BAGIAN KEDUA

BAB

3 Analisis pekerjaan

GARIS BESAR BAB

ANALISIS PEKERJAAN Metode pekerjaan Element
JOB ANALISIS METODE Insiden kritis Teknik
Pengamatan Posisi Analisis Angket
Partisipasi Fungsional Job Analysis
data yang ada Membandingkan Berbeda Teknik Analisis Jabatan

wawancara O * NET: Alat Berguna untuk Pekerjaan

survei Understanding

buku harian pekerjaan ANALISIS PEKERJAAN DAN ADA

TEKNIK ANALISIS KHUSUS JOB JOB EVALUASI DAN sebanding
LAYAK RINGKASAN

Di dalam Tips
JOB ANALISIS: MEMBANGUN FOUNDATION
UNTUK PERSONIL PSIKOLOGI
Topik bab ini, analisis pekerjaan, adalah dasar dari hampir semua kegiatan personil. Untuk menilai kinerja
karyawan, mempekerjakan orang yang tepat untuk pekerjaan, kereta seseorang untuk melakukan pekerjaan,
atau mengubah atau mendesain ulang pekerjaan, kita perlu tahu persis apa pekerjaan adalah. Ini adalah tujuan
dari analisis jabatan. Banyak topik kita akan membahas dalam beberapa bab berikutnya beristirahat di yayasan
ini. Sebagai contoh, ketika kita membahas perekrutan, penyaringan, pengujian, dan seleksi pelamar pekerjaan
(dalam dua bab berikutnya), kita menentukan pengetahuan apa, keterampilan,
5
3
54 BAGIAN 3 Analisis pekerjaan

kemampuan, dan karakteristik lain (KSAOs) diminta untuk melakukan pekerjaan sebelum
kita mempekerjakan seseorang. Ketika kita membahas evaluasi kinerja pekerjaan (Bab 6),
kita perlu tahu apa pekerjaan terdiri dari sebelum kita dapat mengetahui apakah
seseorang melakukan hal itu baik atau buruk.
Selain itu, analisis pekerjaan sangat menarik pada metode penelitian dan masalah pengukuran
belajar di Bab 2. Dalam analisis pekerjaan, kami berusaha untuk seobjektif dan setepat mungkin. metode
pengukuran dan teknik mengamati dan merekam data merupakan isu penting dalam menganalisis
pekerjaan.
Topik analisis pekerjaan juga berkaitan dengan beberapa isu yang dibahas dalam Bab 1.
Sebagai contoh, ketika Taylor menerapkan metode gerak waktu -dan- untuk mempelajari
pekerjaan, ia berlaku melakukan analisis jabatan. Selain itu, salah satu metode analisis
pekerjaan kita akan membahas dalam bab ini membahas proses tertentu dengan yang
pekerjaan akan dilakukan. Ini adalah jenis yang sama dari proses Taylor dipelajari dalam
metode manajemen ilmiah. Membuat koneksi seperti ini akan membantu Anda untuk melihat
bagaimana berbagai topik yang kita akan membahas fit bersama-sama.

I magine yang lulus di cakrawala, dan Anda ingin mencari tahu tentang jenis pekerjaan
yang Anda mungkin memenuhi syarat dan apa macam compa-nies atau organisasi Anda
mungkin bekerja untuk. Dalam semua kemungkinan, Anda akan mengubah
beberapa sumber informasi yang berhubungan dengan personil, atau
sumber daya manusia, masalah. Anda mungkin mengunjungi pusat karir
kampus Anda atau dimulai dengan pencarian berbasis Web. Anda perlu tahu
tentang karir dan pekerjaan, dan persyaratan yang dibutuhkan untuk berhasil
di dalamnya.
psikologi personil Dalam lima bab berikutnya, kita akan memeriksa khusus dari industri
daerah khusus I / O psikologi / organisasi disebut sebagai psikologi personil. Personil psikologi
psikologi fokus-ing pada berkaitan dengan penciptaan, perawatan, dan pemeliharaan dari angkatan
sumber daya manusia
kerja, yang meliputi perekrutan, penempatan, pelatihan, dan pengembangan
organisasi
pekerja; pengukuran dan evaluasi kinerja mereka; dan perhatian dengan
produktivitas pekerja dan kesejahteraan. Singkatnya, tujuan psikologi
personil untuk mengurus sumber daya organisasi manusia (personil
organisasi).
Dalam organisasi, sumber daya manusia departemen bertanggung
jawab untuk sebagian besar hal personil. Selain menjaga karyawan
kehadiran Records-tabulasi, penanganan gaji, dan membuat catatan-
manusia pensiun sumber departemen menangani berbagai masalah yang
berkaitan dengan aset perusahaan yang paling berharga: pekerja manusia.
I / O psikolog yang mengkhususkan diri dalam psikologi personel yang
terlibat dalam kegiatan seperti perekrutan karyawan dan seleksi, pengukuran
kinerja karyawan dan membangun-ment kinerja meninjau prosedur yang
baik, pengembangan program pelatihan dan pengembangan karyawan, dan
perumusan kriteria untuk promosi, menembak, dan tindakan disiplin. Mereka
juga harus berpengalaman dalam hukum dan peraturan ketenagakerjaan
untuk
memastikan
bahwa
organisasi
mereka telah
sesuai dengan
federal dan
negara hukum
dan pedoman.
I / O psikolog
juga dapat
membentuk
program yang
efektif untuk
kompensasi dan
manfaat
karyawan,
membuat
program
insentif, dan
desain dan
melaksanakan
program
kesehatan
karyawan
melindungi dan
kesejahteraan.
 Analisis pekerjaan

Sebuah
Analisis pekerjaan analisis pekerjaan
mengarah
Salah satu yang paling fungsi personil dasar adalah analisis pekerjaan, Atau langsung ke
studi sistematis dari tugas, tugas, dan tanggung jawab pekerjaan dan pengembangan
pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan kemampuan yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan beberapa
itu. analisis pekerjaan adalah titik awal untuk hampir semua fungsi personalia, personel penting
dan analisis pekerjaan sangat penting untuk mengembangkan sarana personil lainnya “produk”:
menilai (Wheaton & Whetzel, 1997). Sebelum seorang pekerja dapat disewa deskripsi
atau dilatih dan sebelum kinerja pekerja dapat dievaluasi, sangat penting untuk pekerjaan,
memahami apa entails pekerjaan pekerja. analisis tersebut juga harus dilakukan spesifikasi
secara periodik untuk memastikan bahwa informasi tentang pekerjaan yang up pekerjaan,
to date. Dengan kata lain, perlu mencerminkan kerja sebenarnya sedang evaluasi
dilakukan. Misalnya, seiring berjalannya waktu, seorang asisten administrasi di pekerjaan, dan
organisasi kecil mungkin menganggap tugas-tugas tambahan dan tanggung kriteria kinerja.
jawab yang tidak ada sebelumnya. SEBUAHuraian
Karena sebagian besar pekerjaan terdiri dari berbagai tugas dan tugas, Tugas adalah
memperoleh pemahaman penuh pekerjaan tidak selalu mudah. Oleh karena rinci akuntansi
itu, metode analisis pekerjaan harus lengkap dan tepat. Memang, organisasi tugas,
besar memiliki spesialis yang tanggung jawab utama adalah untuk
menganalisis berbagai pekerjaan di perusahaan dan mengembangkan
deskripsi yang luas dan saat ini untuk setiap.
Kebanyakan pekerjaan yang cukup kompleks dan membutuhkan pekerja
untuk memiliki jenis tertentu pengetahuan dan keterampilan untuk
melakukan berbagai tugas yang berbeda. Pekerja mungkin perlu untuk
mengoperasikan mesin yang kompleks untuk melakukan pekerjaan mereka
atau mereka mungkin perlu memiliki banyak informasi tentang produk atau
jasa tertentu. Jobs mungkin juga memerlukan pekerja untuk berinteraksi
secara efektif dengan berbagai jenis orang, atau satu pekerjaan mungkin
memerlukan pekerja untuk memiliki semua keterampilan dan pengetahuan
penting. Sebagai pekerjaan menjadi lebih dan lebih kompleks, kebutuhan
untuk analisis pekerjaan yang efektif dan komprehensif menjadi semakin
penting. Harus ditekankan, bagaimanapun, bahwa meskipun analisis
pekerjaan memberikan kita pemahaman yang lebih besar dari apa yang
entails pekerjaan tertentu, di kompleks dan selalu berubah, terus
berkembang pekerjaan, analisis pekerjaan tidak harus menjadi proses yang
membatasi hari ini.
Untuk melakukan analisis yang baik pekerjaan, analis pekerjaan harus
terlatih dalam metode penelitian dasar kita bahas pada Bab 2. analisis Kerja
biasanya melibatkan pengukuran tujuan perilaku kerja yang dilakukan oleh
pekerja yang sebenarnya. Oleh karena itu, seorang analis pekerjaan harus
menjadi ahli dalam teknik pengukuran yang objektif untuk melakukan analisis
pekerjaan yang akurat. Bahkan, review penelitian tentang analisis pekerjaan
menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman dan pelatihan dalam metode analisis
pekerjaan sangat penting untuk analisis pekerjaan yang efektif (Landy, 1993;
Voskuijl & van Sliedregt, 2002).
analisis pekerjaan
studi sistematis tugas, tugas, dan tanggung jawab pekerjaan dan kualitas yang diperlukan untuk melakukan itu

