EVOLUSI

Evolusi Organisme

Dr. Rury Eprilurahman, S.Si., M.Sc.

Donan Satria Yudha, S.Si., M.Sc.
 PENTING!
HARAP DIPERHATIKAN!
Materi kuliah ini hanya untuk kalangan sendiri
(Mahasiswa S1 Fakultas Biologi UGM yang
menempuh / mengambil MK Evolusi)
Materi kuliah ini JANGAN DI UPLOAD / UNGGAH
di blog pribadi / akun SOSMED kalian, karena
banyak materi & gambar yang BELUM
DICANTUMKAN COPYRIGHT-NYA!!
 Evolusi Organisme

• Origin of Prokaryotes
• Origin of Eukaryotes
Asal Mula Prokaryota
Eon Archean (4 to 2 Miliar th yl)
Prokaryota
Fosil Prokaryota
Domain Bacteria
Domain Archaea
 Origin of Prokaryotes
Bukti kehidupan tertua di bumi adalah :
➢ Mikrofosil prokaryota yang terawetkan baik dan berusia sekitar 3,9 Bya
(Australia Barat)
➢ Fosil eukaryota sel tunggal muncul sekitar 1,8 Bya

Berdasarkan bukti diatas, maka prokaryota adalah satu-satunya bentuk

kehidupan seluler pertama selama 2,1 Bya.

Selama periode waktu tsb, prokaryota mengembangkan berbagai proses

biokimia yang ada pada kehidupan masa kini → replikasi DNA, kode
genetik, sintesis protein melalui transkripsi & translasi, fotosintesis,
metabolisme aerob & anaerob.
 Fossil of Cyanobacteria cells from Bitter Spring Chert of
Northen Australia, 1 Bya to 850 Mya. Right is colonial
chroococcalean form, Left is filamentous Palaeolyngbya

Bacterial life from the 3.5 Bya

Apex Formation of Australia
 Archean Eon (4 to 2,5 Bya)

Bumi belum memiliki oksigen bebas di atmosfer, kondisi bumi

masih ekstrem (panas dan asam).
Atmosfer di bumi purba mirip spt di Planet Mars saat ini
(Nitrogen, Karbondioksida, uap air, tanpa oksigen bebas).
Tanpa oksigen bebas → tanpa lapisan ozon di atmosfer →
sel-sel / organisme mati terkena radiasi UV → organisme
hidup di bawah tanah atau di dalam laut.
Organisme awal yang dapat hidup adalah organisme
anaerob, mampu menggunakan berbagai sumber energi yang
berbeda dan karbon, serta tahan hidup dalam kondisi
lingkungan yang ekstrem → bakteria & archaea (Prokaryota)
→ Age of the Bacteria.
Archean Eon (4 to 2,5 Bya)
 Prokaryotes

Organisme Prokaryotik
• Muncul di Bumi 3,8 – 3,6 Bya (ARCHEAN EON)
• Uniseluler → kelompok dua atau lebih sel, koloni sejati
• Tanpa nukleus & DNA tidak tersusun dalam kromosom
• Reproduksi pembelahan biner (binary fission)

Berdasarkan perbedaan dalam sekuen gen ribosomal RNA

organisme prokaryotik, para ahli mikrobiologi molekular
menyimpulkan bahwa selama periode waktu 2,1 Bya,
prokaryota terbagi menjadi dua kelompok, atau domain, yaitu:
Bacteria (Eubacteria) dan
Archaea (Archaebacteria).
Prokaryotes

• Nearly all prokaryotes have cell

walls.

• Bacteria have one major

chromosome and rings of DNA
called plasmids.

• Ribosomes are present to help in

protein formation.

• Many bacteria have small hair-like

pili to attach to other cells.
 Prokaryotes

• Nearly all prokaryotes have cell

walls.

• Bacteria have one major

chromosome and rings of DNA
called plasmids.

• Ribosomes are present to help in

protein formation.

• Many bacteria have small hair-like

pili to attach to other cells.

