Basidiomycota

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Basidiomycota

Basidiomycetes dari buku Ernst Haeckel

berjudul Kunstformen der Natur (Artforms of
Nature) pada tahun 1904

Klasifikasi ilmiah
Kerajaan:
Fungi
Upakerajaan: Dikarya
Filum:
Basidiomycota
R.T. Moore, 1980

Divisi Basidiomycotina adalah takson dengan Kingdom Fungi yang termasuk spesies
yang memproduksi spora dalam bentuk kubus yang disebut basidium. Secara esensial
grup Ascomycota, mempunya 22,300 spesies. Basidiomycotina dibagi menjadi
Homobasidimycotina (jamur yang sebenarnya); dan Heterobasidiomycetes.
Basidimycotina dapat dibagi lagi menjadi 3 kelas, Hymenomycotina
(Hymenomycetes), Ustilaginomycotina (Ustilaginomycetes), dan Teliomycotina
(Urediniomycetes).
Basidimycotina mempunyai bentuk uniseluler dan multiseluler dan dapat
bereproduksi secara generatif dan vegetatif. Habitat mereka ada di terrestrial dan
akuatik dan bisa dikarakteristikan dengan melihat basidia, mempunyai dikaryon.

[sunting] Daur hidup

Basidiomycetes mempunyai sistem reproduksi yang aneh. Kebanyakan merupakan
heterotolik, tapi dengan bipolar atau tetrapolar sistem kawin. Biasanya, somatogami
(hyphogami) dilakukan.
Kebanyakan Basidiomycetes hidup sebagai dikariotik, miselium, dengan karyogami
dan meiosis terjadi di basidium. Berikut contoh diploid daur hidup: genus Xerula
kadang ditemukan memproduksi klon diploid sebagai spora, dan Armillaria, patogen
hutan biasa, mempunyai miselium yang diploid, dimana karyogami mengikuti
plasmogami.
Spora vegetatif (konidia) juga ditemukan di basidiomycetes.

Jamur
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dari Wikipedia Indonesia,
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"Fungal" redirects here. "Fungal" redirects here. For the undergarment, see Fungals .
Untuk pakaian dalam, lihat Fungals.
"Fungi" redirects here. "Fungi" redirects here. For the fictional character, see Fungus
the Bogeyman . Untuk karakter fiksi, lihat jamur yang hantu. For the music genre, see
Fungi (music) . Untuk genre musik, lihat Fungi (musik).
Fungi Jamur
Fossil range: Early Devonian - Recent (but see
text ), Rentang fosil: Early Devonian - Recent
(tapi lihat teks),
Pre Pre

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JJ
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Pg Pg
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Clockwise from top left: Amanita muscaria , a

basidiomycete; Sarcoscypha coccinea , an
ascomycete; black bread mold , a zygomycete; a
chytrid; a Aspergillus conidiophore . Searah jarum
jam dari kiri atas: Amanita muscaria, sebuah
basidiomycete; Sarcoscypha coccinea, sebuah
ascomycete; hitam cetakan roti, yang zygomycete;
yang chytrid; yang Aspergillus conidiophore.

Scientific classification Klasifikasi ilmiah

Domain:
Domain:
(unranked):
(unranked):
Kingdom:
Kerajaan:

Eukarya Eukarya
Opisthokonta
Opisthokonta
Fungi Jamur
( L. , 1753) RT Moore, 1980 [ 1 ]
(L., 1753) RT Moore, 1980 [1]

Subkingdoms/Phyla Subkingdoms /
Phyla
Chytridiomycota Chytridiomycota
Blastocladiomycota
Blastocladiomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
Glomeromycota Glomeromycota
Zygomycota Zygomycota
Dikarya (inc. Deuteromycota ) Dikarya
(Inc Deuteromycota)
Ascomycota Ascomycota
Basidiomycota Basidiomycota
A fungus (pronounced /fs/ ) is a eukaryotic organism that is a member of the
kingdom Fungi (pronounced /fnda/ or /fa/ ). [ 2 ] The fungi are a
monophyletic group, also called the Eumycota ("true fungi" or eumycetes ), that is
phylogenetically distinct from the morphologically similar slime molds
(myxomycetes) and water molds (oomycetes). J jamur (diucapkan / fs /) adalah

eukaryotic organisme yang merupakan anggota dari kerajaan Fungi (diucapkan /

fnda / atau / fa /). [2] The jamur adalah monophyletic grup, juga disebut
Eumycota ( "benar jamur" atau eumycetes), yang phylogenetically berbeda dari
morphologically serupa lendir molds (myxomycetes) dan air molds (oomycetes). The
fungi are heterotrophic organisms possessing a chitinous cell wall , with most fungal
species growing as multicellular filaments called hyphae forming a mycelium ; certain
fungal species also grow as single cells . Jamur yang sedang heterotrophic organisme
yang memiliki chitinous sel dinding, dengan sebagian besar fungal spesies
berkembang sebagai multicellular filaments disebut hyphae membentuk mycelium;
tertentu fungal spesies juga tumbuh sebagai satu sel. Sexual and asexual reproduction
of the fungi is commonly via spores , often produced on specialized structures or in
fruiting bodies . Seksual dan reproduksi asexual dari jamur umumnya melalui spores,
sering dihasilkan pada struktur khusus atau fruiting badan. Some have lost the ability
to form reproductive structures, and propagate solely by vegetative growth. Yeasts ,
molds , and mushrooms are examples of fungi. Beberapa telah kehilangan
kemampuan untuk membentuk struktur reproduksi, dan menyebarkan hanya oleh
vegetatif pertumbuhan. Yeasts, molds, dan jamur adalah contoh dari jamur. The fungi
are more closely related to animals than plants , yet the discipline of biology devoted
to the study of fungi, known as mycology , is often regarded as a branch of botany .
Jamur yang lebih terkait erat dengan hewan dari tanaman, namun disiplin dari biologi
yang ditujukan untuk ilmu jamur, yang dikenal sebagai ilmu jamur, sering dianggap
sebagai satu cabang botani.
Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely invisible to the naked eye, living for the
most part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi.
Terjadi di seluruh dunia, kebanyakan jamur yang sebagian besar tidak kelihatan
dengan mata telanjang, hidup sebagian besar di tanah, masalah mati, dan sebagai
symbionts tanaman, hewan, jamur atau lainnya. They perform an essential role in
ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are indispensable in nutrient cycling
and exchange. Mereka melakukan sebuah peran penting dalam ekosistem di
decomposing organik hal yang sangat dalam dan gizi bersepeda dan pertukaran. Fungi
may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds. Jamur dapat
menjadi nyata bila fruiting, baik sebagai jamur atau molds. They have long been used
as a direct source of food, such as mushrooms and truffles and in fermentation of
various food products, such as wine , beer , and soy sauce . Mereka telah lama
digunakan sebagai sumber makanan langsung, seperti jamur dan truffles dan
fermentasi berbagai produk makanan, seperti anggur, bir dan kecap. More recently,
fungi are being used as sources for antibiotics used in medicine and various enzymes ,
such as cellulases , pectinases , and proteases , important for industrial use or as active
ingredients of detergents . Lebih baru-baru ini, jamur yang digunakan sebagai sumber
untuk antibiotik dan obat-obatan yang digunakan dalam berbagai enzymes, seperti
cellulases, pectinases, dan proteases, penting untuk menggunakan atau industri
sebagai bahan aktif dari deterjen. Many fungi produce bioactive compounds called
mycotoxins , such as alkaloids and polyketides that are toxic to animals including
humans. Banyak jamur memproduksi bioactive compounds disebut mycotoxins,
seperti alkaloids dan polyketides yang beracun untuk hewan termasuk manusia.
Fruiting structures of a few fungal species are used recreationally or in traditional
ceremonies as a source of psychotropic compounds. Fruiting struktur dari beberapa
jenis fungal digunakan recreationally atau dalam upacara tradisional sebagai sumber
psikotropika compounds. Fungi are significant pathogens of humans and other

animals, and losses due to diseases of crops (eg, rice blast disease ) or food spoilage
caused by fungi can have a large impact on human food supply and local economies.
Jamur yang signifikan pathogens manusia dan hewan lainnya, dan kerugian akibat
penyakit dari tanaman (misalnya, beras ledakan penyakit) makanan atau kerugian
yang disebabkan oleh jamur dapat memiliki dampak yang besar pada manusia
pasokan pangan dan perekonomian daerah.