uraian Tugas
penjelasan rinci tentang tugas pekerjaan, prosedur, dan tanggung jawab; alat-alat dan peralatan yang digunakan;
dan produk akhir atau jasa
56 BAGIAN 3 Analisis pekerjaan

TABEL 3.1
Contoh Job Description dan Job Spesifikasi

deskripsi pekerjaan parsial Sumber Daya Manusia Asisten

Ringkasan pekerjaan: Mendukung sumber daya manusia proses dengan pemberian tes kerja,
penjadwalan janji, melakukan orientasi karyawan, memelihara catatan personil dan informasi.
tugas pekerjaan dan hasil: Jadwal dan koordinat janji untuk pengujian; Mengelola dan skor
tes kerja; melakukan program orientasi karyawan baru; memelihara database personil, yang
melibatkan perakitan, mempersiapkan, dan menganalisis data ketenagakerjaan; harus
mempertahankan pengetahuan teknis dengan menghadiri workshop pendidikan dan meninjau
publikasi; harus menjaga kerahasiaan informasi HR.
spesifikasi pekerjaan parsial Sumber Daya Manusia Asisten

Minimal dua tahun pengalaman dalam operasi sumber daya manusia. gelar sarjana
dalam bisnis, psikologi, ilmu-ilmu sosial, atau daerah terkait; gelar master dalam disiplin
terkait SDM yang diinginkan; Kemahiran dalam program manajemen database dan
perangkat lunak analisis statistik; keterampilan interpersonal yang baik, dengan
pelatihan dan pengalaman presentasi.

Diadaptasi dari: Plachy, RJ, & SJ Plachy (1998). Lebih berorientasi pada hasil deskripsi pekerjaan. New York: AMACOM.

prosedur, dan tanggung jawab yang diperlukan pekerja; mesin-mesin,

peralatan, dan peralatan yang digunakan untuk melakukan pekerjaan; dan
output pekerjaan (end produk atau jasa). Pekerja yang paling akrab dengan
deskripsi pekerjaan. Seringkali pekerja baru disediakan dengan deskripsi
pekerjaan mereka selama orientasi awal dan pelatihan. departemen sumber
daya manusia juga dapat membuat deskripsi pekerjaan untuk berbagai
pekerjaan diakses karyawan. Misalnya, Anda kadang-kadang dapat melihat
deskripsi pekerjaan diposting di papan buletin atau listservs e-mail sebagai
spesifikasi bagian dari pengumuman lowongan kerja perusahaan.
pekerjaan Sebuah analisis pekerjaan juga mengarah ke spesifikasi pekerjaan, Yang
pernyataan dari
memberikan informasi tentang karakteristik manusia yang dibutuhkan untuk
karakteristik manusia
yang dibutuhkan untuk
melakukan pekerjaan, seperti sifat-sifat fisik dan pribadi, pengalaman kerja,
melakukan pekerjaan dan pendidikan. Biasanya, spesifikasi pekerjaan memberikan kualifikasi
minimum yang dapat diterima bahwa seorang karyawan perlu melakukan
evaluasi pekerjaan pekerjaan yang diberikan. Sebuah deskripsi sampel pekerjaan dan
penilaian terhadap nilai spesifikasi pekerjaan disajikan pada Tabel 3.1. Sebuah personil ketiga
relatif dari pekerjaan “produk,”evaluasi pekerjaan, Adalah penilaian dari nilai relatif atau senilai
untuk menentukan pekerjaan untuk sebuah organisasi untuk menentukan kompensasi yang
kompensasi yang sesuai sesuai, atau upah. Kita akan membahas evaluasi kerja di jauh lebih
mendalam kemudian dalam bab ini.
Akhirnya, analisis pekerjaan membantu kriteria kinerja garis besar, yang
merupakan sarana untuk menilai keberhasilan pekerja dalam melakukan
pekerjaan. kriteria kinerja dan penilaian kinerja akan menjadi topik Bab 6.
Produk-produk ini dari analisis pekerjaan adalah penting karena mereka
memberikan informasi rinci yang diperlukan untuk kegiatan lain personel, seperti
program perencanaan, rekrutmen dan seleksi, dan sistem penilaian kinerja (lihat
Gambar 3.1). produk mereka juga berharga karena keputusan hukum yang membuat
analisis organisasi lebih bertanggung jawab atas tindakan personel sebagai bagian dari
pekerjaan dan gerakan menuju hak-hak hukum yang lebih besar bagi pekerja. Terutama

Analisis pekerjaan

Penggunaan Pekerjaan
analisis Produk

Desain pekerjaan

Personil
perencanaan

Personil
Pengerahan
dan Seleksi
produk dari
Analisis pekerjaan

Uraian Tugas
Spesifikasi pekerjaan
Pekerjaan
Evaluasi pekerjaan Kompensasi
Analisis
prestasi
Kriteria

Karyawan
Pelatihan dan
Pengembangan

Sama
Pekerjaan
Kesempatan

prestasi
Penilaian

GAMBAR 3. 1
Link Antara Analisis Jabatan dan Fungsi Personalia
Sumber: Berdasarkan Ghorpade, JV (1988). analisis pekerjaan: Sebuah buku pegangan untuk direktur sumber daya manusia
(P. 6). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
58 BAGIAN 3 Analisis pekerjaan

antara hukum-hukum ini mereka yang peduli dengan pemerataan kesempatan

kerja bagi pekerja yang kurang beruntung dan minoritas. Pengusaha tidak bisa
membuat keputusan tergesa-gesa atau arbi-Berlawanan mengenai perekrutan,
pemecatan, atau promosi pekerja. tindakan personel tertentu, seperti keputusan
untuk menyewa atau mempromosikan, harus dibuat atas dasar analisis
pekerjaan yang menyeluruh. keputusan personalia yang tidak sulit untuk
mempertahankan di pengadilan. Kadang-kadang analisis pekerjaan dan
deskripsi pekerjaan yang tidak cukup. Pengadilan juga mempertanyakan kualitas
deskripsi pekerjaan dan metode yang digunakan dalam analisis pekerjaan oleh
banyak perusahaan (Ghorpade, 1988). Bagian dari Amerika dengan Disabilities
Act (ADA) tahun 1990 mensyaratkan bahwa pengusaha membuat “akomodasi
yang wajar” sehingga orang dengan atau cacat fisik, mental, belajar dapat
melakukan pekerjaan mereka.