Sumber gambar: OSC Microbio 03 03 ProkCell, CNX OpenStax,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OSC_Microbio_03_03_ProkCell.jpg, CC-BY-4.0
 Prokaryotes

Archaea and Bacteria have similar structures

1. Plasmid (circular structure of arranged DNA)
2. Flagellum
3. Pili

Sumber gambar: OSC Microbio 03 03 ProkCell, CNX OpenStax, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OSC_Microbio_03_03_ProkCell.jpg,

CC-BY-4.0
 Prokaryotes fossils

Prokaryotic fossils are very small, and consist mainly of fossilized cell
walls.
Some structures formed by mats of bacteria are found today and also
fossilized from 2 billion years ago. The cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
form cell walls that fossilize nicely → stromatolites
Traces of organic compounds can also be found, and attributed to living
cells because they contain unusual ratios of carbon and sulfur isotopes.

Stromatolites
3,43 Ga, Streeley Pool Chert, Australia
2,77 Ga, Pilbara, Australia
2,20 Ga, Karelia, Russia (Sundosia, Parallelophyton)

Sisa/jejak senyawa organik (Bacteria)

3.5 Ga, Apex Formation of Australia
1,9 Ga, Formation Gunflint, Canada
1,0 Ga, Cyanobacteria cells from Bitter Spring Chert of Northen Australia
 Domain Bacteria
• Prokaryotic cells
• Membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages
• The cell walls contain peptidoglycan
• Bacteria contain rRNA that is unique to the Bacteria as
indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly
different from the rRNA of Archaea and Eukarya.
• Cyanobacteria (Autotrophs – manufacture their own food
source) → Stromatolites
 Domain Bacteria
Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of
organisms on Earth.
Live in almost all environments (in the ocean, the soil, the
intestines of animals, rocks deep below Earth’s surface) →
Any surface that has not been sterilized is likely to be covered
with bacteria.
The total number of bacteria in the world is amazing. It’s
estimated to be 5 x 1030, or five million trillion trillion. You have
more bacteria in and on your body than you have body cells!
Domain Bacteria
 Domain Archaea

• Prokaryotic cells.
• Membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains
attached to glycerol by ether linkages.
• The cell walls contain no peptidoglycan.
• Archaea contain rRNA that is unique to the Archaea as
indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly
different from the rRNA of Bacteria and Eukarya.
• Heterotrophs – obtain energy from surroundings by some
chemical reaction (converting CO2 and H2O to CH4 or by
the reduction of sulfur compounds)
 Domain Archaea

Archaea were first discovered in extreme environments (hot

springs, deep sea vent) → extremophiles (lovers of
extremes).
There are different types of Archaean extremophiles:
Halophiles, Hyperthermophiles, Acidophiles, Cryophiles.
The places where some of them live are thought to be similar
to the environment on ancient Earth. This suggests that they
may have evolved very early in Earth’s history.
 Domain Archaea

Major groups of Archaea:

1. Methanogenic archaea (largest group, anaerob)
2. Archaeal sulfate reducers (deep sea thermal vent,
anaerob)
3. Extremely halophilic archaea
4. Extremely thermophilic S0 – metabolizers (anaerob)
Asal Mula Eukaryotes
Eon Proterozoikum (2 Miliar th yl s/d
550 Juta th yl)
Eukaryota tertua/pertama
Eukaryota
Teori Endosimbiotik
Domain Eukarya
 Origin of Eukaryotes
Proterozoic Eon (2,5 Bya to 541 Mya)
Pada Archaean Eon (4 to 2,5 Bya) Bumi tanpa oksigen bebas → tanpa
lapisan ozon di atmosfer → sel-sel / organisme mati terkena radiasi UV →
organisme hidup di bawah laut.
Organisme awal yang dapat hidup adalah organisme anaerob, mampu
menggunakan berbagai sumber energi yang berbeda dan karbon, serta
tahan hidup dalam kondisi lingkungan yang ekstrem → bakteria & archaea
(Prokaryota) → Age of the Bacteria.

