LAPORAN MINGGUAN PRAKTIKUM

KIMIA DASAR
ACARA V
IDENTIFIKASI MAKRONUTRIEN DAN GUGUS FUNGSI
SENYAWA ORGANIK

DISUSUN OLEH

NAMA : SITI NURJANNAH

NIM : G1C021075

PROGRAM STUDI KIMIA

FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN
ALAM
UNIVERSITAS MATARAM
2021
 ACARA V
IDENTIFIKASI MAKRONUTRIEN DAN GUGUS FUNGSI
SENYAWA ORGANIK

A. PELAKSANAN PRAKTIKUM
1. Tujuan Praktikum
a. Menentukan reaksi identifikasi ikatan rangkap pada senyawa karbon
alifatik.
b. Menentukan sifat-sifat karbohidrat secara kualitatif.
2. Waktu Praktikum
Senin, 20 September 2021.
3. Tempat Praktikum
Lantai III, Laboratorium Kimia Dasar, Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu
Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Mataram.

B. LANDASAN TEORI
Sejak zaman purba manusia telah menggunakan zat yang diambil
atau diisolasi dari organisme hidup baik tumbuhan maupun hewan. Untuk
membuat obat orang merebus daun, kulit kayu, atau akar tumbuhan dengan
air. Air rebusan ini tanpa difahami oleh perebusnya, pada hakekatnya
mengandung zat-zat organik atau zat yang berasal dari organisme hidup, yang
berkhasiat bagi penyembuhan berbagai penyakit, atau mempertahankan dan
meningkatkan kesehatan tubuh. Rebusan daun kumis kucing, dikenal untuk
obat kencing batu, demikian juga kita mengenal rebusan obat seperti rebusan
daun saga, kulit kina, atau jamu godokan. Karena zat di atas berasal dari
makhluk hidup maka zat tersebut disebut senyawa organik, (Roni, 2021).
Karbohidrat merupakan sumber energi utama bagi tubuh manusia,
yang menyediakan 4 kalori (kilojoule) energy pangan per gram. Karbohidrat
juga mempunyai peranan penting dalam menentukan karakteristik bahan
makanan, misalnya rasa, warna, tekstur, dan lain-lain. Sedangkan dalam
tubuh, karohidrat berguna untuk mencegah tumbuhnya ketosis, pemecahan
tubuh protein yang berlebihan, kehilangan mineral, dan berguna untuk
membantu metabolisme lemak dan protein. Karbohidrat terdiri dari
monosakarida, disakarida, dan polisakarida, yang memiliki senyawa berbeda-
beda, (Fitri dan Fitriana, 2020).
Seperti nutrisi penghasil energi lainnya, asupan karbohidrat sangat
penting berhubungan erat dengan asupan energi. Ini berarti bahwa individu
dengan asupan energi yang lebih tinggi biasanya menelan lebih banyak
karbohidrat daripada individu dengan asupan energy yang lebih rendah.
Sebagian besar variasi antara individu mengenai asupan karbohidrat karena
itu perbedaan asupan energi total. Namun, itu juga bukan fokus perhatian jika
orang memiliki asupan energi yang tinggi atau rendah (dengan demikian,
penyerapan karbohidrat tinggi atau rendah), atau jika mereka berbeda jenis
kelamin, berat badan atau kurang aktif secara fisik, melainkan jika mereka
memiliki asupan karbohidrat yang tinggi atau rendah dalam kaitannya dengan
individu serupa. Dalam studi observasional, faktor risiko dapat disesuaikan
secara statistik antara kelompok yang diselidiki (Hauner, 2012).
Masing-masing zat gizi makro, karbohidrat, protein dan lemak,
memiliki seperangkat sifat unik yang mempengaruhi kesehatan, tetapi
semuanya adalah sumber energi. Keseimbangan optimal dari kontribusi
mereka terhadap diet telah lama menjadi bahan perdebatan. Selama setengah
abad terakhir, telah terjadi perkembangan pemikiran mengenai mekanisme di
mana masing-masing dapat berkontribusi pada energy keseimbangan. Pada
awal periode ini, penekanannya adalah pada sinyal metabolisme yang dimulai
acara makan (yaitu, frekuensi makan yang ditentukan). Ini diikuti dengan
orientasi ke usus sinyal endokrin yang konon memodulasi ukuran acara
makan (yaitu, porsi yang ditentukan ukuran). Baru-baru ini, perhatian
penelitian telah diarahkan ke otak di mana sinyal penghargaan ditimbulkan
oleh makronutrien dipandang berpotensi bermasalah yaitu, berkontribusi
makan. Pada titik ini kekuatan prediksi dari makronutrien untuk asupan
energi tetap terbatas. (Carreiro dkk, 2016).
C. ALAT DAN BAHAN PRAKTIKUM
1. Alat-alat Praktikum
a. Beaker glass 100 mL
b. Penjepit kayu
c. Pipet tetes
d. Pipet ukur 5 mL
e. Pipet ukur 10 mL
f. Rak tabung reaksi
g. Rubber bulb
h. Tabung reaksi
i. Water bath
2. Bahan-bahan Praktikum
a. Iodium (I2)
b. Larutan Amilum (C6H10O5)n 2%
c. Larutan Asam Klorida (HCl) pekat
d. Larutan Asam Sulfat (H2SO4) pekat
e. Larutan Glukosa (C6H12O6) 2%
f. Larutan Kalium Permanganat (KMnO4)
g. Larutan Klorofrom (CHCl3)
h. Larutan Sukrosa (C12H22O11) 2%
i. Minyak kelapa
j. Reagen Molisch