Metode Job Analysis

Berbagai metode dan prosedur yang tersedia untuk melakukan pekerjaan
Analy-sis, termasuk teknik pengamatan, pemeriksaan data yang ada pada
pekerjaan, teknik wawancara, dan survei. Setiap metode akan menghasilkan
berbagai jenis informasi, dan masing-masing memiliki kekuatan dan
kelemahan sendiri. Dalam metode tertentu, seperti wawancara, data dapat
diperoleh dari berbagai sumber, seperti incumbent pekerjaan (orang yang
saat ini memegang pekerjaan), pengawasan orang-nel, atau ahli luar. Selain
itu, metode analisis pekerjaan yang berbeda sering digunakan dalam
kombinasi untuk menghasilkan penjelasan rinci dan akurat dari pekerjaan
tertentu (Brannick, Levine, & Morgeson, 2007).

pengamatan
metode observasi analisis pekerjaan adalah mereka yang analis pekerjaan
dilatih mengumpulkan informasi tentang pekerjaan tertentu. Untuk melakukan hal
ini, analis biasanya mengamati incumbent pekerjaan di tempat kerja untuk
jangka waktu. analis kerja juga dapat menggunakan video untuk perilaku kerja
rekor untuk analisis yang lebih rinci. Biasanya dalam analisis observasional,
pengamat membuat catatan rinci tentang tugas-tugas yang tepat dan tugas yang
dijalankan. Namun, untuk melakukan pengamatan yang akurat, pekerjaan ana-
Lyst harus tahu apa yang harus dicari. Misalnya, gerakan halus atau cepat, tapi
satu yang penting untuk pekerjaan, mungkin tidak diketahui. Juga, jika pekerjaan
sangat teknis atau kompleks, analis mungkin tidak dapat mengamati beberapa
Berhenti & aspek penting, seperti berpikir atau proses pengambilan keputusan. teknik
Ulasan
pengamatan biasanya bekerja terbaik dengan pekerjaan yang melibatkan
Daftar dan
operasi manual, tugas yang berulang, atau kegiatan mudah dilihat lainnya.
menentukan tiga
produk dari Sebagai contoh, menggambarkan tugas dan tugas-tugas seorang operator
analisis jabatan. mesin jahit jauh lebih sederhana daripada menggambarkan pekerjaan seorang
teknisi komputer, karena banyak pekerjaan teknisi komputer melibatkan proses
kognitif yang terlibat dalam pemecahan masalah masalah komputer.
Dengan teknik pengamatan, penting bahwa waktu yang dipilih untuk
observasi mewakili rutin pekerja, terutama jika pekerjaan mengharuskan pekerja
terlibat dalam
tugas-tugas yang
berbeda selama
waktu yang
berbeda
 Metode Job Analysis

Analis pekerjaan ini menggunakan metode observasi untuk menganalisis pekerjaan ini masinis

hari, minggu, atau tahun. Sebagai contoh, petugas akuntansi dapat

menangani voucher gaji pada hari Kamis, mungkin menghabiskan sebagian
besar hari Jumat memperbarui angka penjualan, dan dapat hampir
sepenuhnya sibuk dengan mempersiapkan catatan pajak perusahaan
selama bulan Januari.
Salah satu keprihatinan tentang metode observasi adalah apakah
kehadiran pengamat dalam beberapa cara mempengaruhi kinerja pekerja.
Selalu ada kemungkinan bahwa pekerja akan melakukan pekerjaan mereka
berbeda hanya karena mereka tahu bahwa mereka sedang diawasi (ingat
efek Hawthorne dibahas dalam Bab 1).

Partisipasi
Dalam beberapa kasus, seorang analis pekerjaan yang mungkin ingin untuk
benar-benar melakukan pekerjaan atau pekerjaan operasi tertentu untuk
mendapatkan langsung memahami bagaimana pekerjaan dilakukan. Sebagai
contoh, beberapa tahun yang lalu, saya terlibat dalam melakukan analisis
pekerjaan pekerja melakukan operasi microassembly halus. microassemblers ini
bekerja dengan pas bersama-sama komponen listrik sangat kecil. Satu-satunya
cara untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang benar (dan penghargaan untuk)
denda koordinasi mata tangan-yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan pekerjaan itu
untuk mencoba tugas sendiri.

data yang ada

Kebanyakan besar, organisasi yang didirikan biasanya memiliki beberapa
informasi atau catatan yang dapat digunakan dalam analisis pekerjaan, seperti
analisis pekerjaan sebelumnya untuk posi-tion atau analisis pekerjaan terkait.
Data tersebut mungkin juga dipinjam dari organisasi lain yang telah melakukan
analisis pekerjaan yang serupa. sumber daya manusia profesional sering
bertukar informasi tersebut dengan profesional di organisasi lain. data yang ada
harus selalu diperiksa untuk memastikan itu sesuai dengan pekerjaan seperti
yang saat ini sedang dilakukan dan juga untuk menentukan apakah data yang
ada menyumbang masuknya teknologi baru dalam pekerjaan.
60 BAGIAN 3 Analisis pekerjaan

APPLYINGI / OPSYCHOLOGY
Sebuah Detil Analisis Kerja Real Estate Agents
saya n satu proyek, Negara Bagian California
menyewa industri / psikolog organisasi untuk melakukan
berkoordinasi dengan inspektur, penilai, dan
analisis pekerjaan rinci penjual real estate dan broker escrow dan judul perusahaan; dan meninjau
(BUCKLY, 1993). Negara ingin memahami pekerjaan real menutup dokumen dengan klien.
estate profesional yang lebih baik dalam rangka
meningkatkan yang ada 5. Mempertahankan citra profesional-Termasuk
ujian lisensi negara untuk real estate agen / broker. tetap diberitahu tentang perubahan dalam hukum real
I / O psikolog mulai dengan survei hampir 1.000 estate dan tetap informasi tentang tren pasar dan
tenaga penjualan real estate dan broker, meminta mereka masyarakat.
tentang kegiatan mereka terlibat dalam dan pengetahuan
Selain kegiatan di atas, real estate penjualan-
yang mereka butuhkan untuk melakukan pekerjaan
orang harus menunjukkan pengetahuan tentang:
mereka. Hasil analisis pekerjaan ini menunjukkan bahwa
penjual real estate biasanya terlibat dalam kegiatan- ???????? ???? ???????????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??
kegiatan berikut: ???????? ?? ?? ???????????? sifat
kepentingan umum)
1. Menemukan dan listing properti-Termasuk
?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??
memeriksa properti; melakukan analisis pasar; dan
???? ???????????? ???????????????? pajak,
menyarankan kisaran harga untuk properti.
membangun kode, dll)
2. properti pemasaran-Termasuk
?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????
mempromosikan prop-erty melalui iklan; menemukan
?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????
calon pembeli; menampilkan dan menjelaskan fitur
????????????????????????
dari properti untuk calon pembeli.
????????????????
3. Negosiasi kontrak penjualan-Termasuk
?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????
penyusunan dan penyajian menawarkan dan
????
counteroffers dan penawaran negosiasi.
4. Membantu dengan pengalihan harta-Termasuk Hasil dari proyek ini adalah bahwa I / O psycholo-inti
arrang-ing untuk escrow; membantu pembeli untuk direkomendasikan bahwa perubahan negara perizinan
pembiayaan find; item tes pemeriksaan dalam rangka untuk lebih
mencerminkan pekerjaan seperti yang dijelaskan oleh real
estat mapan penjual pekerjaan.

wawancara
Wawancara adalah metode lain analisis jabatan. Mereka bisa terbuka
( “Ceritakan semua tentang apa yang Anda lakukan pada pekerjaan”), atau
mereka dapat melibatkan terstruktur atau standar pertanyaan. Karena salah
satu sumber informasi dapat menjadi bias, analis pekerjaan mungkin ingin
mendapatkan lebih dari satu perspektif dengan mewawancarai incumbent
pekerjaan, pengawas incumbent, dan, jika pekerjaan adalah salah satu
pengawas, bawahan incumbent ini. Analis pekerjaan mungkin juga
mewawancarai beberapa pemain lama pekerjaan dalam satu organisasi
untuk mendapatkan Representa-tion lebih handal dari pekerjaan dan untuk
 melihat apakah berbagai orang memegang jabatan yang sama di sebuah
perusahaan benar-benar melakukan tugas serupa.