Contents Isi
[hide]

1 Etymology 1 Etymology
2 Characteristics 2 Karakteristik
3 Diversity 3 Keanekaragaman
4 Morphology 4 morfologi
o 4.1 Microscopic structures 4,1 mikroskopis struktur
o 4.2 Macroscopic structures 4,2 Macroscopic struktur
5 Growth and physiology 5 Pertumbuhan dan fisiologi
6 Reproduction 6 Reproduction
o 6.1 Asexual reproduction 6,1 Asexual reproduksi
o 6.2 Sexual reproduction 6,2 Seksual reproduksi
o 6.3 Spore dispersal 6,3 pemencaran spora
o 6.4 Other sexual processes 6,4 Lain-lain proses seksual
7 Phylogeny and classification 7 Phylogeny dan klasifikasi
o 7.1 Physiological and morphological traits 7,1 fisiologis dan
morphological traits
o 7.2 Evolutionary history 7,2 Evolutionary sejarah
7.2.1 Cladogram 7.2.1 Cladogram
o 7.3 Taxonomic groups 7,3 Taxonomic kelompok
7.3.1 Chytridiomycota 7.3.1 Chytridiomycota
7.3.2 Blastocladiomycota 7.3.2 Blastocladiomycota
7.3.3 Neocallimastigomycota 7.3.3 Neocallimastigomycota
7.3.4 Zygomycota 7.3.4 Zygomycota
7.3.5 Glomeromycota 7.3.5 Glomeromycota
7.3.6 Ascomycota 7.3.6 Ascomycota
7.3.7 Basidiomycota 7.3.7 Basidiomycota
o 7.4 Phylogenetic relationships with other organisms 7,4 Phylogenetic
hubungan dengan organisme
8 Ecology Ekologi 8
o 8.1 Symbiosis 8,1 simbiosis
8.1.1 With plants 8.1.1 Dengan tanaman
8.1.2 With algae and cyanobacteria 8.1.2 Dengan algae dan
cyanobacteria
8.1.3 With insects 8.1.3 Dengan serangga
8.1.4 As pathogens and parasites 8.1.4 Seperti pathogens dan
parasit
9 Human use 9 Manusia menggunakan
o 9.1 Cultured foods 9,1 makanan piaraan
o 9.2 Medicinal use Obat menggunakan 9,2

9.3 Edible and poisonous species 9,3 Edible beracun dan spesies
9.4 In the biological control of pests 9,4 Pada biologi kontrol hama
9.5 Bioremediation 9,5 Bioremediation
9.6 Others Lainnya 9,6
10 Mycotoxins 10 Mycotoxins
11 Mycology 11 ilmu jamur
o 11.1 History 11,1 Sejarah
12 See also 12 Lihat juga
13 Footnotes 13 catatan kaki
14 References 14 Referensi

15 External links 15 Pranala luar

o
o
o
o

Etymology Etimologi
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus , meaning
"mushroom", used in Horace and Pliny . [ 3 ] This in turn is derived from the Greek
word sphongos / ("sponge"), referring to the macroscopic structures and
morphology of mushrooms and molds, and this root is also used in other languages
(eg, the German Schwamm ("sponge"), Schimmel ("mold"), or Schwammerl for
certain types of mushrooms). [ 4 ] The use of the word mycology to denote the scientific
study of fungi seems to have originated in 1836 with Miles Joseph Berkeley in his
publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith , Vol. Di Inggris kata jamur
secara langsung diambil dari latin jamur, yang berarti "jamur", digunakan dalam
Horace dan Pliny. [3] Hal ini pada gilirannya berasal dari Yunani kata sphongos /
( "bolu"), yang mengacu pada macroscopic struktur dan morfologi dari jamur
dan molds, dan akar ini juga digunakan dalam bahasa lain (misalnya, di Jerman
Schwamm ( "bolu"), Schimmel ( "jamur"), atau Schwammerl untuk beberapa jenis
jamur). [4] Penggunaan yang kata untuk menunjukkan ilmu jamur yang ilmiah ilmu
jamur tampaknya ada berasal pada 1836 dengan Miles Joseph Berkeley di Inggris
yang diterbitkan Flora dari Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. [ 4 ] 5. [4]

Characteristics Karakteristik
The fungi have a range of features defining the fungal kingdom, some of which are
shared with other organisms while others are unique to the fungi. [ 5 ] Jamur yang
memiliki berbagai fitur mendefinisikan fungal kerajaan, beberapa di antaranya adalah
berbagi dengan lainnya, sedangkan organisme lain yang unik untuk jamur. [5]
Shared features: Berbagi fitur:

With other eukaryotes: Fungi are eukaryotic , containing membrane-bound

nuclei with chromosomes . Dengan lainnya eukaryotes: Fungi adalah
eukaryotic, berisi selaput-terikat nuclei dengan chromosomes. Fungal cells
contain membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles , DNA with noncoding
regions called introns , sterol -containing membranes, and ribosomes of the
80S type. Fungal berisi selaput sel-terikat cytoplasmic organelles, dengan
DNA noncoding daerah bernama introns, sterol-containing membranes, dan
ribosomes dari 80s jenis. Fungi have a characteristic range of soluble

carbohydrates and storage compounds, including mannitol and other sugar

alcohols , trehalose and glycogen the latter of which is also found in animals.
Jamur memiliki karakteristik berbagai larut karbohidrat dan penyimpanan
compounds, termasuk mannitol dan gula alcohols, trehalose dan glycogen
yang kedua yang juga ditemukan dalam hewan.
With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms,
requiring preformed organic compounds as energy sources and also as carbon
skeletons for organic synthesis . Dengan binatang: Fungi kurangnya
chloroplasts dan heterotrophic organisme, memerlukan preformed organik
compounds sebagai sumber energi dan juga sebagai skeletons karbon untuk
sintesis organik.
With plants: Fungi possess a cell wall . Dengan tanaman: Fungi memiliki
dinding sel. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal
plant groups, such as ferns and mosses produce spores . Mereka mereproduksi
oleh kedua seksual dan asexual berarti, dan seperti kelompok dr dasarnya
tanaman, seperti ferns dan mosses menghasilkan spores. Similar to mosses and
algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei. Mirip dengan mosses dan algae,
jamur biasanya memiliki haploid nuclei.
With prokaryotes: As in some bacteria, biosynthesis of the amino acid, L
-lysine, is via the -aminoadipate pathway. Dengan prokaryotes: Seperti pada
beberapa bakteri, biosynthesis dari asam amino, L-lysine, adalah melalui aminoadipate jalan.

Other features: Fitur lain:

Fungi typically grow as hyphae , which extend at their tips. Jamur biasanya
tumbuh sebagai hyphae, mereka yang memperpanjang tips. This apical growth
form is shared with the morphologically similar oomycetes and in contrast
with other filamentous organisms, like filamentous green algae , which grow
by repeated cell divisions within a chain of cells (intercalary growth). Apical
pertumbuhan formulir ini digunakan bersama-sama dengan morphologically
serupa oomycetes dan kontras dengan berserabut organisme lainnya, seperti
berserat hijau algae yang tumbuh diulang oleh divisi sel dalam rantai sel
(pertumbuhan intercalary).
Some fungal species grow as single-celled yeasts which reproduce by budding
, and dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in
response to environmental conditions. Beberapa jenis fungal tumbuh sebagai
satu-celled yeasts yang mereproduksi oleh budding, dan dimorphic jamur
dapat beralih antara ragi dan hyphal tahap tahap dalam respon terhadap
kondisi lingkungan.
The fungal cell wall contains glucans also found in plants, but also chitin not
found in the Plant kingdom, but in some animals . Fungal dinding sel yang
berisi glucans juga ditemukan di tanaman, tetapi juga chitin tidak ditemukan di
Plant kerajaan, tetapi pada beberapa hewan. In contrast to plants and the
oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose . Sebaliknya untuk
tanaman dan oomycetes, fungal dinding sel tidak mengandung selulosa.
Fungal hyphae may have multiple nuclei within each hyphal compartment,
and many budding yeasts are diploid. Fungal hyphae Mei memiliki beberapa
nuclei dalam setiap komponen hyphal, dan banyak budding yeasts adalah
diploid.