D. PROSEDUR KERJA
1. Identifikasi ikatan rangkap pada senyawa karbon alifatik
a. Disiapkan 2 buah tabung reaksi ( tabung 1 dan tabung 2 ).
b. Dilarutkan 2 mL minyak kelapa dalam 2 mL kloroform pada tabung
reaksi 1.
c. Dimasukkan 4 mL kloroform ke dalam tabung reaksi lain (tabung
reaksi 2).
 d. Diteteskan beberapa tetes larutan KMnO4 ke dalam minyak kelapa
pada tabung reaksi 1 setetes demi setetes. Diamati perubahan warna
pada tabung reaksi 1 setelah ditetesi larutan KMnO4.
e. Diteteskan larutan KMnO4 ke dalam tabung reaksi 2, jumlah tetes
larutan KMnO4 harus sama dengan jumlah tetes yang digunakan pada
tabung reaksi 1. Diamati perubahan warna larutan dalam tabung reaksi
2.
f. Dibandingkan warna larutan dalam tabung reaksi 1 dengan warna
larutan pada tabung reaksi 2.
2. Uji Karbohidrat
a. Tes molisch
- Masing-masing sebanyak 2 tetes pereaksi molisch dimasukkan ke
dalam 3 tabung reaksi yang sudah berisi 2 mL glukosa, sukrosa,
dan amilum.
- Tabung dikocok, kemudian dimiringkan dan ditambahkan 2 mL
larutan H2SO4 secara perlahan-lahan.
- Diamati apa yang terjadi.
b. Hidrolisa Polisakarida
- Larutan amilum 2% masing-masing sebanyak 3 mL ditempatkan
pada 2 tabung reaksi yang berbeda.
- Tabung 1 ditambahkan 3 tetes HCl pekat kemudian dipanaskan.
- Ditambahkan iodium.
- Amilum pada tabung 2 ditambahkan iodium. Diamati apa yang
terjadi
- Bandingkan tabung 1 dengan tabung 2.
E. HASIL PENGAMATAN
(Terlampir).

F. ANALISIS DATA
1. Identifikasi ikatan rangkap pada senyawa karbon alifatik.
a. Identifikasi menggunakan larutan KMnO4
Tabung I
 Tabung 2