Metabolisme organisme anaerob menghasilkan sampah berupa Oksigen

→ sekitar 2 Bya
Semakin lama, oksigen semakin banyak → ancestral eukaryota muncul →
Rise of the Eukaryotes
 Origin of Free Oxygen on Primitive Earth
Proterozoic Eon (2,5 Bya to 541 Mya)
Proses dibawah ini adalah salah satu proses munculnya oksigen bebas di
bumi primitif:
Metabolisme organisme anaerob menghasilkan sampah berupa Oksigen
→ sekitar 2 Bya
Semakin lama, oksigen semakin banyak → ancestral eukaryota muncul →
Rise of the Eukaryotes

Bukti batuan = Banded Iron Formation (BIF)

Time, O2, rocks
and life

O2 and ozone shield

as Fe runs out

Fe absorbs O2
Time, O2, rocks
and life

Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes
Proterozoic Eon (2,5 Bya to 541 Mya)
 Origin of Free Oxygen on Primitive Earth
Proterozoic Eon (2,5 Bya to 541 Mya)
Banded Iron Formation (BIF)
SEBELUM ATMOSFER MENGANDUNG OKSIGEN BEBAS, OKSIGEN
MERUPAKAN SENYAWA, TERSIMPAN DALAM BATUAN SEPERTI
PADA PEMBENTUKAN BANDED IRON FORMATION (BIF)
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/271208832_fig7_Figure-9-Schematic-diagrams-of-the-depositional-model-of-
banded-iron-formation-and-the
Figure 9. Schematic diagrams of the depositional model of banded iron
formation and the formation of hematite. (1) The precipitation of ferrihydrite
via biological or abiological Fe(II) oxidization overwhelms silica deposition,
leading to the iron oxide–rich bands. (2) Due to the decreasing supply of
dissolved Fe(II) and/or a temperature-related slowing down in biological
oxidation rates of Fe(II), coupled with increasing precipitation rate of silica,
there is a transition from iron oxide–rich bands to silica-rich bands. (3)
Intermittent changes in geo- chemical or physical conditions cause episodic
deposition of minerals other than ferrihydrite and amorphous silica, e.g.,
siderite (Sd) and greenalite (Fe-silicate) in the inset. (4) During diagenesis to
low-grade metamorphism, the ferric oxyhydroxides in the iron-rich bands are
dehydrated to hematite and remained ultrafi ne (H1), while those in the chert
matrix of the transition zones grow larger (i.e., H2) with the aid of water
released during amorphous silica to quartz (Q) transformation. The bands
marked “Si,” “Si-Fe,” and “Fe” refer to silica-rich bands, silica-iron
transitional bands, and iron-rich bands, respectively. Hem—hematite; Ch—
chert, Q—quartz.
 The Oldest (First) Eukaryotes

The fossil record for eukaryotes goes back 2.7 billion years ago with the
recovery of eukaryotic biomarkers in ancient oil. Among the many things
that distinguish eukaryotes from bacteria and other prokaryotes is how
their cell membranes are constructed. Eukaryotes stiffen them with a
family of fatty acids known as sterols.
In the mid-1990s, a group of geologists drilled 700 meters down into the
ancient shales of northwest Australia to formations that have been dated
with uranium and lead radiometric dating to 2.7 billion years old. Inside the
shale, the geologists found microscopic traces of oil that contained sterols.
Because eukaryotes are the only organisms on Earth that can make these
molecules, scientists concluded that eukaryotes—probably simple,
amoeba-like creatures—must have evolved by 2.7 billion years ago.
 The Oldest (First) Eukaryotes

The oldest eukaryotic body fossil is the multicellular alga, Grypania

spiralis.
Coiled Grypania is found as thin films of carbon in the 2.1 billion-year-old
Negaunee iron formation at the Empire Mine near Ishpeming, Michigan.
The fossils are coiled forms of marine life that, if unwound, would stretch
up to 9 cm (3.54 inches). Young specimens have been recovered from
1.1-billion-year-old rocks in China.