Diversity Keanekaragaman
Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including
deserts , hypersaline environments, [ 6 ] the deep sea , [ 7 ] on rocks, [ 8 ] and in extremely
low and high temperatures. Jamur memiliki distribusi di seluruh dunia, dan tumbuh di
berbagai habitat, termasuk pasir, hypersaline lingkungan, [6] yang sedalam laut, [7] pada
batu, [8] dan sangat rendah dan suhu tinggi. They have been shown to be able to
survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. [ 9 ] Most
fungi grow in terrestrial environments, but several species live partly or solely in
aquatic habitats. Mereka telah ditunjukkan untuk dapat hidup yang intens UV dan
radiasi kosmik ruang yang dihadapi selama perjalanan. [9] Sebagian besar jamur
tumbuh di wilayah lingkungan, tetapi beberapa spesies hidup sebagian atau hanya di
habitat air. For example, the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populationsspends part of its life
cycle as motile zoospore , enabling it to propel itself through water and penetrate the
skin of an amphibian host. [ 10 ] Misalnya, chytrid jamur Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis-bertanggung jawab atas seluruh dunia penurunan amfibi menghabiskan
populasi-bagian dari siklus hidup sebagai mobil zoospore, memungkinkan untuk
menggerakkan dirinya sendiri melalui air dan menembus kulit amfibi dari sebuah
host. [10]
Fungi, along with bacteria , are the primary decomposers of organic matter in most if
not all terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. Jamur, bersama dengan bakteri, adalah dasar
decomposers organik dalam banyak hal jika tidak semua wilayah ekosistem di seluruh
dunia. Based on observations of the ratio of the number of fungal species to the
number of plant species in select environments, the fungal kingdom has been
estimated to contain about 1.5 million species. [ 11 ] Around 70,000 fungal species have
been formally described by taxonomists , but the true dimension of fungal diversity is
still unknown. [ 12 ] Until recently, fungal species were described based mainly on
morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting
structures, and biological species concepts . Berdasarkan pengamatan dari rasio
jumlah fungal spesies dengan jumlah spesies tanaman dalam memilih lingkungan,
yang fungal kerajaan telah diperkirakan berisi sekitar 1,5 juta spesies. [11] Sekitar
70.000 spesies fungal telah dijelaskan secara resmi oleh taxonomists, tetapi dimensi
yang benar dari fungal keanekaragaman masih tidak diketahui. [12] Hingga baru-baru
ini, fungal spesies yang dijelaskan terutama didasarkan pada morphological
karakteristik, seperti ukuran dan bentuk spores atau fruiting struktur, dan konsep
spesies biologi. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and
phylogenetic analysis, to study fungal diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution
and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic
groups. [ 13 ] Penerapan molecular tools, seperti DNA sequencing dan phylogenetic
analisa, belajar fungal keanekaragaman telah sangat ditingkatkan resolusi kesegaran
dan ditambahkan ke perkiraan keanekaragaman genetika dalam berbagai kelompok
taxonomic. [13]

Morphology Morfologi
Microscopic structures Mikroskopis struktur

Mold covering a decaying peach over a period of six days. Cetakan menutupi
pembusukan peach selama enam hari. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours
apart. Rangka diambil kira-kira 12 jam berbeda.
Although fungi are part of the opisthokont clade, all phyla except for the chytrids
have lost their posterior flagella. [ 14 ] Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in
having a cell wall that, besides glucans (eg, -1,3-glucan) and other typical
components, contains the biopolymer chitin . [ 15 ] Meskipun jamur merupakan bagian
dari opisthokont clade, semua phyla kecuali untuk chytrids kehilangan bokong
flagella. [14] Fungi yang luar biasa di antara eukaryotes dalam sel yang memiliki
dinding itu, selain glucans (misalnya, -1 ,3-glucan) dan komponen lainnya khas,
berisi biopolymer chitin. [15]
Most fungi grow as thread-like filamentous microscopic structures called hyphae , and
an assemblage of intertwined and interconnected hyphae is called a mycelium . [ 16 ]
Hyphae can be septate, ie, divided into compartments separated by a septum , each
compartment containing one or more nuclei or can be coenocytic , ie, lacking hyphal
compartmentalization. Kebanyakan jamur tumbuh sebagai thread seperti berserabut
mikroskopis struktur disebut hyphae, dan assemblage of intertwined dan saling
hyphae disebut mycelium. [16] Hyphae dapat septate, yaitu dibagi menjadi
compartments dipisahkan oleh sekat, masing-masing komponen yang mengandung
satu atau lebih nuclei atau dapat coenocytic, yaitu kurang hyphal
compartmentalization. However, septa have pores , such as the doliporus in the
basidiomycetes that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass
through. [ 17 ] Coenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleate supercells. [ 18 ] Several
fungal species have developed specialized structures for nutrient uptake from living
hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic fungi of most divisions, and
arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, [ 19 ] which penetrate into the host cells for
nutrient uptake by the fungus. Namun, ada septa pores, seperti doliporus di
basidiomycetes yang memungkinkan cytoplasm, organelles, dan kadang-kadang
melewati ke nuclei. [17] Coenocytic hyphae dasarnya adalah multinucleate supercells.
[18]
Beberapa spesies fungal telah mengembangkan struktur khusus untuk gizi dari
uptake hidup host; contoh termasuk haustoria di pabrik-jamur parasit yang paling
perpecahan, dan arbuscules beberapa mycorrhizal jamur, [19] yang menyusup ke dalam
sel tuan rumah untuk gizi uptake oleh jamur.

Macroscopic structures Macroscopic struktur

Fungal mycelia can become visible macroscopically, for example, as concentric rings
on various surfaces, such as damp walls, and on other substrates, such as spoilt food

(see figure), and are commonly and generically called mould ( American spelling ,
mold ); fungal mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are
usually referred to as colonies, exhibiting characteristic macroscopic growth
morphologies and colours, due to spores or pigmentation . Fungal mycelia dapat
menjadi terlihat macroscopically, misalnya, sebagai konsentris berdering pada
berbagai permukaan, seperti dinding lembab, dan pada substrates lainnya, seperti
makanan basi (lihat gambar), dan biasanya disebut secara umum dan cetakan
(Amerika ejaan, jamur); fungal mycelia tumbuh pada solid agar media di
laboratorium petri hidangan biasanya disebut koloni, karakteristik Exhibiting
macroscopic pertumbuhan morphologies dan warna, karena spores atau pewarnaan
pigmen.
Specialized fungal structures important in sexual reproduction are the apothecia ,
perithecia , and cleistothecia in the ascomycetes, and the fruiting bodies of the
basidiomycetes, and a few ascomycetes. Khusus fungal struktur penting dalam
reproduksi seksual yang apothecia, perithecia, dan cleistothecia di ascomycetes, dan
badan-badan fruiting dari basidiomycetes, dan beberapa ascomycetes. These
reproductive structures can sometimes grow very large, and are well known as
mushrooms . Reproduksi struktur ini terkadang bisa tumbuh sangat besar, dan dikenal
sebagai jamur.