2. Uji Karbohidrat
a. Tes Molisch

b. Hidrolisis polisakarida
G. PEMBAHASAN
Pada praktikum kali ini, kami menentukan reaksi identifikasi
ikatan rangkap pada senyawa karbon alifatik serta menentukan sifat-sifat
karbohidrat secara kualitatif dengan melakukan beberapa percobaan, antara
lain mengidentifikasi adanya ikatan rangkap dengan larutan KmnO4 dan
melakukan uji korbohidrat dengan tes molisch dan hidrolisis polisakarida.
Percobaan pertama, kami mengidentifikasi adanya ikatan
rangkap pada senyawa hidrokarbon alifatik yang dimulai dengan melarutkan
2 mL minyak kelapa dalam 2 mL kloroform pada tabung reaksi 1 warnanya
menjadi kuning keputihan. Selanjutnya diteteskan 10 tetes larutan KMnO4
yang berwarna orange, hasilnya setelah diteteskan, warnanya berubah
menjadi pink bening yang semula berwarna kuning keputihan. Artinya dari
perubahan tersebut adanya ikatan rangkap dalam tabung I tadi. Lalu pada
larutan tabung II, kami mencampurkan 4 ml kromoform dan 10 tetes larutan
KMnO4 lagi, ketika KMnO4 dicampurkan langsung dengan kloroform
membentuk lingkaran seperti cincin berwarnapin bening yang mengelilingi
kloroform. Artinya campuran tersebut tidak membentuk ikatan rangkap,
karena kedua larutan tidak menyatu.
Percobaan selanjutnya adalah uji karbohidrat, pengujian adanya
karbohidrat dapat dilakukan melalui dua cara, yang pertama dengan uji
molisch yaitu dengan menggunakan 3 tabung yaitu glukosa, sukrosa, dan
amilum. Semua diberi perlakuan yang sama yaitu ditambahkan 2 tetes
molisch lalu dikocok dan ditambahkan 2 mL larutan asam sulfat pekat
perlahan-lahan. Reaksi positif ditandai dengan munculnya cincin pink
dipermukaan antara lapisan asam dan lapisan sampel. Larutan asam sulfat
pekat berfungsi untuk menghidrolisasi ikatan pada sakarida untuk
menghasilkan furfural. Furfural ini kemudian bereaksi dengan reagen molisch
dan akhirnya membntuk cincin yang berwarna pink. Yang membentuk cincin
pink tersebut adalah glukosa, sukrosa, dan amilum, namun kadar karbohidrat
setiap larutan berbeda. Cara yang kedua untuk uji karbohidrat yaitu hidrolisis
polisakarida. Di percobaan ini kami menggunakan dua tabung sebagai
perbandingan. Tabung I dimasukan 3 mL amilum 2% sebagai sampel
 polisakaridanya, lalu ditambahkan 3 tetes HCl 1 M warnanya berubah
menjadi keruh dan setelah dipanaskan warnanya menjadi bening. Kemudian
ditambahkan larutan iodium yang menghasilkan warna biru pekat hal ini
menandakan berhasilnya hidrolisis polisakarida. Pada tabung II dimasukkan 3
mL amilum 2 % yang berwarna putih dan setelah ditambahkan iodium
warnanya berubah menjadi biru pekat. Perubahan warna ini menandakan
berhasilnya hidrolisis polisakarida.
H. KESIMPULAN
Dari praktikum identifikasi makronutrien dan gugus fungsi
senyawa organik dapat disimpulkan bahwa:
1. Untuk mengetahui cara identifikasi ikatan rangkap pada senyawa karbon
alifatik dapat dilakukan dengan cara melarutkan 2 mL minyak kelapa
dalam 2 mL kloroform pada tabung reaksi 1 warnanya menjadi kuning
keputihan. Selanjutnya diteteskan 10 tetes larutan KMnO4 warnanya
berubah menjadi pink bening, artinya dari perubahan tersebut adanya
ikatan rangkap. Lalu pada larutan tabung II, dilakukan dengan
mencampurkan 4 ml kloroform dan 10 tetes larutan KMnO4, ketika
KMnO4 dicampurkan langsung dengan kloroform membentuk lingkaran
seperti cincin berwarnapin bening yang mengelilingi kloroform. Artinya
campuran tersebut tidak membentuk ikatan rangkap, karena kedua larutan
tidak menyatu. Tanda adanya ikatan rangkap adalah mengalami perubahan
warna dan keturunan sifatnya.
2. Dalam menentukan sifat-sifat karbohidrat dapat dilakukan dengan dua
percobaan, yaitu yang pertama dengan tes molisch menggunakan 3 tabung
yaitu glukosa, sukrosa, dan amilum. Semua diberi perlakuan yang sama
yaitu ditambahkan 2 tetes molisch lalu dikocok dan ditambahkan 2 mL
larutan asam sulfat pekat perlahan-lahan. Perubahan warna yang terjadi
pada tabung I yaitu bagian atasnya menjadi ungu. Pada tabung II warnanya
menjadi ungu pekat, dan pada tabung III warna bagian tengahya menjadi
ungu. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pada ketiga tabung reaksi adanya ikatan
rangkap yaitu ditandai dengan perubahan warna ungu atau membentuk
lingkaran pink. Percobaan yang kedua yaitu hidrolisis polisakarida
menggunakan dua tabung sebagai perbandingan. Tabung I dimasukan 3
mL amilum 2% sebagai sampel polisakaridanya, lalu ditambahkan 3 tetes
HCl 1 M warnanya berubah menjadi keruh dan setelah dipanaskan
warnanya menjadi bening. Kemudian ditambahkan larutan iodium yang
menghasilkan warna biru pekat hal ini menandakan berhasilnya hidrolisis
polisakarida. Pada tabung II dimasukkan 3 mL amilum 2 % yang berwarna
putih dan setelah ditambahkan iodium warnanya berubah menjadi biru
pekat. Perubahan warna ini menandakan berhasilnya hidrolisis
polisakarida. Karena hidrolisis polisakarida ditandai dengan perubahan
warna biru.
 DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Roni, K. A., & Legiso, (2021). Karakteristik Senyawa Organik. Kimia Organik,
73.
Fitri, A. S., & Fitriana,Y. A. N., (2020). Analisis Senyawa Kimia Pada
Karbohidrat, Sainteks. 17(1), 45-52.
Hauner, H., Bechthold. A., Boeing, H., Bronstrup. A., Buyken, A.,Bonnent, E. L.,
Linseisen, J., Schulze, M., Strohm, D., Wolfram, G., (2012). Dampak
Karbohidrat. Asupan Karbohidrat Dan Pencegahan Penyakit Terkait
Nutrisi, 60(1), 1-58.
Carreiro, A. L., Dhillon, J., Gordon, S., Jacobs, A. G., Higgins, K. A., McArthur,
B. M., A., Redan, B. W., Rivera, R. L., Schmidt, L. R., and Mattes, R. D.,
(2016). Asupan Energy. Makronutrien, Nafsu Makan dan Asupan Energy,
17(36), 73-103.
LAMPIRAN
Kiagus Ahmad Roni
Legiso KIMIA ORGANIK
 3. Sikloalkana adalah hidrokarbon yang mengandung satu atau
lebih cincin karbon. Rumus umum untuk hidrokarbon jenuh
dengan 1 cincin adalah CnH2n.
4. Hidrokarbon aromatik, juga dikenal dengan arena, adalah
hidrokarbon yang paling tidak mempunyai satu cincin aromatik.