survei
metode survei analisis pekerjaan biasanya melibatkan administrasi kuesioner
pensil-dan-kertas yang selesai responden dan kembali ke analis pekerjaan.
Survei dapat terdiri dari pertanyaan terbuka ( “Apa kemampuan atau
keterampilan
langkah-langkah
Spesifik Teknik Analisis untuk
Pekerjaan memastikan
bahwa metode
diwajibkan untuk melakukan pekerjaan ini “); tertutup berakhir pertanyaan yang tepat
( “Manakah dari klasifikasi fol-melenguh paling sesuai dengan posisi Anda digunakan dalam
(a) pengawasan, (b) teknis, (c) line, (d) ulama?”); atau daftar periksa segala macam
( “Periksa semua tugas-tugas berikut yang per-bentuk dalam pekerjaan analisis
Anda.”). organisasi.
Metode survei memiliki dua keunggulan dibandingkan dengan metode Tempat ini lebih
wawancara. Pertama, survei memungkinkan pengumpulan informasi dari penting daripada
sejumlah pekerja secara bersamaan. Hal ini dapat membantu dan biaya dalam
sangat efektif bila analis perlu belajar beberapa posisi. Kedua, karena survei melakukan
bisa anony-mous, mungkin ada sedikit distorsi atau pemotongan informasi analisis
dari dalam wawancara tatap muka. Salah satu kelemahan dari survei, pekerjaan.
bagaimanapun, adalah bahwa informasi yang diperoleh dibatasi oleh
pertanyaan yang diajukan. Tidak seperti antar-view, survei tidak bisa
mengorek informasi tambahan atau klarifikasi dari tanggapan.
Spesifik
Seringkali dalam melakukan analisis pekerjaan, mapan pekerjaan atau Teknik
berpengetahuan super-visor dari pemegang jabatan yang disebut sebagai
ahli subjek (atau UKM). ahli subjek dapat memberikan informasi analisis
Analisis
pekerjaan melalui wawancara atau melalui metode survei. Pekerjaan
buku harian pekerjaan Selain berbagai
Metode lain untuk analisis pekerjaan adalah memiliki pemegang jabatan metode ini umum
merekam kegiatan sehari-hari mereka dalam buku harian. Sebuah untuk melakukan
keuntungan dari buku harian pekerjaan adalah bahwa ia menyediakan rinci, analisis
jam demi jam, hari demi hari Rekening pekerjaan pekerja. Salah satu pekerjaan, ada
kesulitan dari metode diary, bagaimanapun, adalah bahwa hal itu cukup juga sejumlah
memakan waktu, baik untuk pekerja yang menjaga buku harian dan untuk tertentu, teknik
analis pekerjaan yang memiliki tugas menganalisis sejumlah besar informasi analisis standar.
yang terkandung dalam buku harian. Teknik ini tidak
Perhatian penting dalam semua metode sebelumnya dari analisis hanya digunakan
pekerjaan adalah kesalahan poten-esensial dan ketidakakuratan yang terjadi secara luas tetapi
hanya karena analis pekerjaan, pekerjaan incum-bents, dan ahli subjek juga telah
semua adalah manusia. Dalam satu review, Morgeson dan Campion (1997) menghasilkan
dijelaskan 16 sumber potensi ketidakakuratan dalam analisis pekerjaan, sejumlah
mulai dari sekedar kecerobohan dan pelatihan kerja analis miskin untuk bias mempertimbangk
seperti melebih-lebihkan atau meremehkan pentingnya tugas-tugas tertentu an-dapat
dan pekerjaan informasi yang berlebihan yang berasal dari kompleksitas dari penelitian tentang
beberapa pekerjaan. Seperti yang Anda ingat dari diskusi kami metode efektivitas
penelitian, tema penting untuk I / O psikolog adalah untuk mengambil mereka. Kami
akan mempertimbangkan empat dari teknik-teknik khusus ini: metode elemen
pekerjaan, analisis pekerjaan fungsional, Analisis Jabatan Angket, dan teknik 61
insiden kritis.

ahli materi
pelajaran
(UKM)
seorang individu yang
memiliki pengetahuan
yang terperinci
tentang pekerjaan
tertentu

62 BAGIAN 3 Analisis pekerjaan

METODE JOB ELEMEN

metode elemen Itu metode elemen pekerjaananalisis terlihat pekerjaan di pengetahuan
pekerjaan
dasar, keterampilan, kemampuan, atau karakteristik lain-KSAOs-yang
metode analisis
jabatan yang
dibutuhkan untuk melakukan pekerjaan tertentu (Primoff, 1975). KSAOs ini
menganalisis merupakan elemen pekerjaan dasar.
pekerjaan dalam hal Dalam metode elemen pekerjaan analis pekerjaan bergantung pada
penge-edge, “ahli” (ahli materi pelajaran, atau UKM) yang menginformasikan tentang
keterampilan, pekerjaan untuk mengidentifikasi elemen-elemen pekerjaan (KSAOs)
kemampuan, dan
diperlukan untuk pekerjaan tertentu. Para ahli kemudian menilai atau
lainnya characteris-
tics (KSAOs) peringkat unsur-unsur yang berbeda dalam hal pentingnya mereka untuk
diperlukan untuk melakukan pekerjaan itu. Metode elemen pekerjaan adalah “orang
melakukan pekerjaan berorientasi” dalam hal itu berfokus pada karakteristik individu yang
melakukan pekerjaan. Metode ini telah paling sering digunakan dalam
pekerjaan di pemerintah federal. Karena ruang lingkup terbatas, metode
elemen pekerjaan sering dikombinasikan dengan metode analisis pekerjaan
lain diuraikan berikutnya (Bemis, Belenky, & Soder, 1983).
teknik analisis pekerjaan yang mengandalkan contoh prestasi kerja terutama keberhasilan-ful atau gagal

kritis teknik
insiden (CIT)
 mungkin berkontribusi pada keberhasilan atau kegagalan asisten ulama.
PERISTIWA Penelitian menunjukkan informasi yang terbaik yang diberikan oleh para ahli
KRITIS pada pekerjaan dan metode analisis kualitatif-hati harus digunakan (Butterfield,
TEKNIK Borgen, Amundson, & Asa-Sophia, 2005; Mullins
& Kimbrough, 1988). Oleh karena itu, informasi tentang insiden tersebut
Itu kritis teknik diperoleh dengan mempertanyakan, baik melalui wawancara atau kuesioner,
insiden pemegang jabatan, pengawas pekerjaan, atau individu berpengetahuan
(CIT)catatan lainnya. Melalui koleksi hun-dreds insiden kritis, analis pekerjaan dapat tiba
analisis jabatan di gambaran yang sangat baik dari apa pekerjaan-dan khususnya sukses
perilaku pekerja kinerja adalah semua tentang. Sebuah contoh bentuk wawancara insiden
tertentu yang kritis disajikan pada Gambar 3.2.
telah Nilai riil CIT adalah dalam membantu untuk menentukan tertentu
menyebabkan pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan kemampuan yang seorang pekerja perlu
terutama sukses melakukan pekerjaan sukses-sepenuhnya. Sebagai contoh, dari insiden kritis
atau gagal yang diberikan untuk posisi asisten administrasi, kita tahu bahwa pekerja
pekerjaan per- yang sukses akan perlu tahu bagaimana ke file, menggunakan program
Formance pengolah kata, periksa tata bahasa dasar dan kalimat struc-mendatang, dan
(Flanagan, 1954). mendirikan sebuah halaman naskah diketik . Teknik CIT juga berguna dalam
Sebagai contoh, mengembangkan sistem penilaian untuk pekerjaan tertentu, dengan
beberapa insiden membantu untuk mengidentifikasi komponen-komponen penting dari kinerja
penting untuk yang sukses. Bahkan, baru-baru ini hasil analisis CIT telah digunakan untuk
pekerjaan asisten mengajar “praktik terbaik” dalam profesi seperti kedokteran, konseling, dan
administrasi layanan pelanggan (misalnya, Rademacher, Simpson, & Marcdante, 2010).
mungkin
mencakup:
“Memiliki
pengetahuan
kata pengolahan
program”;
“Pemberitahuan
item dalam
sebuah surat
atau laporan
yang tidak
muncul untuk
menjadi benar,
cek itu, dan
mengoreksi itu”;
“Misfiles grafik,
surat, dll, secara
teratur”; dan
“Menghasilkan
sebuah naskah
dengan margin
yang baik,
sehingga terlihat
seperti sebuah
dokumen
profesionalisasi-
sional.” Semua
perilaku ini
 Spesifik Teknik Analisis Pekerjaan
providing
informati
Berikut ini adalah contoh dari pertanyaan wawancara dirancang untuk insiden kritis on and
Menimbulkan untuk pekerjaan tertentu. Pertanyaan ini berfokus pada sebuah insiden di mana
seorang bawahan berperilaku dalam “bermanfaat” Cara. Pertanyaan lain mungkin mencoba
ringing
untuk memperoleh ketika para pekerja tidak menjadi membantu; dengan kata lain, ketika up
mereka dapat menyakiti produktivitas kelompok. purchase
“Pikirkan terakhir kali Anda melihat salah satu bawahan Anda melakukan sesuatu yang s.
sangat membantu untuk kelompok Anda dalam memenuhi jadwal produksi mereka.” (Jeda
sampai responden memiliki insiden seperti itu dalam pikiran.) “Apakah hasil tindakan
bawahan dalam peningkatan produksi sebanyak satu persen untuk hari itu? -Atau beberapa
periode yang sama?”
(If the answer is “no”, say) “I wonder if you could think of the last time that someone
did something that did have this much of an effect in increasing production.” (When
respondent indicates he/she has such a situation in mind, say) “What were the
general circumstances leading up to this incident?”