Growth and physiology Pertumbuhan dan fisiologi

Growth of fungi as filamentous hyphae on or in solid substrates or single cells in
aquatic environments is adapted to efficient extraction of nutrients from these
environments, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios .
Pertumbuhan jamur sebagai hyphae berserabut pada atau di solid substrates atau satu
sel dalam lingkungan akuatik disesuaikan efisien untuk ekstraksi dari gizi dari
lingkungan, karena ada bentuk pertumbuhan tinggi permukaan area yang volume
ratios. Fungal hyphae are specifically adapted to growth on solid surfaces and within
substrates, and can exert large penetrative mechanical forces. Fungal hyphae secara
khusus disesuaikan dengan pertumbuhan yang solid pada permukaan dan dalam
substrates, dan dapat mengerahkan pasukan besar nyaring mekanis. The plant
pathogen , Magnaporthe grisea , forms a structure called an appressorium specifically
designed for penetration of plant tissues. The pathogen tanaman, Magnaporthe grisea,
untuk membentuk sebuah struktur yang disebut appressorium khusus dirancang untuk
penetrasi jaringan tanaman. The pressure generated by the appressorium, which is
directed against the plant epidermis , can exceed 8 MPa (80 bars ). [ 20 ] A similar
method is employed by the filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus to penetrate
the eggs of plant-parasitic nematodes. [ 21 ] The generation of these mechanical
pressures is the result of an interplay between physiological processes to increase
intracellular turgor by production of osmolytes such as glycerol , and the morphology
of the appressorium. [ 22 ] These adaptations in morphology are complemented by
hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment for digestion of large organic
molecules, such as polysaccharides , proteins , lipids , and other organic substrates
into smaller molecules. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] These molecules are then absorbed as nutrients
into the fungal cells . Tekanan yang dihasilkan oleh appressorium, yang ditujukan
terhadap tanaman kulit ari, bisa melebihi 8 MPA (80 bar). [20] yang sama adalah
metode yang digunakan oleh berserabut jamur Paecilomyces lilacinus untuk
menembus telur tanaman-parasit nematodes. [21 ] The generasi tekanan mekanis ini

merupakan hasil dari sebuah proses saling mempengaruhi antara fisiologis untuk
meningkatkan intracellular turgor oleh produksi osmolytes seperti gliserin, dan
morfologi dari appressorium. [22] ini di adaptasi morfologi yang dilengkapi dengan
hydrolytic enzymes secreted ke dalam lingkungan untuk pencernaan molekul organik
yang besar, seperti polysaccharides, protein, lipids, dan lainnya organik substrates
molekul menjadi lebih kecil. [23] [24] [25] Ini molekul yang kemudian diserap sebagai
fungal gizi ke dalam sel.
Traditionally, the fungi are considered heterotrophs , organisms that rely solely on
carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism . Tradisional, yang dianggap jamur
heterotrophs, organisme yang hanya mengandalkan karbon lainnya ditetapkan oleh
organisme untuk metabolisme. Fungi have evolved a remarkable metabolic versatility
that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including
simple compounds as nitrate , ammonia , acetate , or ethanol . [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Recent research
raises the possibility that certain fungi utilize the pigment melanin to extract energy
from ionizing radiation , such as gamma radiation for "radiotrophic" growth. [ 28 ] This
process might bear similarity to photosynthesis in plants, [ 28 ] but detailed biochemical
data supporting the existence of this hypothetical pathway are presently lacking.
Jamur telah berkembang metabolis fleksibilitas yang luar biasa yang memungkinkan
mereka untuk menggunakan beragam berbagai substrates untuk pertumbuhan organik,
termasuk compounds sederhana seperti nitrat, ammonia, asetat, atau ethanol. [26] [27]
Recent penelitian menimbulkan kemungkinan bahwa jamur memanfaatkan pigmen
melanin untuk mengambil energi dari ionizing radiasi, seperti radiasi gamma untuk
"radiotrophic" pertumbuhan. [28] Proses ini akan melahirkan kesamaan ke dalam
fotosintesis tanaman, [28] tetapi rinci biochemical data yang mendukung keberadaan
jalan ini hipotesis sedang kurang.

Reproduction Reproduksi

Polyporus squamosus Polyporus squamosus

Reproduction of fungi is complex, reflecting the heterogeneity in lifestyles and
genetic make up within this group of organisms. [ 29 ] Many fungi reproduce either
sexually or asexually, depending on conditions in the environment. Reproduksi dari
jamur adalah kompleks, yang mencerminkan keheterogenan dalam gaya hidup dan
genetik make up di grup ini organisme. [29] Banyak jamur reproduksi baik seksual atau
asexually, tergantung pada kondisi lingkungan. These conditions trigger genetically
determined developmental programs leading to the expression of specialized
structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. Kondisi ini memicu genetically
ditentukan program pembangunan yang mengarah ke ungkapan yang khusus untuk
struktur seksual atau reproduksi asexual. These structures aid both reproduction and

efficient dissemination of spores or spore-containing propagules. Struktur ini bantuan

reproduksi baik dan efisien atau penyebaran spores spura-berisi propagules.

Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduksi

Asexual reproduction via vegetative spores or through mycelial fragmentation is
common and allows more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. Asexual
reproduksi vegetatif melalui spores atau melalui mycelial fragmentasi adalah umum
dan memungkinkan lebih cepat daripada pembubaran seksual reproduksi. In the case
of the "Fungi imperfecti" or Deuteromycota , which lack a sexual cycle, it is the only
means of propagation. Dalam kasus yang "Fungi imperfecti" atau Deuteromycota,
yang kekurangan satu siklus seksual, ia adalah satu-satunya alat perambatan. Asexual
spores, upon germination , may found a population that is clonal to the population
from which the spore originated, and thus colonize new environments. Asexual
spores, setelah pengecambahan, dapat ditemukan populasi yang clonal kepada
penduduk dari mana berasal spura, dan dengan itu baru menjajah lingkungan.

Sexual reproduction Reproduksi seksual

Sexual reproduction with meiosis exists in all fungal phyla. Reproduksi seksual
dengan meiosis ada di semua fungal phyla. It differs in many aspects from sexual
reproduction in animals or plants. Itu berbeda dalam banyak aspek dari reproduksi
seksual pada hewan atau tanaman. Differences also exist between fungal groups and
have been used to discriminate fungal clades and species based on morphological
differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Juga ada perbedaan antara
kelompok fungal dan telah digunakan untuk membedakan jenis fungal clades dan
berdasarkan morphological perbedaan struktur seksual dan reproduksi strategi.
Experimental crosses between fungal isolates can also be used to identify species
based on biological species concepts . Eksperimental melintasi antara fungal isolates
juga dapat digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi spesies berdasarkan konsep spesies
biologi. The major fungal clades have initially been delineated based on the
morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing
structures, asci and basidia , can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungal clades utama yang ada pada awalnya telah
delineated berdasarkan morfologi dari masing-struktur dan spores seksual, misalnya
yang berisi spura-struktur, asci dan basidia, dapat digunakan dalam identifikasi
ascomycetes dan basidiomycetes, masing-masing. Fungal species may possess
vegetative incompatibility systems that allow mating only between individuals of
opposite mating type , while others can mate and sexually reproduce with any other
individual or itself. Fungal memiliki spesies Mei vegetatif ketidakcocokan sistem
yang memungkinkan perkawinan antara individu yang hanya berlawanan jenis
perkawinan, sedangkan yang lain dapat jodoh seksual dan reproduksi dengan yang
lain atau individu itu sendiri. Species of the former mating system are called
heterothallic , and of the latter homothallic . [ 30 ] Jenis mantan perkawinan sistem
dipanggil heterothallic, dan yang kedua homothallic. [30]
Most fungi have both a haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. Jamur yang
paling baik haploid dan diploid tahap dalam siklus hidup mereka. In sexually
reproducing fungi, compatible individuals combine by cell fusion of vegetative
hyphae by anastomosis , required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Seksual di

dalam menerima jamur, kompatibel oleh individu menggabungkan fusi dari sel
vegetatif hyphae oleh anastomosis, diperlukan untuk inisiasi dari siklus seksual.
Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei
inherited from the two parents do not fuse immediately after cell fusion, but remain
separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis ). Ascomycetes dan basidiomycetes
melalui dikaryotic tahap, di mana nuclei warisan dari kedua orang tua tidak sekering
segera setelah fusi sel, tetapi tetap terpisah dalam hyphal sel (lihat heterokaryosis).