Hidrokarbondapatberbentuk gas (contohnya metana dan propana

cairan (cont hnya heksana dan benzena), lilin atau padatan dengan titik
didih rendah (contohnya paraffin wax dan naftalena) atau polimer
(contohnya polietilena, polipropilena, dan polistirena).
Ilmu kimia adalah cabang ilmu pengetahuan yg mempelajari
tentang komposisi, struktur, sifat-sifat dan perubahan-perubahan dari
materi serta energi yg menyertainya. Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan
yg cepat dari ilmu kimia telah menyebabkan perlunya pemisahan ke
dalam sejumlah bidang kimia yg lebih khusus. Dewasa ini kita
mengenal antara lain kimia fisika, kimia analisis, biokimia, kimia
anorganik, serta kimia organik.
Sejak zaman purba manusia telah menggunakan zat yg diambil
atau diisolasi dari organisme hidup baik tumbuhan maupun hewan.
Untuk membuat obat orang merebus daun, kulit kayu, atau akar
tumbuhan dengan air. Air rebusan ini tanpa difahami oleh perebusnya,
pada hakekatnya mengandung ‖ zat-zat organik ‖ atau zat yg berasal
dari organisme hidup, yg berkhasiat bagi penyembuhan berbagai
penyakit, atau mempertahankan dan meningkatkan kesehatan tubuh.
Rebusan daun kumis kucing, dikenal untuk obat kencing batu, demikian
juga kita mengenal rebusan obat seperti rebusan daun saga, kulit kina,
atau jamu godokan. Karena zat di atas berasal dari makhluk hidup maka
zat tersebut disebut senyawa organik. Dengan demikian ilmu kimia
yang mempelajari senyawa itu disebut ilmu kimia organik. sebaliknya
73
 SAINTEKS
Volume 17 No 1, April 2020
p-ISSN: 0852-1468; e-ISSN: 2686-0546 (45 – 52)

Analisis Senyawa Kimia pada Karbohidrat

Analysis of Chemical Compounds on Carbohydrates

Ardhista Shabrina Fitri1, Yolla Arinda Nur Fitriana2

1
Farmasi, Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto
2
Teknologi Pangan, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan
1
ardhista.shabrina.fitri@gmail.com
2
yollaanf@gmail.com