“Tell me exactly what this person did that was so helpful at that
time.” “Why was this so helpful in getting your group's job done?”
“When did this incident happen?”
“What was this person's job?”
“How long has the person been on this job?”

Another example of a question designed to elicit critical incidents may be as simple and
general as, “Think of the best (worst) subordinate you have known. Tell me about a time that
shows why this person was the best (worst).”

FIGURE3.2
Critical Incidents Interview Form
Source: Adapted from Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incidents Technique.
Psychological Bulletin, 51, 342.

POSITION ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE

One of the most widely researched job analysis instruments is the Position
Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) (McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, 1969),
which is a structured questionnaire that analyzes various jobs in terms of 187
job elements that are arranged into six categories, or divisions, as follows:
Information input—Where and how the worker obtains the information
needed to perform the job. For example, a newspaper reporter may be
required to use published, written materials as well as interviews with in-
formants to write a news story. A clothing inspector’s information input
may involve fine visual discriminations of garment seams.
Mental processes—The kinds of thinking, reasoning, and decision
making required to perform the job. For example, an air traffic
controller must make many decisions about when it is safe for jets to
land and take off.
Work output—The tasks the worker must perform and the tools or
machines needed. For example, a word processor must enter text
using keyboard devices.
Relationships with other persons—The kinds of relationships and
contacts with others required to do the job. For example, a teacher
instructs others, and a store clerk has contact with customers by
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
a job analysis technique that uses a structured questionnaire to analyze jobs according to 187 job statements,
grouped into six categories
64 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis

Job context—The physical and/or social contexts in which the work is

performed. Examples of job context elements would be working
under high temperatures or dealing with many conflict situations.
Other job characteristics—Other relevant activities, conditions, or
characteristics necessary to do the job.
Each of these job elements is individually rated using six categories:
extent of use, importance to the job, amount of time, applicability, possibility
of occurrence, and a special code for miscellaneous job elements. The
standard elements are rated on a scale from 1, for minor applicability, to 5,
for extreme applicability. There is an additional rating for “does not apply”
(McCormick, 1979). A sample page from the PAQ is shown in Figure 3.3.

INFORMATION INPUT
Code Extent of Use (U)
1. INFORMATION INPUT N Does not apply
1 Nominal/very infrequent
1.1 Sources of Job Information 2 Occasional
Rate each of the following items in terms of the 3 Moderate
extent to which it is used by the worker as a 4 Considerable
source of information in performing his job. 5 Very substantial

1 Written materials (books, reports, office notes, articles, job instructions, signs, etc.).

2 Quantitative materials (materials which deal with quantities or amounts, such as graphs,
accounts, specifications, tables of numbers, etc.).
3 Pictorial materials (pictures or picturelike materials used as sources of information, for
example, drawings, blueprints, diagrams, maps, tracings, photographic films, x-ray films,
TV pictures, etc.).
4 Patterns/related devices (templates, stencils, patterns, etc., used as sources of information
when observed during use; do not include here materials described in item 3 above).

5 Visual displays (dials, gauges, signal lights, radarscopes, speedometers, clocks, etc.).
6 Measuring devices (rulers, calipers, tire pressure gauges, scales, thickness gauges,
pipettes, thermometers, protractors, etc., used to obtain visual information about
physical measurements; do not include here devices described in item 5 above).
7 Mechanical devices (tools, equipment, machinery, and other mechanical devices which
are sources of information when observed during use or operation).
8 Materials in process (parts, materials, objects, etc., which are sources of information
when being modified, worked on, or otherwise processed, such as bread dough being
mixed, workpiece being turned in a lathe, fabric being cut, shoe being resoled, etc.).
9 Materials not in process (parts, materials, objects, etc., not in the process of being
changed or modified, which are sources of information when being inspected, handled,
packaged, distributed, or selected, etc., such as items or materials in inventory,
storage, or distribution channels, items being inspected, etc.).

10 Features of nature (landscapes, fields, geological samples, vegetation, cloud

formations, and other features of nature which are observed or inspected to provide
information).
11
C d features of environment (structures, buildings, dams, highways, bridges, docks,
on railroads, and other "man made" or altered aspects of the indoor or outdoor en-
str vironment which are observed or inspected to provide job information; do not consider
uc equipment, machines, etc., that an individual uses in work, as covered by item 7).
te

FIGURE3.3
Sample Page from the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
Source: McCormick, E. J., Jeanneret, P. R., & Mecham, R. C. (1969). Position Analysis Questionnaire (p. 4). West
Lafayette, IN: Occupational Research Center, Purdue University.
 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

The PAQ results produce a very detailed profile of a particular job that
can be used to compare jobs within a company or similar positions in differ-
ent organizations. Because the PAQ is a standardized instrument, two ana-
lysts surveying the same job should come up with very similar profiles. This
might not be the case with interview techniques, where the line of
questioning and interpersonal skills specific to the interviewer could greatly
affect the job profile.
As mentioned, the PAQ has historically been one of the most widely used
and thoroughly researched methods of job analysis (Hyland & Muchinsky,
1991; Peterson & Jeanneret, 1997). In one interesting study, the PAQ was
used to analyze the job of a homemaker. It was found that a homemaker’s
job is most similar to the jobs of police officer, firefighter, and airport
maintenance chief (Arvey & Begalla, 1975).

FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS

Functional job analysis (FJA) has been used extensively by organizations in Functional job
both the public and private sectors (Fine & Cronshaw, 1999; Fine & Getkate, analysis (FJA)
1995; Fine & Wiley, 1971). It was developed in part to assist the U.S. a structured job
analysis technique that
Department of Labor in the construction of a comprehensive job classi-
examines the sequence
fication system and to help create the Dictionary of Occupational Titles of tasks in a job and the
(DOT) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1991). The DOT was a reference guide processes by which
that classified and gave general descriptions for over 40,000 different jobs. they are completed
The DOT has been replaced by the online O*NET system that we will
discuss shortly. Dictionary of
Functional Job Analysis uses three broad categories representing the job’s Occupational
Titles
typical interaction with data, people, and things. Data is information, knowl-edge,
(DOT)
and conceptions. Jobs are evaluated with an eye to the amount and type of a reference guide that
interaction the person performing the job has with data—numbers, words, classifies and
symbols, and other abstract elements. People refers to the amount of contact describes over 40,000
with others that a job requires. These people can be coworkers, supervisors, jobs
customers, or others. Things refers to the worker’s interaction with inanimate
objects such as tools, machines, equipment, and tangible work products. Within
each of these categories there is a hierarchy of work functions that ranges from
the most involved and complex functions (given the numerical value of “0”) to the
least involved and least complex (the highest digit in the category; see Table
3.2). For example, using FJA, the job of industrial/organizational psy-chologist
requires “coordinating” data (value of “1”), “mentoring/leading” people (the
highest value of “0”), and “handling” things (relatively low value of “7”). For the
occupation of job analyst, the corresponding numbers are 2, 6, and 7, meaning
that this job involves “analyzing” data, “exchanging informa-tion” with people, and
“handling” things.
As mentioned, the DOT has been replaced by O*NET—the Occupational O*NET
Information Network (www.onetcenter.org). The O*NET database contains
information about job categories, job KSAOs, as well as information about wages
and salaries, job training and licensing requirements for particular jobs,
The U.S. Department of Labor’s Web site that provides comprehen-sive information about jobs and careers
66 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis

TABLE 3.2
Hierarchy of Work Functions Used in Functional Job Analysis

Data People Things

0 Synthesizing 0 Mentoring, Leading 0 Setting up

1 Coordinating, Innovating 1 Negotiating 1 Precision workin
2 Analyzing 2 Instructing, Consulting 2 Operating-contr
3 Compiling 3 Supervising 3 Driving-operatin
4 Computing 4 Diverting 4 Manipulating
5 Copying 5 Persuading 5 Tending, Data pro
6 Comparing 6 Exchanging information 6 Feeding, Off be
7 Serving 7 Handling
8 Taking instructions, Helping

Source: U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). Dictionary of Occupational Titles (Rev. 4th ed.). Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office. Fine & Cronshaw. (1999).

and much, much more. Table 3.3 presents only a small portion of the
summary report for the job of industrial/organizational psychologist.
Today, using functional job analysis, the job analyst may begin with the gen-
eral job description provided by O*NET. The analyst will then use interviewing
and/or observational techniques to conduct a more detailed study of a certain
job. FJA is especially helpful when the job analyst must create job descriptions
for a large number of positions. It is also quite popular because it is cost effec-
tive and because it uses job descriptions based on national databases, which are
often considered satisfactory by federal employment enforcement agen-cies
(Mathis & Jackson, 1985). FJA has also proven useful in research designed to
gain insight into how workers are performing their jobs. For instance, in a study
of over 200 nursing assistants in nursing homes, functional job analysis
discovered that nursing assistants were spending too little time dealing with the
people aspects of their jobs (e.g., giving attention to elderly residents) and a
disproportionately large amount of time dealing with data (e.g., reports) and
things, such as changing bedding (Brannon, Streit, & Smyer, 1992).

COMPARING THE DIFFERENT JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Several comparison studies of the various job analysis techniques have been
conducted. A series of investigations by Levine and his associates (Levine,
Ash, & Bennett, 1980; Levine, Ash, Hall, & Sistrunk, 1983) compared various
techniques in terms of their accuracy, level of detail, and cost effectiveness.
They found that functional job analysis, the critical incidents technique, and
the Position Analysis Questionnaire were all reasonably effective job analysis
 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

TABLE 3.3
O*NET Summary Report for Occupation: Industrial-Organizational
Psychologists (greatly abbreviated)
Sample of reported job titles: Consultant, I/O Psychologist, Consulting
Psychologist, Management Consultant, Research Scientist …
Tasks
Develop and implement employee selection and placement programs.
Analyze job requirements and content … for classification, selection, training….
Identify training and developmental needs
Assess employee performance
Knowledge
Personnel and Human Resources
Psychology
Customer and Personal Service
Education and Training
Administration and Management
Law and Government
Communications and Media
Mathematics
Sales and Marketing
Skills
Critical Thinking
Active Listening
Complex Problem Solving
Service Orientation
Speaking
Abilities
Oral and Written Comprehension and Expression
Problem Sensitivity
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Originality
Work Activities
Getting information and interpreting its meaning for others
Organizing, planning, prioritizing work
Analyzing data
Making decisions and problem solving
Providing consultation and advice to others
Interacting with computers, etc.
[Other information includes: Interests, Work Styles, Work Values, Related Occupations,
and Wages & Employment Trends (2004 median wages are over $74,000 per year, by the
way, with good growth prospects. 2011 median wages are over +$94,000 per year.)]
68 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis

According to functional job analysis, the job of restaurant cook involves

compiling data, speaking to people, and doing precision work with things.

methods. Whereas FJA and the CIT provided detailed, comprehensive types of
analyses, the PAQ yielded more limited information, probably because it uses
the same general instrument to analyze all types of jobs. The FJA and CIT, by
contrast, are tailored to analyze specific jobs, and CIT is particularly suited to
analyzing complex jobs (Anderson & Wilson, 1997). However, the PAQ was
found to be more cost effective and easier to use than the other methods.
Regardless of the specific instrument used, when job analysis is used to com-
pare different types of jobs, the job analyst must use caution in the interpretation of
numerical scale values. For example, both a marketing director and a head janitor
could conceivably be rated on the behavior of “negotiation with others” as the same
value on a rating scale. Even though these jobs may be similar in the amount of time
spent in negotiations, it would be erroneous to conclude that the negotiations have
equal weight, that they are equally demanding, or that they require an equal level of
skill. One suggested solution to this problem is to rate the “relative importance” (RI) of
tasks, including the RI between jobs and the RI within similar jobs, and also to
evaluate the tasks “qualitatively,” rather than relying solely on quantitative evaluation
(Harvey, 1991).
Overall, no one method or technique of job analysis has emerged as
supe-rior to all others. It may be that a trained analyst could conduct very
good job analyses using any of several methods (Muchinsky, 1987).
Obviously, a combi-nation of methods should lead to a more detailed, more
reliable, and “better” analysis than the use of any one technique alone.

O*NET: A USEFUL TOOL FOR UNDERSTANDING JOBS

O*NET is the U.S. Department of Labor’s Web-based site that is intended to be
the primary source of information about occupations. O*NET is a downloadable
database of information about jobs. In addition to the database that replaces

CLOSE What do you want to do for a living?—
Using O*NET for your career search
“M y Next Move” (http://www.mynextmove. org/)
is a useful online tool for your career
search. It is managed by the National Center for
O*NET Development, and it lists over 900 different
careers from the O*NET Database. There are three
ways to use this Web site depending upon your
answer to the question: What do you want to do for
a living? Think about it for a moment.
1. “I want to be a…”
If you have a clear idea about what you want to do
for a living, you can search careers using key words.
In this case, the Web site asks you to describe your
dream career in a few words. For instance, you can
type “doc-tor.” Then, it directs you to a list of career
options (e.g., physician assistants, optometrists,
surgeons). Once you click a career option, it directs
you to the page that summarizes the required
knowledge, skills, abilities, tasks, and responsibilities
in your chosen job. It also displays the appropriate
educational training and personality for the job,
together with a job out-look on the average salary
and likelihood of new job opportunities.
2. “I’ll know it when I see it.”
If you think you will know when you actually see
some career options, you can browse careers by
industry. Over 900 career options are organized by
Sample Result:
Specific Job Analysis Techniques
21 different industries (e.g., arts & entertainment,
construction, education, government, and health
& counseling). You can look for a list of career
options based on your choice of industries.
3. “I’m not really sure.”
If you are not quite sure about your career, you can tell
the Web site what you like to do by answering questions
regarding the type of work you might enjoy. Based on
your answers, it will suggest potential career options that
meet your interests and training. The questions
constitute a self-assessment tool for career exploration
called the O*NET Interest Profiler (http://
www.onetcenter.org/IP.html). O*NET Interest Profiler
gives you scores for six broad occupational interest
areas: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterpris-
ing, and conventional. Once you have scores for each
area, follow the instructions on the O*NET Interest
Profiler page to discover your career options.
In addition to scores for interest areas, you will be
asked to specify one among five job zones. Each of the
five job zones corresponds to a level of preparation (from
“little or no preparation” to “extensive preparation”)
required for the job in terms of experience, education, and
training. You can also specify your job zone based on
your plans for preparation. The Web site will then present
careers that fit your interests and preparation level.
70 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis

the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), O*NET has career exploration tools
to assist individuals in evaluating their career interests, information on the job-
related skills and training needed for particular jobs, consumer guides that
explain personnel testing and assessment, and a clearinghouse for information
for I/O psychologists, human resources professionals, and career and vocational
counselors. The Department of Labor intends to make the ever-evolving O*NET
the central source for information about jobs, careers, and the world of work.