The 8-spored asci of Morchella elata , viewed with phase contrast microscopy . 8spored asci dari Morchella elata, dilihat dengan mikroskopi fase kontras.
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium form a characteristic hook at the
hyphal septum. Dalam ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae dari hymenium membentuk
karakteristik hook di hyphal septum. During cell division , formation of the hook
ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal
hyphal compartments. Selama divisi sel, pembentukan kesukaran memastikan benar
distribusi yang baru nuclei dibagi ke dalam apical dan sbg dasar hyphal
compartments. An ascus (plural asci ) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear
fusion) occurs. An ascus (plural asci) lalu dibentuk, di mana karyogamy (fusi nuklir)
terjadi. These asci are embedded in an ascocarp , or fruiting body, of the fungus. Asci
ini adalah tertanam dalam ascocarp, atau fruiting tubuh, dari jamur. Karyogamy in the
asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores.
Karyogamy di asci segera diikuti oleh meiosis dan produksi ascospores. The
ascospores are disseminated and germinate and may form a new haploid mycelium. [ 31
]
Ascospores yang akan disebarluaskan dan bertunas dan bentuk baru haploid
mycelium. [31]
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes.
Reproduksi seksual di basidiomycetes mirip dengan yang ascomycetes. Compatible
haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. Kompatibel haploid hyphae
sekering untuk menghasilkan dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is
more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing
mycelium. Namun, dikaryotic tahap yang lebih luas di basidiomycetes, sering juga
hadir dalam vegetatively berkembang mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure,
called a clamp connection , is formed at each hyphal septum. J anatomis struktur
khusus yang dinamakan klem sambungan, yang dibentuk pada setiap hyphal septum.
As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, formation of the clamp
connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during
cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in
each hyphal compartment. [ 32 ] A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures
known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. [ 33 ]
The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take

other forms (see Morphology section). Sebagai struktural mirip dengan kail di
ascomycetes, formasi dari klem sambungan di basidiomycetes diperlukan untuk
dikontrol transfer nuclei selama divisi sel, untuk mempertahankan dikaryotic tahap
genetically berbeda dengan dua nuclei dalam setiap komponen hyphal. [32] J
basidiocarp adalah dibentuk di mana-klub seperti struktur yang dikenal sebagai
basidia menghasilkan haploid basidiospores setelah karyogamy dan meiosis. [33] yang
paling umum dikenal adalah jamur basidiocarps, tetapi juga dapat mengambil bentukbentuk lain (lihat bagian morfologi).
In zygomycetes, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a zygote , which
develops into a zygospore . Dalam zygomycetes, haploid hyphae dua individu
sekering, membentuk zygote, yang berkembang menjadi zygospore. When the
zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes meiosis , generating new haploid hyphae,
which in turn may form asexual sporangiospores . Bila zygospore germinates, ia
dengan cepat undergoes meiosis, menghasilkan haploid hyphae baru, yang pada
gilirannya Mei bentuk asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores are means of
rapid dispersal of the fungus and germinate into new genetically identical haploid
fungal colonies, able to mate and undergo another sexual cycle followed by the
generation of new zygospores, thus completing the lifecycle. Sporangiospores ini
adalah cara cepat bubaran dari jamur dan tumbuh menjadi baru genetically identik
haploid fungal koloni, dapat jodoh yang lain dan mengalami pelecehan seksual siklus
diikuti oleh generasi baru zygospores, sehingga menyelesaikan Lifecycle.

Spore dispersal Spura bubaran

Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by
forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. Kedua asexual dan spores seksual
atau sporangiospores sering aktif buyar dipaksakan oleh pengusiran mereka dari
struktur reproduksi. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive
structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Ini akan
memastikan pengusiran keluar dari spores dari reproduksi struktur serta melalui udara
jauh lebih lama.

The bird's nest fungus Cyathus stercoreus Burung yang kaya jamur Cyathus
stercoreus
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface
structures, such as hydrophobins , enable efficient spore ejection. Khusus mekanis dan
mekanisme fisiologis serta spora-permukaan struktur, seperti hydrophobins, aktifkan
spura penyemburan efisien. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible
discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of
osmolytes in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores

into the air. [ 34 ] The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves
formation of a small drop of water ( Buller's drop ), which upon contact with the spore
leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g . [ 35 ]
Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external
mechanical forces, exemplified by puffballs . Mekanisme ini meliputi, misalnya,
dipaksakan pembuangan ascospores diaktifkan oleh struktur ascus dan akumulasi
osmolytes dalam cairan yang ascus yang mengarah ke peledak yang ascospores
pembuangan ke udara. [34] yang dipaksakan keluarnya satu spores diistilahkan
ballistospores melibatkan pembentukan kecil drop air (Buller's drop), yang pada
kontak dengan spora lead nya proyektil rilis awal dengan akselerasi lebih dari 10.000
g. [35] Lain-lain jamur bergantung pada mekanisme alternatif untuk spura rilis, seperti
kekuatan mekanik eksternal, exemplified oleh puffballs. The bird's nest fungi use the
force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies.
The bird's nest jamur menggunakan kekuatan tetes air jatuh ke spores yang
membebaskan dari cangkir berbentuk fruiting badan. Attracting insects, such as flies,
to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for
dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the
stinkhorns . Serangga menarik, seperti flies, untuk fruiting struktur, berdasarkan hidup
mereka memiliki warna dan bau busuk, untuk bubaran dari fungal spores belum
strategi lain, paling jelas digunakan oleh stinkhorns.

Other sexual processes Seksual lainnya proses

Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi may exchange genetic
material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and
plasmogamy of fungal cells. Selain reguler dengan meiosis reproduksi seksual,
beberapa jamur Mei pertukaran bahan genetik melalui parasexual proses, dimulai oleh
anastomosis antara hyphae dan plasmogamy dari fungal sel. The frequency and
relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other
sexual processes. Frekuensi dan relatif pentingnya parasexual peristiwa yang tidak
jelas dan mungkin lebih rendah dari proses seksual lainnya. However, it is known to
play a role in intraspecific hybridization [ 36 ] and is also likely required for
hybridization between fungal species, which has been associated with major events in
fungal evolution. [ 37 ] Namun, diketahui berperan dalam hibridisasi intraspecific [36]
dan juga mungkin diperlukan untuk hibridisasi antara fungal spesies, yang telah
dikaitkan dengan peristiwa besar dalam fungal evolusi. [37]

Phylogeny and classification Phylogeny dan

klasifikasi

The parasitic mushroom Oudemansiella nocturnum , infesting the wood of a tree.

Dengan parasit jamur Oudemansiella nocturnum, infesting kayu pohon.

For a long time taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the Plant Kingdom .
Untuk waktu yang lama taxonomists dianggap jamur untuk menjadi anggota dari
Kerajaan Tanaman. This early classification was based mainly on similarities in
lifestyle: both fungi and plant are mainly sessile , have similarities in general
morphology and growth habitat (like plants, fungi often grow in soil, in the case of
mushrooms forming conspicuous fruiting bodies , which sometimes bear resemblance
to plants such as mosses ). Dini klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada kesamaan terutama
dalam gaya hidup: kedua jamur dan tanaman sebagian besar sessile, pada umumnya
memiliki kesamaan morfologi dan pertumbuhan habitat (seperti tanaman, jamur
sering tumbuh di tanah, dalam hal jamur membentuk berandang fruiting badan, yang
kadang-kadang beruang persamaan untuk tanaman seperti mosses). Moreover, both
groups possess a cell wall , which is absent in the Animal Kingdom . Selain itu, kedua
kelompok memiliki dinding sel, yang tidak hadir dalam Animal Kingdom. However,
the fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and
animals, from which they appear to have diverged approximately one billion years
ago. [ 38 ] Many studies have identified distinct morphological, biochemical, and
genetic features in the Fungi, clearly delineating this group from the other kingdoms.
Namun, jamur kini dianggap kerajaan yang terpisah, berbeda dari kedua tanaman dan
hewan, dari mana mereka muncul ke diverged ada sekitar satu miliar tahun lalu. [38]
Banyak penelitian telah diidentifikasi berbeda morphological, biochemical, dan fiturfitur dalam genetika Fungi, jelas delineating grup ini dari kerajaan lainnya. For these
reasons, the fungi are placed in their own kingdom. Untuk alasan ini, maka jamur
ditempatkan dalam kerajaan mereka sendiri.