ABSTRAK
Karbohidrat merupakan sumber energi utama bagi tubuh manusia, yang menyediakan 4
kalori (kilojoule) energy pangan per gram. Karbohidrat juga mempunyai peranan penting
dalam menentukan karakteristik bahan makanan, misalnya rasa, warna, tekstur, dan lain-
lain. Sedangkan dalam tubuh, karohidrat berguna untuk mencegah tumbuhnya ketosis,
pemecahan tubuh protein yang berlebihan, kehilangan mineral, dan berguna untuk
membantu metabolisme lemak dan protein. Karbohidrat terdiri dari monosakarida,
disakarida, dan polisakarida, yang memiliki senyawa berbeda-beda. Oleh karena itu,
dalam penelitian ini dilakukan analisis terhadap karbohidrat yang meliputi perubahan
warna, senyawa positif, dan pengelompokannya. Analisis dilakukan menggunakan uji
Fehling, Moore, hidrolisa, dan Iod. Penelitian ini menghasilkan bahwa berdasarkan hasil
uji Fehling dan Moore, glukosa dan sukrosa merupakan gula sederhana. Sementara pada
uji Hidrolisa, sukrosa dan amilum positif terhidrolisis melalui perubahan warna yaitu
endapan oren pada sukrosa dan hijau kebiruan pada amilum. Hasil uji Iod menunjukkan
amilum termasuk polisakarida terjadi perubahan warna menjadi biru kehitaman. Dengan
demikian, klasifikasi karbohidrat yang termasuk monosakarida adalah glukosa, disakarida
adalah sukrosa, dan polisakarida adalah amilum.
Kata-kata kunci: analisis, senyawa kimia, karbohidrat.

ABSTRACT
Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the human body, providing four
calories (kilojoule) of food energy per gram. Carbohydrates also have an essential role in
determining the characteristics of food ingredients, such as taste, color, texture, and so
on. While in the body, carbohydrates are useful for preventing the growth of ketosis, the
body's breakdown of excessive protein, loss of minerals, and are useful for helping
metabolize fats and proteins. Carbohydrates consist of monosaccharides, disaccharides,
and polysaccharides, which have different compounds. Therefore, in this study, an
analysis of carbohydrates was carried out, which included changes in color, positive
compounds, and their grouping. Analyzes were performed using the Fehling, Moore,
hydrolysis, and Iod tests. This study shows that based on the results of the Fehling and
Moore test, glucose and sucrose are simple sugars. While in the hydrolysis test, positive
sucrose and starch were hydrolyzed through a color change, namely the orange deposits
on sucrose and bluish green on starch. Iod test results show starch, including
polysaccharides, changes color to blackish blue. Thus, the classification of
carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, is glucose, disaccharides are sucrose, and
polysaccharides are starch.
Keywords: analysis, chemical compounds, carbohydrates.