Job Analysis and the ADA

In 1990, passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) presented a new
challenge to job analysts. Title I of the ADA stated that “in employment matters it
is illegal to discriminate against a qualified person with a disability: Such an
individual is one who can perform the essential functions of a job with or with-out
reasonable accommodation.” Implementation of the ADA also requires that
Stop & Review employers (with 15 or more employees) prevent employment discrimination
Define the three against disabled persons, and they must also make reasonable accommodations
dimensions used that will allow disabled persons to perform essential job duties. For example, an
in Functional Job employer may need to construct a different type of workstation or provide a
Analysis. voice-activated computer for a quadriplegic worker in a wheelchair.
Although the ADA does not require employers to conduct formal job analy-
ses (Esposito, 1992), you might imagine the difficulties involved in trying to adapt
or alter a job for a disabled employee without having conducted a thor-ough
analysis of it. Moreover, compliance with the ADA requires employers to
understand the “essential elements” (e.g., functions), or content, of a job
(Greenlaw & Kohl, 1993; Mitchell, Alliger, Morfopoulos, 1997). It is imperative
that requirements for a particular job be reviewed and updated. For example, an
old job specification for a warehouse stocker might require heavy lifting, yet
because the position involves operating a forklift, there may be little or no manual
lifting required. Therefore, a person with a serious disability might be able to
perform this job without difficulty. Likewise, as more and more tasks become
automated, job analyses need to be kept up to date so that they reflect the
impact of technology on job content and requirements.
Only through job analysis can essential job elements and job
requirements be determined. It is these elements and requirements that need
to be consid-ered when interviewing, hiring, and training workers with
disabilities. Due to legislative actions such as the ADA, and subsequent court
rulings, job analysis has become more complex, more challenging, and more
critical to job analysts, employers, and personnel psychologists.

Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth

As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, one of the products of a job
analysis is a job evaluation, which is the process of assessing the relative value
of jobs to determine appropriate compensation. That is, the wages paid for a
 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth 71

particular job should be related to the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
characteristics it requires. However, a number of other variables, such as the
supply of potential workers, the perceived value of the job to the company,
and the job’s history, can also influence its rate of compensation.
Detailed job evaluations typically examine jobs on a number of dimensions
called compensable factors. Examples of compensable factors might be the compensable factors
physical demands of a job, the amount of training or experience required, the the job elements that
working conditions associated with the job, and the amount of responsibil-ity the are used to determine
appropriate compensa-
job carries. Each job may be given a score or weighting on each factor. The
tion for a job
summed total of the weighted compensable factors indicates the value of the job,
which is then translated into the dollar amount of compensation. Bear in mind that
a compensable factors analysis of a job determines rates of com-pensation based
solely on the training, responsibility, and conditions associated with a job. It does
not take into account market conditions, such as the supply and demand for
workers for a certain job. Therefore, because these market factors are not
considered, a compensable factors analysis would show that a brain surgeon
should be paid more than a major league baseball left-handed relief pitcher or a
professional sports’ goalkeeper. Market factors, including the scarcity of top
professional athletes, are what cause the average pitcher’s or goalkeeper’s
salaries to be much higher than the surgeon’s.
For decades, the issue of how jobs are compensated has been a source of
controversy. Specifically, there has been a great deal of concern over dis-
crimination in compensation, particularly wage discrepancies for men and women.
Two pieces of federal legislation address this issue. The Equal Pay Act of 1963
mandates that men and women performing equal work receive equal pay.
Further, a U.S. Supreme Court ruling made defense of pay differentials by
employers more difficult than it has been in the past (Greenlaw & Kohl, 1993).
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in employ-ment
practices based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. Despite these
laws, however, there is considerable evidence that women receive lower wages
than men performing the same or equivalent work (Blau & Kahn, 2007; Crampton,
Hodge, & Mishra, 1997). In fact, although the most recent research shows that
pay for women is catching up to the wages paid men, these gains are slow in
coming. For example, in 1980, women were paid about 68% of the wages paid
men for comparable work (Perlman & Pike, 1994), improving by only about 2 to
3% per decade, to 72% in 1990, 75% in 2000, and 77% in 2010.
Two issues bear directly on the “gender gap” in wages. The first concerns
access to higher-paying jobs (Wittig & Berman, 1992). Traditionally, many
such jobs were primarily held by men, but throughout the 1960s and 1970s,
the wom-en’s rights movement helped increase the access of women to these
positions. However, although women are now found in nearly every type of
job, there is still considerable sex stereotyping of jobs, which means that
many relatively high-paying jobs and professions are still filled mainly by men.
For example, men are found in large numbers in skilled craft jobs that receive
higher wages than clerical jobs, which are filled mainly by women. In
corporations, men fill more finance positions and women are overrepresented
in lower paying human resources posts.
72
comparable worth
the notion that jobs
that require equiva-
lent KSAOs should be
compensated equally
exceptioning
the practice of ignor-ing
pay discrepancies
between particular jobs
possessing equivalent
duties and responsibilities
CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis
Women workers have made some small advances in the wages
“gender gap” since this cartoon came out.
The second issue deals with the fact that women are often paid far less than
men for performing equivalent tasks. In the 1980s, this gender-based pay
disparity gave birth to the concept of comparable worth, or equal pay for equal
work. For example, the job of human resources clerk, a traditionally “female” job,
and the position of records manager in the production department, a job usually
filled by men, both require workers to perform similar tasks, such as keeping
records and managing data files. Because of the similarity in duties, both
positions should be paid equal wages. However, the job of records manager
typically pays higher wages than the position of HR clerk.
Because of its focus on evaluating the worth of work tasks, the issue of com-
parable worth is tied to the ability of organizations to conduct valid and fair job
evaluations, which should reveal instances of equal jobs receiving unequal
compensation. However, opponents of the comparable worth movement argue
that job evaluation methods may be inaccurate because they do not account for
factors like the oversupply of female applicants for certain jobs, such as teach-
ers and airline attendants, the lower levels of education and work experience of
women relative to men, and women’s preferences for certain types of “safe” jobs
with “pleasant working conditions.” Advocates of the comparable worth move-
ment argue that even these factors do not account for the considerable dispar-ity
in pay for men and women (Judd & Gomez-Mejia, 1987; Pinzler & Ellis, 1989;
Thacker & Wayne, 1995). For a number of reasons, women are simply not paid
the same wages for the same level of work. One argument is that society does
not value the type of work required by many jobs that are filled primar-ily by
women, such as secretarial, clerical, teaching, and nursing positions.
Alternatively, certain jobs that are filled primarily by men may be compensated at
higher levels because more value is ascribed to them (Sorensen, 1994).
Another reason for gender-based pay disparity is the practice of exception-
ing, whereby a job evaluation reveals that two jobs, with equivalent duties and
 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth 73

responsibilities, receive very different rates of pay, yet no steps are taken to rectify
the inequality. In other words, an “exception” is made because it is too costly or too
difficult to raise the wages of the lower-paid job. An example of exceptioning is the
pay rates for physicians and nurses. The average salary of a physician is three to five Stop & Review
times that of a nurse, yet the two jobs have many comparable duties and Explain the Americans
responsibilities. Although the imbalance in salaries is known to exist, hospitals are with Disabilities Act
financially unable to pay nurses what they are worth, so an exception is made. (ADA).
The issue of comparable worth has been hotly debated by both business and
government officials. Certain cases of sex discrimination in employee com-pensation
have reached the courts, highlighting the issue of comparable worth. For example, in
AFSCME v. State of Washington (1983), a job evaluation of state employee positions
found that women’s job classes were paid approximately 20% less than comparable
men’s classes. It was recommended that women state employees should be paid an
additional $38 million annually. Because the state of Washington did not act on the Stop & Review
recommendation, the women employees’ union sued. The court ruled that the state What two issues
was discriminating against its women employ-ees and awarded them nearly $1 are involved in the
billion. In a very controversial decision, the U.S. Supreme Court would not allow the wage gender gap?
largest gender discrimination case, involving 1.5 million women employees of Wal
Mart to go forward, even though there was evidence that the women were paid less
glass ceiling
than men in comparable positions.
limitations placed on
If the comparable worth movement goes forward and the government women and minori-
decides to take steps to correct pay inequalities, the impact on workers and work ties preventing them
organizations will be tremendous. First, job evaluations will have to be conducted from advancing into
for nearly all jobs in the country—a staggering and expensive task. Second, top-level positions in
organizations
because it is unlikely that workers and unions will allow the wages of

ONTHECUTTINGEDGE
Glass Ceiling or Labyrinth: Which Better Describes
Gender Inequities in the Workplace?