Physiological and morphological traits Fisiologis dan morphological

traits
Similar to animals and unlike most plants, fungi lack the capacity to synthesize
organic carbon by chlorophyll-based photosynthesis ; whereas plants store the
reduced carbon as starch , fungi, like animals and some bacteria, use glycogen [ 39 ] for
storage of carbohydrates . Mirip dengan binatang dan tidak seperti kebanyakan
tanaman, jamur kurangnya kemampuan untuk mempersatukan karbon organik oleh
zat hijau berbasis fotosintesis, sedangkan tanaman simpan mengurangi karbon sebagai
pati, jamur, seperti hewan dan bakteri, gunakan glycogen [39] untuk penyimpanan
karbohidrat. A major component of the cell wall in many fungal species is the
nitrogen-containing carbohydrate , chitin , [ 40 ] also present in some animals, such as
the insects and crustaceans , while the plant cell wall consists chiefly of the
carbohydrate cellulose . Komponen utama dari dinding sel di banyak spesies fungal
adalah nitrogen-containing karbohidrat, chitin, [40] juga hadir dalam beberapa
binatang, seperti serangga dan crustaceans, sedangkan dinding sel tanaman terutama
terdiri dari karbohidrat selulosa. The defining and unique characteristics of fungal
cells include growth as hyphae , which are microscopic filaments between 210
micrometres in diameter and up to several centimetres in length, and which
collectively form the fungal mycelium . Yang menetapkan dan karakteristik unik
termasuk pertumbuhan sel fungal sebagai hyphae yang mikroskopis filaments antara
2-10 micrometres dalam diameter dan hingga beberapa sentimeter panjang, dan yang
secara kolektif membentuk fungal mycelium. Some fungi, such as yeasts, grow as
single cells, similar to unicellular algae and the protists . Beberapa jamur, seperti
yeasts, tumbuh sebagai satu sel, mirip dengan unicellular algae dan protists.

Unlike many plants, most fungi lack an efficient vascular system, such as xylem or
phloem for long-distance transport of water and nutrients. Tidak seperti banyak
tanaman, sebagian besar jamur kekurangan yang efisien vascular sistem, seperti
xylem atau phloem untuk jarak jauh transportasi air dan gizi. Some, such as
Armillaria , form rhizomorphs or mycelial cords , [ 41 ] resembling and functionally
related to, but morphologically distinct from plant roots . Beberapa, seperti
Armillaria, formulir rhizomorphs atau tali mycelial, [41] menyerupai dan fungsional
yang berkaitan dengan, tetapi morphologically berbeda dari akar tanaman.
Characteristics shared between plants and fungi include the presence of vacuoles in
the cell, [ 42 ] and a similar pathway in the biosynthesis of terpenes using mevalonic
acid and pyrophosphate as biochemical precursors ; plants however use an additional
terpene biosynthesis pathway in the chloroplasts that is apparently absent in fungi. [ 43 ]
Ancestral traits shared among members of the fungi include chitinous cell walls and
heterotrophy by absorption. [ 44 ] A further characteristic of the fungi that is absent from
other eukaryotes, and shared only with some bacteria, is the biosynthesis of the amino
acid L- lysine , via the -aminoadipate metabolic pathway. [ 45 ] Karakteristik bersama
antara tanaman dan jamur termasuk keberadaan vacuoles di sel, [42] dan jalan yang
sama di biosynthesis dari terpenes menggunakan mevalonic asam dan pyrophosphate
sebagai biochemical precursors; tanaman namun menggunakan tambahan terpene
biosynthesis jalan di chloroplasts yang ternyata absen dalam jamur. [43] traits leluhur
bersama antara anggota dari jamur termasuk chitinous dinding sel dan penyerapan
oleh heterotrophy. [44] selanjutnya karakteristik dari jamur yang absen dari eukaryotes
lainnya, dan hanya dipakai bersama-sama dengan beberapa bakteri, adalah
biosynthesis dari asam amino L-lysine, melalui -aminoadipate metabolis jalan. [45]
Similar to plants, fungi produce a plethora of secondary metabolites functioning as
defensive compounds or for niche adaptation ; however, biochemical pathways for the
synthesis of similar or even identical compounds often differ markedly between fungi
and plants. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] Mirip dengan tanaman, jamur menghasilkan kebanyakan dari
metabolites sekunder berfungsi sebagai compounds defensif atau niche adaptasi,
namun biochemical jalur untuk sintesis serupa atau bahkan identik compounds
seringkali berbeda dgn nyata antara jamur dan tanaman. [46] [47]

Evolutionary history Evolutionary sejarah

Phylogeny Phylogeny
Main article: Evolution of fungi Artikel utama: Evolution of jamur
The first organisms having features typical of fungi date to 1,200 million years ago ,
the Proterozoic . [ 48 ] However, fungal fossils do not become common and
uncontroversial until the early Devonian , when they are abundant in the Rhynie
chert . [ 49 ] Organisme pertama yang memiliki fitur khas dari jamur tanggal ke 1200
juta tahun yang lalu, yang Proterozoic. [48] Namun, fungal orangtua tidak menjadi
umum dan uncontroversial sampai dini Devonian, ketika mereka berlimpah di Rhynie
certa. [49]
Even though traditionally included in many botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are
now thought to be more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with
the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts . [ 50 ] For much of the
Paleozoic Era, the fungi appear to have been aquatic, and consisted of organisms
similar to the extant Chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. [ 51 ] The early fossil
record of the fungi is incomplete. Meskipun secara tradisional termasuk dalam banyak
botani kurikulum dan buku pelajaran, jamur sekarang berpikir untuk lebih terkait erat
dengan hewan daripada tumbuhan dan ditempatkan dengan hewan di monophyletic
kelompok opisthokonts. [50] Untuk sebagian besar Paleozoic Era, maka jamur ternyata
air, dan terdiri dari organisme serupa dengan wujud yang Chytrids di flagellum
berbunga spores. [51] The awal catatan fosil jamur yang tidak lengkap. The fungi
probably colonized the land during the Cambrian , long before land plants. [ 49 ] All
modern classes of fungi were present in the Late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian
Epoch). [ 52 ] For some time after the Permian-Triassic extinction event , a fungal spike,
originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments
formed shortly after this event, suggested that they were the dominant life form at this
timenearly 100% of the fossil record available from this period. [ 53 ] However, the
relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is
difficult to assess, [ 54 ] the spike did not appear worldwide, [ 55 ] [ 56 ] and in many places
it did not fall on the Permian-Triassic boundary. [ 57 ] Jamur yang mungkin colonized
tanah selama Cambrian, jauh sebelum lahan tanaman. [49] Semua modern kelas jamur
yang telah hadir di Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian Epoch). [52] Untuk beberapa
waktu setelah Permian-Triassic pemadaman acara, yang fungal spike, awalnya pikir
menjadi kelimpahan yang luar biasa dalam fungal spores sedimen yang dibentuk
segera setelah peristiwa ini, bahwa mereka yang dominan berupa kehidupan saat inihampir 100% dari fosil merekam tersedia waktu ini. [53] Namun, relatif proporsi fungal
spores relatif ke spores dibentuk oleh algal spesies sukar untuk menilai, [54] yang spike
tidak muncul di seluruh dunia, [55] [56] dan di banyak tempat tidak jatuh pada batas
Permian-Triassic. [57 ]
Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi.
[ 13 ]
The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent
research based on DNA comparisons. Menggunakan analisis molekular phylogenetics
mendukung monophyletic asal dari Fungi. [13] The taxonomy dari Fungi adalah dalam
keadaan konstan aliran, terutama karena baru-baru ini berdasarkan penelitian DNA
perbandingan. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications
based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological
features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings . [ 58 ]
Sekarang ini sering menjungkirbalikkan analisis phylogenetic klasifikasi berdasarkan

lama dan kadang-kadang kurang diskriminatif berdasarkan metode morphological

fitur dan konsep spesies biologi yang diperoleh dari percobaan matings. [58]
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there
are constant name changes at every level, from species upwards. Tidak ada sistem
unik umumnya diterima di tingkat yang lebih tinggi taxonomic konstan dan ada
perubahan nama pada setiap tingkat, dari spesies ke atas. However, efforts among
fungal researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified
and more consistent nomenclature . [ 13 ] [ 59 ] Fungal species can also have multiple
scientific names depending on its life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of
reproduction. Namun, upaya fungal antara peneliti kini sedang membangun dan
mendorong penggunaan yang kompak dan lebih konsisten tata nama. [13] [59] Fungal
spesies juga dapat memiliki beberapa nama ilmiah tergantung pada siklus hidup dan
mode (seksual atau asexual) dari reproduksi . Web sites such as Index Fungorum and
ITIS define preferred up-to-date names (with cross-references to older synonyms), but
do not always agree with each other. Situs web seperti Indeks Fungorum dan ITIS
menentukan pilihan up-to-date nama (dengan referensi silang ke tua sinonim), tetapi
tidak selalu setuju satu sama lain.
Cladogram Cladogram
A cladogram depicts the phylogenetic relationships between groups of organisms in a
tree-like diagram. J cladogram yang menggambarkan phylogenetic hubungan antara
kelompok organisme di pohon seperti diagram. The current classification of Kingdom
Fungi recognizes seven phyla , two of whichthe Ascomycota and the
Basidiomycotaare contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya.
Klasifikasi yang sekarang Kerajaan Fungi mengakui tujuh phyla, dua di antaranya
yang Ascomycota dan Basidiomycota-ada dalam cabang yang mewakili subkingdom
Dikarya.
Unikonta
Unikonta

Amoebozoa Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta Opisthokonta
Animalia Animalia
Choanozoa Choanozoa
Nucleariids Nucleariids
Fungi
Jamur

Microsporidia
Microsporidia
Chytridiomycota
Chytridiomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
(1)

Neocallimastigomycota
(1)

(1)

Given phyllum status by Hibbett, et al . (1) Dengan status phyllum oleh Hibbett, dkk.
(2007), but included in the Chytridiomycota by other authors. (2007), tetapi termasuk
dalam Chytridiomycota oleh penulis lainnya.