(Analisis Senyawa Kimia ............ Ardhista Shabrina Fitri, Yolla Arinda Nur Fitriana) 45
 Ann Nutr Metab 2012;60(suppl 1):1–58
DOI: 10.1159/000335326
Evidence-Based Guideline of the German
Nutrition Society: Carbohydrate Intake and
Prevention of Nutrition-Related Diseases
Hans Hauner a Angela Bechthold b Heiner Boeing c Anja Brönstrup b
Anette Buyken d Eva Leschik-Bonnet b Jakob Linseisen e Matthias Schulze c
Daniela Strohm b Günther Wolfram a
a
Technical University of Munich, Freising-Weihenstephan, b German Nutrition Society, Bonn, c German Institute of
Human Nutrition, Potsdam-Rehbrücke, d Research Institute of Child Nutrition, Dortmund, and e Helmholtz Zentrum,
Munich, Germany
Key Words
Carbohydrates ⴢ Obesity ⴢ Type 2 diabetes ⴢ Coronary heart
disease ⴢ Dyslipoproteinaemia ⴢ Hypertension ⴢ Metabolic
syndrome ⴢ Cancer ⴢ Prevention
Abstract
The relative contribution of nutrition-related chronic diseas-
es to the total disease burden of the society and the health
care costs has risen continuously over the last decades. Thus,
there is an urgent necessity to better exploit the potential of
dietary prevention of diseases. Carbohydrates play a major
role in human nutrition – next to fat, carbohydrates are the
second biggest group of energy-yielding nutrients. Obesity,
type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, hyperten-
sion, metabolic syndrome, coronary heart disease and can-
cer are wide-spread diseases, in which carbohydrates could
have a pathophysiologic relevance. Correspondingly, modi-
fication of carbohydrate intake could have a preventive po-
tential. In the present evidence-based guideline of the Ger-
man Nutrition Society, the potential role of carbohydrates in
the primary prevention of the named diseases was judged
systematically. The major findings were: a high carbohydrate
intake at the expense of total fat and saturated fatty acids
reduces the concentrations of total, LDL and HDL cholester-
© 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel
0250–6807/12/0605–0001$38.00/0
Fax +41 61 306 12 34
E-Mail karger@karger.ch Accessible online at:
www.karger.com www.karger.com/anm
Published online: January 23, 2012
ol. A high carbohydrate consumption at the expense of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids increases total and LDL cholesterol,
but reduces HDL cholesterol. Regardless of the type of fat
being replaced, a high carbohydrate intake promotes an in-
crease in the triglyceride concentration. Furthermore, a high
consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increases the
risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, whereas a high
dietary fibre intake, mainly from whole-grain products, re-
duces the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipo-
proteinaemia, cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer
at varying evidence levels. The practical consequences for
current dietary recommendations are presented.
Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel
1 Introduction
It is well known that nutrition has a substantial influ-
ence on the development and progression of many chron-
ic diseases. These include especially obesity, type 2 diabe-
tes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, hypertension, heart
and vascular diseases and cancer. In recent decades, the
relative importance of these diseases has continually in-
creased; correspondingly, their part of the expenditure of
the health care system has grown. In addition, new studies
Dr. Daniela Strohm
Department of Science, German Nutrition Society
Godesberger Allee 18
DE–53175 Bonn (Germany)
Tel. +49 228 3776 623, E-Mail strohm @ dge.de
indicate that there is a very high potential to prevent these
diseases, and this has not yet been fully exploited [WHO,
2003, 2009].
According to its constitution, the German Nutrition
Society (DGE) aims to improve the health of the general
public by developing and communicating scientifically
based nutritional recommendations which contribute to
the primary prevention of nutrition-related diseases. Al-
ready in 2006, with this intention a Guideline Commis-
sion published an evidence-based guideline regarding fat
intake and prevention of nutrition-related diseases, which
is publicly available (www.dge.de/leitlinie).
Next to fat, carbohydrates are the second big group of
energy-yielding nutrients, providing an important part
of human nutrition. Correspondingly, they could have a
substantial influence on the prevention of nutrition-re-
lated diseases. In the context of systematically investigat-
ing macronutrients regarding their preventive potential,
a Guideline Commission of the DGE has addressed the
question of the role of carbohydrate intake on the occur-
rence of nutrition-related diseases in healthy individuals
[DGE, 2011a]. For this purpose, the current knowledge
based on human studies was critically reviewed, and sci-
entifically validated information was extracted. The re-
sults of this evidence-based guideline should contribute
to reduce consumer’s uncertainty which is caused by
contradictory statements regarding the influence of nu-
tritional carbohydrate intake. Especially in recent years,
there has been intensive and controversial discussion
about this [Mack and Hauner, 2007].
The aim of this evidence-based guideline regarding
carbohydrate intake and the prevention of certain nutri-
tion-related diseases is:
• to perform a systematic review of the scientific litera-
ture on the effects of carbohydrate intake on the devel-
opment and prevention of diseases;
• to separately assess single qualitative parameters of
carbohydrate intake in this context;
• to provide scientifically based information on the ef-
fects of carbohydrate quantity and quality for nutri-
tion experts and the media.
Because of the clinical significance of nutrition-relat-
ed diseases and their relevance in preventive medicine,
this systematic review focussed on obesity, type 2 diabe-
tes mellitus, dyslipoproteinaemia, hypertension, meta-
bolic syndrome, coronary heart disease (CHD) and can-
cer. Due to limited rescources, it was not possible to in-
clude all diseases for which an impact of carbohydrate
intake has been suggested, like gastrointestinal diseases
and dental caries.
2 Ann Nutr Metab 2012;60(suppl 1):1–58
2 Methodological Approach
2.1 Key Questions
The key questions were: does the quantity and quality of car-
bohydrate intake have an impact on the development of nutrition-
related diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipopro-
teinaemia, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, CHD and cancer?
If so, of which directions are the observed effects and how strong
is the impact of carbohydrate intake? Last but not least, what are
the resulting practical recommendations for primary prevention?
First, the aspects of carbohydrate intake to be investigated
were identified. The Guideline Commission agreed on the follow-
ing to be considered in the present guideline:
• total carbohydrates (percentage of energy intake or absolute
amount)
• mono- and disaccharides (sugar), sugar-sweetened beverages
• polysaccharides
• dietary fibre/whole-grain products
• glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL)
The Guideline Commission has chosen this selection due to
the relevance of these aspects and in order to cover important
prevention potentials of carbohydrate intake. In addition, suffi-
cient study data are available for these aspects.
2.2 Search Strategy
A systematic literature search was performed regarding the
key questions. The focus was on meta-analyses, systematic re-
views and original papers published between 1975 and December
2009. Meta-analyses from 2010 published before December 15,
2010, were also included.
The search was conducted explicitly for human studies in Eng-
lish or German language. The literature search was performed
using the PubMed database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed)