Grypania is a photosynthetic eukaryotic algae that both produces and

requires oxygen to function.
Its discovery in 2.1-billion-year-old rock means that by then, oxygen must
have been present in the atmosphere in concentrations high enough to
support oxygen-using organisms.
Eukaryotes with many cells —the ancestors of plants and animals— do
not appear in the fossil record until a half billion years ago.
 The Oldest (First) Eukaryotes

Oldest fossils of eukaryotes — the protist, Grypania spiralis. These fossils

were found in 2.1-billion-year-old Banded Iron Formations in Michigan.
 Eukaryotes

• Single eukaryotic cell appear 2 Bya

• Multicellular appear as trace fossils 1 Bya and as body fossils 700 Mya
• Nucleus with 2 pairs of chromosomes (2 copies of all genes)
• Reproduction → Aseksual & Seksual
• Eukaryotic cells
• Like the Bacteria, they have membranes composed of unbranched fatty
acid.
• chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages.
• Not all Eukarya possess cells with a cell wall, but for those Eukarya
having a cell wall, that wall contains no peptidoglycan.
• Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the Eukarya as indicated by the
presence molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of
Archaea and Bacteria.
 Endosymbiotic Theory

The Endosymbiotic Theory was first proposed by former Boston University

Biologist Lynn Margulis in the 1960's and officially in her 1981 book
"Symbiosis in Cell Evolution".
Dr. Margulis was doing research on the origin of eukaryotic cells. She
looked at all the data about prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and organelles. She
proposed that the similarities between prokaryotes and organelles,
together with their appearance in the fossil record, could best be explained
by "endo-symbiosis".

Her hypothesis originally proposed that:

• mitochondria are the result of endocytosis of aerobic bacteria
• chloroplasts are the result of endocytosis of photosynthetic bacteria
• in both cases by large anaerobic bacteria who would not otherwise be
able to exist in an aerobic environment.
• this arrangement became a mutually beneficial relationship for both
cells (symbiotic).
 Endosymbiotic Theory

Why would this arrangement have been favorable?

Margulis' original hypothesis proposed that aerobic bacteria (that require

oxygen) were ingested by anaerobic bacteria (poisoned by oxygen), and
may each have had a survival advantage as long as they continued their
partnership.
 Endosymbiotic Theory

Mitochondria & Chloroplast are similar to Bacteria in several ways

Mitochondria & Chloroplast were once free living bacteria → engulfed by
ancestral eukaryote

Endosymbiont
Cell that lives within another cell (host)
• As partnership
• Evolutionary advantage for both (one supplies energy, the other
supplies raw material & protection)
Endosymbiotic Theory
 Endosymbiotic Theory

Evidences
There is evidence that distant ancestors of Mitochondria (& Chloroplasts)
were independent, prokaryotic cells:
1. They both have their own genetic systems (DNA) not duplicated in
nucleus. That DNA contains genes necessary to make the materials
needed for cellular respiration (or photosynthesis in Chloroplasts)
2. Mitochondria & chloroplasts posses their own genetic apparatus
3. Their DNA
➢ Is naked (not in nucleus & not wrapped around histone proteins)
and….
➢ Is circular (like prokaryotic DNA, not in Nucleus)
4. They have their own ribosomes (smaller & simpler than ribosomes in
general cytoplasm)
5. They divide on their own (similar to binary fission of prokaryotic cells)
 Endosymbiotic Theory

Evidences
There is evidence that distant ancestors of Mitochondria (& Chloroplasts)
were independent, prokaryotic cells:
6. The inner membranes of both mitochondria & chloroplasts have
enzymes & transport systems that are homologous to those in plasma
membranes of living prokaryotes.
7. The ribosomes of mitochondria & Chloroplasts are more like
prokaryotic ribosomes (In terms of size, nucleotide sequences and
sensitivity to certain antibiotics)
 Endosymbiotic Theory