Taxonomic groups Taxonomic kelompok

The major divisions ( phyla ) of fungi have been classified based mainly on the
characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. Divisi utama (phyla) dari jamur
telah diklasifikasikan berdasarkan terutama pada karakteristik dari masing-seksual
reproduksi struktur. Currently, seven fungal divisions are proposed: [ 13 ] Saat ini, tujuh
fungal divisi yang diusulkan: [13]

Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing
paired arbuscules. Arbuscular mycorrhiza dilihat di bawah mikroskop. Lenan akar
cortical sel yang berisi pasangan arbuscules.

Chytridiomycota Chytridiomycota
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. The Chytridiomycota
biasanya dikenal sebagai chytrids. These fungi are ubiquitous with a worldwide
distribution. Ini jamur yang ada di mana-mana di seluruh dunia dengan distribusi.
Chytrids produce zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous
phases with a single flagellum , leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists .
Molecular phylogenies , inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes , suggest that
the Chytrids are a basal fungal group divergent from the other fungal divisions,
consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly
polyphyly . [ 51 ] Chytrids memproduksi zoospores yang mampu bergerak aktif melalui
tahapan Aqueous dengan satu flagellum, terkemuka awal taxonomists untuk
mengklasifikasikan mereka sebagai protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred dari
rRNA sequence dalam ribosomes, menyarankan bahwa Chytrids adalah sbg dasar
fungal grup berbeda dari yang lain fungal divisi, yang terdiri dari empat besar clades
dengan bernada bukti untuk paraphyly atau mungkin polyphyly. [51]
Blastocladiomycota Blastocladiomycota
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the
Chytridiomycota. The Blastocladiomycota sebelumnya dianggap sebagai taxonomic
clade dalam Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural
characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the
Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basiomycota). Recent
molecular data dan ultrastructural karakteristik Namun, tempat yang
Blastocladiomycota sebagai saudara clade ke Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, dan
Dikarya (Ascomycota dan Basiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are fungi that are
saprotrophs and parasites of all eukaryotic groups and undergo sporic meiosis unlike
their close relatives, the chytrids, which mostly exhibit zygotic meiosis. [ 51 ] The
blastocladiomycetes adalah jamur yang saprotrophs dan parasit eukaryotic dari semua
kelompok dan menjalani sporic meiosis mereka tidak seperti saudara dekat, yang
chytrids, yang sebagian besar pameran zygotic meiosis. [51]
Neocallimastigomycota Neocallimastigomycota
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota. The
Neocallimastigomycota sebelumnya telah ditempatkan di divisi Chytridomycota.
Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system
of larger herbivorous mammals and possibly in other terrestrial and aquatic
environments. Anggota divisi kecil ini adalah organisme anaerobic, hidup dalam
sistem pencernaan mamalia yang lebih besar dan mungkin hanya makan tumbuhtumbuhan lainnya di wilayah perairan dan lingkungan. They lack mitochondria but
contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. Mereka kekurangan mitochondria
tetapi berisi hydrogenosomes dari mitochondrial asal. As the related chrytrids,
neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or
polyflagellate. [ 13 ] Seperti yang terkait chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes formulir
zoospores yang posteriorly uniflagellate atau polyflagellate. [13]
Zygomycota Zygomycota

The Zygomycota , commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds, reproduce sexually
with meiospores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores . Black bread
mold ( Rhizopus stolonifer ) is a common species that belongs to this group; another is
Pilobolus species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. [ 60 ]
Medically relevant genera include Mucor , Rhizomucor , and Rhizopus . Molecular
phylogenetic investigation has shown the Zygomycota to be a polyphyletic phylum
with evidence of paraphyly within this taxonomic group. [ 61 ]
Glomeromycota
Members of the Glomeromycota are fungi forming arbuscular mycorrhizae with
higher plants. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other
species solely reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the
Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago.
[ 62 ]

Ascomycota

Diagram of an apothecium (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of

Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci.
The Ascomycota , commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the
largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called
ascospores , which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus . This
division includes morels , a few mushrooms and truffles , single-celled yeasts (eg, of
the genera Saccharomyces , Kluyveromyces , Pichia , and Candida ), and many
filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts.
Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus ,
Penicillium , Fusarium , and Claviceps . Many ascomycetes species have only been
observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis
of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the
Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus,
ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (eg
Neurospora crassa ).
Basidiomycota
Members of the Basidiomycota , commonly known as the club fungi or
basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called
basidia . Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut

fungi , which are major pathogens of grains. Other important Basidiomycetes include
the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis , human commensal species of the genus
Malassezia , and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans .

Phylogenetic relationships with other organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (myxomycetes)
and water molds (oomycetes) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi. Unlike
true fungi, however, the cell walls of these organisms contain cellulose and lack
chitin. Slime molds are unikonts like fungi, but are grouped in the Amoebozoa . Water
molds are diploid bikonts , grouped in the Chromalveolate kingdom. Neither water
molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore,
taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the
oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and
primary research literature.
The nucleariids , currently grouped in the Choanozoa , may be a sister group to the
eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. [ 63 ]

Ecology

Polypores growing on a tree in Borneo

Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play
very important roles in most ecosystems . Along with bacteria, fungi are the major
decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a
critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs . As decomposers, they
play an indispensable role in nutrient cycling , especially as saprotrophs and
symbionts , degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter
anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms. [ 64 ] [ 65 ]

Symbiosis
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not
all Kingdoms . [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in
nature, or in case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the
host. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ]

With plants
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plantfungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence
in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal
relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival. [ 72 ] [ 73 ]
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years ago. [ 62 ] It
often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and
phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. [ 64 ] [ 74 ]
The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and
other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal
networks". [ 75 ]
With algae and cyanobacteria

The lichen Lobaria pulmonaria , a symbiosis of fungal, algal , and cyanobacterial

species.
Lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship between algae or cyanobacteria
(referred to in lichens as "photobionts") and fungi (mostly various species of
ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes ), in which individual photobiont cells are
embedded in a tissue formed by the fungus. [ 76 ] Lichens occur in every ecosystem on
all continents and are the dominating life forms in extreme environments, including
polar or alpine vegetations. They are able to grow on different surfaces, including bare
soil, rocks, barks of trees, wood, shells or barnacles and leaf surfaces. [ 77 ] As in
mycorrhizas , the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates, while the
fungus provides minerals and water. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so
closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the
resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a
common mode of fungal nutrition; around 20% of fungiapproximately 13,500
described speciesare lichenized. [ 78 ] Characteristics common to most lichens
include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis , slow growth, small size, long
life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition
obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of dessication than most
other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat. [ 79 ]
With insects
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with various types of fungi.
Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food
source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees
that they infest. [ 80 ] Termites on the African Savannah are also known to cultivate

fungi. [ 81 ] Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their
primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the
bark of trees that they infest. [ 80 ] Termites on the African Savannah are also known to
cultivate fungi. [ 81 ]
As pathogens and parasites
However, many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans ), and other
fungi. Serious fungal pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage
and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe
oryzae , [ 82 ] tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi
causing Dutch elm disease , [ 83 ] and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut
blight , [ 84 ] and plant-pathogenic fungi in the genera Fusarium , Ustilago , Alternaria ,
and Cochliobolus . [ 70 ] Certain fungi are predators of nematodes , which they capture
using an array of specialized structures, such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.
[ 85 ]

Fungi are the causal agents of serious diseases in humans, several of which may be
fatal if untreated. These include aspergilloses , candidoses , coccidioidomycosis ,
cryptococcosis , [[histoplasmosis], mycetomas , and paracoccidioidomycosis .
Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease
by fungal genera such as Aspergillus , Candida , Cryptoccocus , [ 71 ] [ 86 ] [ 87 ]
Histoplasma , [ 88 ] and Pneumocystis . [ 89 ] Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and
especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic fungi and keratinophilic fungi, [ 90 ] and
cause local infections such as ringworm (eg, athletes foot ). Fungal spores are also a
cause of allergies , and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic
reactions. [ 91 ]

Human use

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells shown with DIC microscopy .