and reviewing the reference lists of guidelines, reviews and origi-
nal papers.
2.3 Classification of the Literature into Levels of Evidence
The classification of the levels of evidence which evaluate the
study design and results with regard to their potential relevance
was conducted according to the judgement scheme of the World
Health Organization (WHO) [WHO, 2003]. The judgement of the
selected literature was performed on the basis of the levels of evi-
dence shown in table 1.
The focus of the judgement was put on randomised controlled
intervention studies1 with the best evidence (level of evidence I)
and prospective cohort studies with the second best evidence (lev-
el of evidence II). Case-control studies (level of evidence III) and
non-analytic studies (level of evidence IV) were not included. In
case-control studies, it is principally possible to use detailed as-
sessment instruments; however, this advantage does not outweigh
the methodological weakness of the ‘wrong’ chronology of expo-
sure and disease occurrence and the associated sources of bias.
Cross-sectional studies were not considered for this guideline ei-
ther, because they do not allow statements regarding chronology
(risk of reverse causation), and because existing diseases possibly
lead to bias in the nutritional assessment.
1
 The present DGE guideline includes mainly intervention studies with
a duration of at least 12 weeks.
Hauner et al.
Table 1. Classification of levels of evidence (LOE)
LOE I
Ia Meta-analysis of randomised controlled intervention
studies
Ib Randomised controlled intervention studies
Ic Non-randomised/non-controlled intervention studies (if
well-designed)
LOE II
IIa Meta-analysis of cohort studies
IIb Cohort studies
LOE III
IIIa Meta-analysis of case-control studies
IIIb Case-control studies
LOE IV
IV Non-analytic studies (cross-sectional studies, case reports
etc.) as well as reports/opinions of expert committees
or consensus conferences, where no strength of evidence
was stated, and/or clinical experience of respected
authorities
Characteristics and results of all studies fully meeting the in-
clusion criteria were systematically recorded (see tables for each
health outcome: http://www.dge.de/leitlinie; German only). Fig-
ure 1 gives an overview of the number of identified publications.
2.4 Judgement of the Strength of the Evidence
For evidence judgement, the strength of the evidence was rat-
ed, taking into account the scientific evidence (level of evidence,
LOE) of the single studies. The strength of the evidence indicates
the respective quality and consistency of the scientific data upon
which a statement is based. Following the judgement scheme of
the WHO [WHO, 2003], the strength of the evidence was judged
as ‘convincing’, ‘probable’, ‘possible’ and ‘insufficient’ regarding a
preventive effect or a lack of an association (table 2).
The chronology of associations (cohort studies) as well as re-
sults from intervention studies and the biological plausibility
were included into the judgement of the strength of the evidence.
As a consequence, the strength of the evidence also provides in-
formation on causation and justifies the deviation of recommen-
dations for primary prevention on a population level.
Based upon the performed judgement of the evidence, food-
based recommendations for carbohydrate intake were derived.
The guideline draft was presented online for 2 months for discus-
sion and comments. After taking into consideration relevant com-
ments received during this period, the guideline was published.
2.5 Studies on Primary and Secondary Prevention
In principle, it has to be considered in the interpretation of
study data and the resulting prevention measures or recommen-
dations if the studies were performed on primary or on secondary
prevention. The topic of primary preventive research is to avoid
triggering or present causes or partial causes of a disease with the
aim to lower the incidence of the disease in the entire population
or the risk of occurrence in an individual [Walter and Schwartz,
Evidence-Based Guideline of the German
Nutrition Society
2003]. Accordingly, study subjects are not yet suffering from the
disease that is investigated. In contrast, secondary prevention
deals with the early therapy of existing diseases and aims to low-
er the incidence of manifest or progressed diseases in general.
This also includes the prevention of recurring events (like re-
infarction) and the avoidance of secondary diseases. Thus, in this
case the study population consists of patients with a correspond-
ing medical history. The present guideline only includes studies
on primary prevention.
2.6 Quality and Type of Data on Carbohydrate Intake
Like other energy-yielding nutrients, carbohydrate intake is
closely associated with energy intake. This means that individuals
with higher energy intake usually ingest more carbohydrates than
individuals with lower energy intake. Most of the variation be-
tween individuals regarding carbohydrate intake is therefore due
to differences in total energy intake. However, it was neither the
focus of interest if people have a high or low energy intake (and,
correspondingly, a high or low carbohydrate uptake), nor if they
are of different gender, weight or more or less physically active,
but rather if they have a high or low carbohydrate intake in rela-
tion to similar individuals. In observational studies, risk factors
can be statistically adjusted between the investigated groups.
There are often no intervention studies assessing the effects of
carbohydrate intake on the prevention of certain nutrition-relat-
ed diseases. For obesity, most of the studies identified were studies
on weight reduction, which have not been considered relevant for
the present question (see chapter 3). In addition, heterogeneity
between studies regarding the definition of endpoints has to be
taken into account. For example, for the definition of the meta-
bolic syndrome (see chapter 7), different levels of elevated fasting
blood glucose levels have been considered, which in part may ex-
plain the different results observed.
Nutritional interventions differ from medical therapeutic in-
terventions in some important features [Knorpp and Kroke,
2011]. In the field of nutrition, conduction of randomised con-
trolled intervention studies is often not possible, due to ethical
and other reasons. Even if they were ethically justifiable, there is
still the problem that nutritional interventions cannot be blinded.
Because of this, knowledge on the relation between nutritional
factors and diseases is often derived from observational studies
like the ones that were mainly used for the present guideline, and
not from randomised controlled intervention studies [Kroke et
al., 2003]. In addition, nutritional interventions most often have
very complex effects. For example, individual nutrient intake and
nutrition on the whole are influenced in many different ways by
changing the intake of a single nutrient [Knorpp and Kroke, 2011].
Hence, only focussing on randomised controlled intervention
studies is not appropriate for deriving nutritional recommenda-
tions.
The aim of this research was to identify studies on total car-
bohydrate intake or on the intake of certain kinds of carbohy-
drates, respectively. Therefore, studies that considered carbohy-
drate-containing foods like bread, pasta or potatoes as exposure
factors were not included into the evaluation. One exception was
the group of sugar-sweetened beverages. Sugar-sweetened bever-
ages are defined as carbonated soft drinks like cola beverages and
lemonades as well as non-carbonated soft drinks like beverages
with fruit juice or nectar and ice tea that contain added sugar.
Unsweetened fruit juices are not included. In North America,
Ann Nutr Metab 2012;60(suppl 1):1–58 3
 HHS Public Access
Author manuscript
Annu Rev Nutr. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 July 26.
Author Manuscript

