ D-
FR + A B
FR - C D
1.Terbaik menerangkan hubungan antara faktor
resiko dan efek
2. Menentukan insiden
5. Minimizes bias
1. Waktunya lama, mahal.
2. Rumit
3. Loss to follow up
4. Tidak efisien
5. Etika.
6. Sampel besar
Langkah pelaksanaan uji klinis
(contoh studi experimental)
1. Merumuskan pertanyaan penelitian dan hipotesis.
2. Menentukan desain uji klinis yang sesuai.
. desain pararel
. desain menyilang (cross over)
. lain
KELOMPOK
EFEK ?
PERLAKUAN
SUBYEK
PENELITIAN R
KELOMPOK EFEK ?
KONTROL
KELOMPOK KELOMPOK
EFEK ?
PERLAKUAN PERLAKUAN
SUBYEK R
KELOMPOK
EFEK ? KELOMPOK
KONTROL
KONTROL
I. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. The one - shot - case study
XO
2. The one - group pretest - posttest D.
O1 X O2
3. The static group comparison
X O1
- O2
II. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Prestest - post-test with control group
“Populasi” O1 X O2
R
(Subyek)
O1 O2
Populasi R
- O2
3. “Randomized Solomon Four Group”
O1 X O2
R O1 O2
X O2
O2
III. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Time Series Design
O1 O2 O3 X O 4 O5 O6
Kel Kontrol O1 O2 O3 O 4 O5
3. Non Randomized Control Group Pretest-
Post Test Design
Kel Eks O1 X O 2
Kel Kontrol O1 O2