Human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is
extensive and has a long history: yeasts are required for fermentation of beer , wine
and bread , other fungal species are used in the production of soy sauce and tempeh .
Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries.
Many fungi are producers of antibiotics , including -lactam antibiotics such as
penicillin and cephalosporin . [ 92 ] Widespread use of these antibiotics for the treatment
of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis , syphilis , leprosy , and many others began
in the early 20th century and continues to play a major part in anti-bacterial

chemotherapy . The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is
known as ethnomycology .
Cultured foods
Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a single-cell fungus, is used to bake bread
and other wheat-based products, such as pizza and dumplings . [ 93 ] Yeast species of
the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through
fermentation . [ 94 ] Mycelial fungi, such as the shoyu koji mold ( Aspergillus oryzae ),
are used to brew Shoyu ( soy sauce ), and to prepare tempeh . [ 95 ] Quorn is a highprotein product made from the mold Fusarium venenatum , and is used in vegetarian
cooking. [ 96 ]
Medicinal use

The medicinal fungi Ganoderma

lucidum (left) and Cordyceps
sinensis (right).
Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in traditional and folk medicines, such
as Traditional Chinese Medicine . Most notable species include those of the genus
Agaricus , [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Ganoderma , [ 99 ] and Cordyceps , [ 100 ] which are being used in the
treatment of several diseases. [ 101 ] Research has identified compounds produced by
these fungi that have biological effects against viruses [ 102 ] [ 103 ] and cancer cells in
vitro ; [ 104 ] specific fungal metabolites with biological or antimicrobial activities, such
as ergotamine and -lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The
shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan , a clinical drug approved for use in cancer
treatments in several countries, including Japan . [ 105 ] [ 106 ] In Europe and Japan ,
polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes
versicolor , is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy. [ 107 ]
Edible and poisonous species

Stilton cheese veined with Penicillium roqueforti .

Amanita phalloides accounts for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings

worldwide.
Well known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. Many
species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus
bisporus , sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when
larger, are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other
dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have gained in popularity in
the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw
mushrooms ( Volvariella volvacea ), oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ),
shiitakes ( Lentinula edodes ), and enokitake ( Flammulina spp.).
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal
consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms , morels , chanterelles , truffles ,
black trumpets , and porcini mushrooms ( Boletus edulis ) (also known as king
boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
For certain types of cheeses , it is also a common practice to inoculate milk curds with
fungal spores to promote the growth of specific species of mold that impart a unique
flavor and texture to the cheese. This accounts for the blue colour in cheeses such as
Stilton or Roquefort which is created using Penicillium roqueforti spores. [ 108 ] Molds
used in cheese production are usually non-toxic and are thus safe for human
consumption; however, mycotoxins (eg, aflatoxins, roquefortine C , patulin, or others)
may accumulate due to fungal spoilage during cheese ripening or storage. [ 109 ]
Many mushroom species are toxic to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight
digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ
failures and death. The most deadly mushrooms belong to the genera Inocybe ,
Cortinarius , and most infamously, Amanita . The latter genus includes the destroying
angel ( A. virosa ) and the death cap ( A. phalloides ) , the most common cause of
deadly mushroom poisoning. [ 110 ] The false morel ( Gyromitra esculenta ) is
occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten
raw. [ 111 ] Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until being implicated in serious
poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis . [ 112 ]

Fly agaric mushrooms ( Amanita muscaria ) also cause occasional poisonings, mostly
as a result of ingestion for use as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic properties.
Historically, fly agaric was used by Celtic Druids in Northern Europe and the Koryak
people of north-eastern Siberia for religious or shamanic purposes. [ 113 ] It is difficult
to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, thus it
is often advised to assume that a mushroom in the wild is poisonous and not to
consume it.
In the biological control of pests

Grasshoppers killed by Beauveria bassiana

In agricultural settings, fungi that actively compete for nutrients and space with
pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi, via the competitive
exclusion principle , [ 114 ] or are parasites of these pathogens, may be beneficial agents
for human use. For example, certain fungi may be used to suppress growth or
eliminate harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites , weeds , nematodes and
other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. [ 115 ] This has generated strong
interest in the use and practical application of these fungi for the biological control of
these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides , as they
actively kill insects. [ 116 ] Examples of fungi that have been used as biological
insecticides are Beauveria bassiana , Metarhizium anisopliae , Hirsutella spp,
Paecilomyces spp, and Verticillium lecanii . [ 117 ] [ 118 ] Endophytic fungi of grasses of
the genus Neotyphodium , such as N. coenophialum , produce alkaloids that are toxic
to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores . These alkaloids protect grass
plants from herbivory , but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals,
such as cattle and sheep. [ 119 ] Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with
Neotyphodium endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs; the
fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to
herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock. [ 120 ]

Bioremediation
Main article: Mycoremediation
Certain fungi, in particular 'white rot' fungi, can degrade insecticides , herbicides ,
pentachlorophenol , creosote , coal tars , and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon
dioxide , water, and basic elements. [ 121 ] Fungi have been shown to biomineralize
uranium oxides , suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of
radioactively polluted sites. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] [ 124 ]

Others
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric , gluconic ,
lactic , and malic acids , antibiotics , and even to make stonewashed jeans . [ 125 ] Fungi
are also sources of industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents ,
[ 126 ]
amylases , [ 127 ] cellulases , [ 128 ] invertases , proteases and xylanases . [ 129 ] Several
fungal species are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and
religiously (see main article, Psilocybin mushrooms ).

Mycotoxins
Main article: Mycotoxins
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic and
are therefore called mycotoxins . Of particular relevance to humans are those
mycotoxins that are produced by molds causing food spoilage and poisonous
mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the aflatoxins , which are insidious
liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by Aspergillus species
often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, and the lethal amatoxins
produced by mushrooms of the genus Amanita . Other notable mycotoxins include
ochratoxins , patulin , ergot alkaloids , and trichothecenes and fumonisins , which
have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock . [ 130 ]
Mycotoxins belong to the group of compounds known as secondary metabolites (or
natural products ). Recent research has shown the existence of biochemical pathways
solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi.
[ 131 ]
Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits to the fungi that produce them in terms
of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and
protection from consumption ( fungivory ). [ 132 ] [ 133 ] These fitness benefits and the
existence of dedicated biosynthetic pathways for mycotoxin production suggest that
the mycotoxins are important for fungal persistence and survival.

Mycology
Main article: mycology
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi,
including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to
humans as a source of medicine, food, entheogens , as well as their dangers, such as
poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology , the study of plant diseases, is
closely related because most plant pathogens are fungi.
Man's dealings with fungi date back to prehistory; tzi the Iceman , a well-preserved
mummy of a 5,300 year old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried
two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder ( Fomes
fomentarius ), or for medicinal purposes ( Piptoporus betulinus . [ 134 ] Ancient peoples
have used fungi as food sources-often unknowingly-for millennia, in the preparation
of leavened bread and fermented juices. Man's oldest written records contain

references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.
[ 135 ]

History
Mycology is a relatively new science that had to wait for the development of the
microscope in the 16th century before becoming systematic. Although fungal spores
were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the
development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli
's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera . [ 136 ] Micheli not only observed spores, but
showed that under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the
same species of fungi from which they originated. [ 137 ] The Dutch Christian Hendrik
Persoon (17611836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill
so as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries
(17941878) extended the classification of fungi, using spore color and various
microscopic characteristics, techniques still used by taxonomists today.