Published in final edited form as:

Annu Rev Nutr. 2016 July 17; 36: 73–103. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-121415-112624.

The macronutrients, appetite and energy intake

Alicia L Carreiro1, Jaapna Dhillon1, Susannah Gordon1, Ashley G Jacobs1, Kelly A
Higgins2, Breanna M McArthur2, Benjamin W Redan2, Rebecca L Rivera1, Leigh R
Schmidt2, and Richard D Mattes1
Alicia L Carreiro: acarreir@purdue.edu; Jaapna Dhillon: jdhillon@purdue.edu; Susannah Gordon:
susannahlgordon@gmail.com; Ashley G Jacobs: jacobs38@purdue.edu; Kelly A Higgins: higgin20@purdue.edu; Breanna
M McArthur: bmcarth@purdue.edu; Benjamin W Redan: ben.redan@gmail.com; Rebecca L Rivera:
rcusack@purdue.edu; Leigh R Schmidt: lcrschmidt@purdue.edu; Richard D Mattes: mattes@purdue.edu
Author Manuscript

1Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

2Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

Abstract
Each of the macronutrients, carbohydrate, protein and fat, has a unique set of properties that
influence health, but all are a source of energy. The optimal balance of their contribution to the
diet has been a long-standing matter of debate. Over the past half century, there has been a
progression of thinking regarding the mechanisms by which each may contribute to energy
balance. At the beginning of this time period, the emphasis was on metabolic signals that initiated
eating events (i.e., determined eating frequency). This was followed by an orientation to gut
endocrine signals that purportedly modulate the size of eating events (i.e., determined portion
Author Manuscript

size). Most recently, research attention has been directed to the brain where the reward signals
elicited by the macronutrients are viewed as potentially problematic (i.e., contribute to disordered
eating). At this point the predictive power of the macronutrients for energy intake remains limited.

Keywords
Carbohydrate; protein; fat; diet; food; energy balance

Introduction
Consensus is difficult to achieve on most topics in the field of nutrition and the target seems
to be retreating. With imperfect knowledge of the function of human somatic cells and
Author Manuscript

growing recognition of the contribution of genetics, epigenetics, the gut microbiome and
probabilistic behavioral inputs, establishing cause and effect, let alone best practices for
individuals and populations, is problematic. One area of agreement is that body weight is a
function of energy balance, and there is evolving acceptance that this is truly based on
energy itself rather than its source. Body weight can be gained, lost or maintained on diets
varying in macronutrient composition (142, 156). There are clearly different health

Correspondence: Richard D. Mattes, MPH, Ph.D., R.D., Distinguished Professor of Nutrition Science, Director of Public Health,
Director of the Ingestive Behavior Research Center, Purdue University, 212 Stone Hall, Department of Nutrition Science, 700 W State
Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2059, 765-496-2791 ph (morning), 765-494-0662 ph (afternoon), 765-494-0674 fax,
mattes@purdue.edu.