T he term glass ceiling has been used to refer to the
limitations placed on women (and ethnic minorities) that
prevent them from advancing into top management positions.
Although discrimination in employment practices is illegal,
biases and stereotypes still influence decisions as to who is
and who is not qualified to hold a position (Fagenson &
Jackson, 1993). For example, one common stereotype holds
that women have a manage-ment style that is different (and
therefore less effective) than men, although studies have
shown no substantial dif-ferences in the styles of male and
female managers (Eagly,
2007; Lester, 1993).
Although we have seen that women are making
some small gains in achieving equality in pay and level of
positions, there is still a wide gender gap in top-level posi-
tions. For example, only 6% of the highest paid executives of
Fortune 500 companies (e.g., chairman, president, chief
financial officer) are women, and only 2% of the CEOs are
women (comparable figures for top European Union
corporations are 11% and 4%, respectively—slightly, but not
appreciably, better; Eagly & Carli, 2007). Moreover, women in
top management positions are paid less than their male
counterparts (Bertrand, 2000). Rather than simply being shut
out of promotion to top-level positions (i.e., a metaphor of
glass ceiling), there is evidence that the career progression of
women and ethnic minorities is slower than that of white
males, so that it takes longer to get to the top (Eagly & Carli,
2007; Powell & Butterfield,
74 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis

ONTHECUTTINGEDGE(continued)
1994, 1997). In other words, routes to top leadership do
exist for women, but they are full of twists and turns like
those in a labyrinth. In order to pass through it, women
need to be persistent, be aware of their progress, and
care-fully analyze their situations (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Sadly, the glass ceiling or the labyrinth seems to be
a worldwide phenomenon. Women represent less than
10% of senior management in all industrialized coun-tries,
ranging from a high of 8% in Belgium to a low of
.3% in Japan (Adler, 1993). In a study of workers in the United
States, the United Kingdom, Africa, Australia, and Papua New
Guinea, glass ceilings existed for all “nondomi-nant” groups in
the companies surveyed. The “nondomi-nant” groups varied
from country to country, but in each case members of these
groups were underutilized, were underrepresented in high-
level positions, and followed different career paths than
members of the dominant group (Stamp, 1990). A more
recent study of 43 differ-ent countries revealed that there was
increasing variability in this phenomenon (Terjesen & Singh,
2008). The results showed, on average, female workers held
about 29% of
all leadership positions and it varied from 6% in Turkey
to 46% in the United States. It appears that more
women are breaking the glass ceiling or passing
through the labyrinth in some countries than in others.
What can be done to break the glass ceiling? First, in
the United States, the Civil Rights Act of 1991 created a Glass
Ceiling Commission and gave women the right to sue on the
basis of discrimination (Tavakolian, 1993). The U.S. Office of
Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) also began
examining the recruitment and promotion policies at upper
management levels, focusing on possible discrimination
against women in upper-level positions (Brown, 1991). Such
laws and attention from federal governments will obviously
help protect women and minorities from blatant discrimi-
nation. However, much of the “gender gap” may not result
from blatant discrimination, but from the devaluing of certain
occupations, such as teaching or nursing—occupations that
are dominated by women (Sorensen, 1994). Whether we call
it the glass ceiling or the labyrinth, an unsettling bias toward
women (and minorities) seems to continue to be an issue to
be dealt with in the workplace.

25
Corporate Boards

20

15
% of Women Directors on

10

0
Luxembourg

New Zealand
Netherlands

South Africa
Switzerland

Czech Rep.
Argentina

Singapore
Iceland

Denmark

Lithuania
Germany
Austria

Australia
Ireland

Thailand

Hungary

Romania
Portugal

Slovakia
Belgium

Slovenia
Bulgaria

Norway
Sweden
Canada
Croatia
Mexico

Finland

Estonia
Greece
Japan

Cyprus
France

Turkey

Latvia
China
Italy

Brazil
Spain

Chile

USA
UK

FIGURE3.4
Women Are Underrepresented on Corporate Boards of Directors in All Countries in the World
 Source: Terjesen, S., & Singh, V. (2008). Female presence on corporate boards: A multicountry study of environmental
context. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 55–63.

Study Questions and 75

Exercises

higher-paid workers to be cut, the salaries of the lower-paid workers will

have to be raised—also an enormous expense. Regardless of what takes
place in the next few years, the issue of comparable worth has focused Stop & Review
What is a compensa-
greater attention on job evaluations and job evaluation procedures. It is
ble factors analysis?
thus likely that greater attention will be given to improving such procedures
in the near future (Lowe & Wittig, 1989; Perlman & Pike, 1994).

Summary
Job analysis is the systematic study of a job’s
tasks, duties, and responsibilities and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform
the job. The job analysis, which is the important
starting point for many personnel functions, yields
sev-eral products: a job description, which is a
detailed accounting of job tasks, procedures,
responsibili-ties, and output; a job specification,
which consists of information about the physical,
educational, and experiential qualities required to
perform the job; a job evaluation, which is an
assessment of the relative value of jobs for
determining compen-sation; and performance
criteria, which serve as a basis for appraising
successful job performance.
Job analysis methods include observation,
use of existing data, interviews, and surveys. One
structured job analysis technique is the job ele-
ment approach, a broad approach to job analysis
that focuses on the knowledge, skills, abilities, and
other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform
a particular job. The critical incidents technique of
job analysis involves the collection of particularly
successful or unsuccessful instances of job
performance. Through the collection of hun-dreds
of these incidents, a very detailed profile of a job
emerges. Another structured job analysis tech-
nique, the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ),
uses a questionnaire that analyzes jobs in terms
of 187 job elements arranged into six categories.
Functional job analysis (FJA) is a method that has
been used to classify jobs in terms of the worker’s
interaction with data, people, and things. FJA uses
the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), a
reference book listing general job descriptions for
thousands of jobs (since replaced by the U.S.
Labor Department’s O*NET database), and
examines the sequence of tasks required to com-
plete the job as well as the process by which the
job is completed. Research has determined that
all these specific, standardized methods are
effective.
Job analysis yields a job evaluation or an
assessment of the relative value of jobs used to
determine appropriate compensation. These
evaluations usually examine jobs on
dimensions that are called compensable
factors, which are given values that signify the
relative worth of the job and translate into levels
of compensation.
An important topic in the area of job eval-
uation concerns the “gender gap” in wages.
Evidence indicates that women are paid far less
than men for comparable work. This inequity has
given rise to the comparable worth movement,
which argues for equal pay for equal work. This
issue is controversial because of the difficulty and
costs of making compensation for comparable
jobs equitable. Research has also suggested that
women and ethnic minorities are affected by a
glass ceiling, or labyrinth, which creates difficulties
for members of minority groups in rising to the
highest-level positions in organizations.

Study Questions and Exercises

1. Consider each of the products of a job
analysis. How do these products affect other
organizational outcomes?
76 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis
the Position Analysis Questionnaire, and the
critical incidents technique. Make a table list-
ing their respective strengths and
weaknesses.
3. Consider your current job, or a job that you
or a friend had in the past. How would you
begin to conduct a job analysis of that posi-
tion? What methods would you use? What are
the important components of the job?
4. Using the preceding job, go to O*NET and
find the code for that job title using the
“Occupational listings,” sorted by title (www.
onetcenter.org/occupations.html). Using
Web Links
www.onetcenter.org
The U.S. Department of Labor’s “one-
stop” site for job career information.
Suggested Readings
Brannick, M. T., Levine, E., & Morgeson, F. P.
(2007). Job and work analysis: Methods,
research, and appli-cations for human resource
management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. A
more scholarly review of research and methods
of job analysis.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth:
The truth about how women become leaders.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. This
book
2. Compare and contrast the four specific,
structured methods of job analysis: the func-
tional job analysis, the job element method,
the code, look up the online job using the
occupational title (http://online.onetcen-
ter.org/find/) and find the information for
that job [or you can put in the code for I/O
psychologist (19-3032.00)].
5. List some of the reasons why women are
paid less for comparable work performed by
men. Think of some stereotypically “female”
jobs and comparable jobs that are stereo-
typically held by men. Are there inequities in
compensation between the “male” and
“female” jobs? Why or why not?
www.job-analysis.net
An interesting site, part of a larger human
resources site, with detailed information and
links on job analysis methods and practice.
introduces the metaphor of the labyrinth to describe
the special “twists and turns” and dead ends that
women have to face in making it to top leadership
positions.
Prien, E. P., Goodstein, L. D., Goodstein, J., &
Gamble, L. G. (2009). A practical guide to job
analy-sis. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. A guide to job
analysis for human resources professionals.
Provides all of the “nuts and bolts” of job
analysis.