Wacana adalah unit alamiah dengan permulaan dan akhir yag nyata, dan sejumlah struktur internal.

Menurut Teum Van Dijk, wacana adalah kesatuan dari beberapa kalimat yang satu dengan yang lain
terikat dengan erat.

Kesatuan bahsa yang diucapkan atau tertulis panjang atau pendek , itulah yang dinamakan discourse.

Kalau wacana itu utuh dan kalimat demi kalimat teriat dengan baik maka kalimat itu koheren
(bertaliab secra logis) dan pengikatnya kita namakan tekstur (benang-benang hakus pengikat
wacana).

Refernsi, secara tradisional berarti hubungan antara kata dengan benda. Kata buku mempunyai
referensi (tunjukan) kepada sekumpulan kertas yang terjilid dan untuk ditulis dan dibaca.

Istilah referensi , lebih lanjut juga sering dipertentangka dengan sense. Menurut palmer, perbedaan
keduanya terletak pada asosiasi hubungan makna yang ditapilkannya. Apabila referensi berkaitan
dengan penampilan asosiasi makan ayang dibuahkan dari adanya hubungan antara bahasa dengan
dunia luar, maka sense ialah gamabaran makana yang ditimbulkan oleh adanya hubungan antara
masing2 unsur kebahasaan itu sendiri secara internal. (palmer, 1981:29) dalam sematik, pengantar
studi tentang makna Aminuddin, M.Pd Malang CV Sinar Baru Bandung, 1988.

•Proper names always function as referring expressions and never as predicates, no matter what
the context.
•Verbs and prepositions are always predicates and never function as referring expressions no
matter what the context.
•Some words and phrases (mainly indefinite noun phrases) can function as both predicate and
referring
expression.
▫That woman is a nurse (‘nurse’ here is a predicate)
▫I saw a nurse (‘nurse’ here is a referring expression)
•Predicates never refer, but they can be used to identify the referent of a referring expression
when embedded in a referring expression.
•A generic sentence is a sentence in which some statement is made about a whole unrestricted
class of individuals, as opposed to any particular individual. A generic sentence may contain a, the,
or neither.
▫The whale is a mammal (generic sentence)
▫That whale is a mammal (not a generic sentence)

•We define the universe of discourse for any utterance as the particular world, real or
imaginary (or part real and part imaginary), that the speaker assumes he is talking about at
the time.
•When two people are arguing at cross purposes they could be said to be working within
partially different universes of discourse.
•Assuming the same universe of discourse is essential to successful communication.

A referring expression is used to represent a specific individual; this individual can be real or
fictitious. Ordinarily, when a referring expression occurs in a sentence, which individual the
expression represents is not determined by the sentence. (unless the sentence supplies a context
which enables the audience to determine which of two or more candidates is the referent). An act
of using a referring expression to represent is a little like pointing. The individual “pointed to” is
identified by the language user in terms of her knowledge and beliefs.

Workers celebrate their traditional festival.

In the clause above we have the subject WORKERS and predicate which is all the rest of sentence
CELEBRATE THEIR TRADITIONAL FESTIVAL whereas predicator is only CELEBRATE, not the entire
sentence as in predicate.