Evidences
Conclusion:
• Mitochondria and Chloroplasts almost certainly have a similar
evolutionary origin.
• Both seem to be descendants of independent prokaryotic cells, which
have taken up residence within other cells in a phenomenon called
endosymbiosis.
• Both mitochondria and Chloroplasts are dependent upon the cells they
reside in and the cells are reliant upon them.
• GOOD, SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP (specifically...mutualistic) (Both
benefit!)
Endosymbiotic Theory
 Endosymbiotic Theory
• Scientists have fossil evidence of bacterial life on Earth ~3.8 billion years
ago. At this time, the atmosphere of the Earth did not contain oxygen, and
all life (bacterial cells) was anaerobic.
• HOWEVER, About ~3.2 billion years ago, fossil evidence of
photosynthetic bacteria, or cyanobacteria, appears. These bacteria use
the sun's energy to make sugar. Oxygen, released as a waste product,
began to accumulate in the atmosphere. However, oxygen is actually
pretty toxic to cells, even our cells! As a result, anaerobic cells were now a
disadvantage in an oxygen-containing atmosphere, and started to die out
as oxygen levels increased.
• Aerobic bacteria appear in the fossil record shortly after that (~2.5 Billion
years ago). There cells were were able to use that 'toxic' oxygen and
convert it into energy (ATP) and water. Organisms that could thrive in an
oxygen-containing atmosphere were now 'best suited to the environment'.
• Aerobic eukaryotes appear in fossil record shortly after that, (~1.5 billion
years ago). These cells contain either mitochondria, or both mitochondria
and chloroplasts. The mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own
genomes, but can not live outside their host cell.
 Domain Eukarya

Eukaryotic organisms
First appearance in Proterozoic Eon
Eukaryotic cells are much larger & complex, it contain
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes)
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya)
 Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya)

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

• Eukaryotic organisms
• Soft-bodied, lacking skeletons.
• Crept or stood upon the sea floor.
• Most don’t fit into modern Phyla.
Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya) – Ediacaran Period

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

 Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya) – Ediacaran Period

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

A fossil sea pen from the Ediacaran of Australia.
Ediacaran fossils were preserved as
impressions in gelatinous microbial mats on the
sea floor.
 Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya) – Ediacaran Period

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

Mawsonites, a fossil jellyfish?
Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya) – Ediacaran Period

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

Dickinsonia, a segmented worm
Late Proterozoic Eon (635 to 541 Mya) – Ediacaran Period

Edicaran Life (Fauna)

Charniodiscus
Evolution of Edicaran Life (Fauna)
 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)
Between about 543 and 510 Mya, skeletonized organisms appeared in a
huge explosion of diversity.
This event is called The Cambrian Explosion.
This explosion may have occurred in 30 Mya or maybe as little as 5-10 Mya
(according to the fossil record).
The most amazing record of this period appears in the BURGESS SHALE,
which is near Banff, BC, Canada
Seascapes changed…

From peaceful oasis… …to war zone with weapons and armour
Cambrian Assemblage
 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)

Different groups of organisms developed their weapons or defense systems in their

own way, resulting in a wide array of body plans suited to various ways of life.

Ediacaran Period Cambrian Period

 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)

Oldest abundant skeletal remains

Earliest Cambrian (543 million years)

(scale bar: 1 mm)

Hydroxyapatite (phosphate-bearing mineral) was widely used for skeletal

construction, even among the earliest skeletonized organisms.
 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)

Anomalocaris
 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)

Hallucigenia
 Early Cambrian Period (Paleozoic Era, Phanerozoic Eon)

Pikaia
Notochord Segmented Muscle
The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life
The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life
 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

• What is the Cambrian “Explosion”?

• Is it a true explosion of phyla, or was there a “slow fuse”
back into the Proterozoic?
• Why did so many new phyla appear at this time?
Hox genes hold the answer.
• Why have no new phyla appeared since this time?
MicroRNA holds the answer.
The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life
 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

Hox genes determine the head to tail anatomy of animals. Vertebrates

have 4 sets, but their Hox genes are almost identical to those of insects.
Mutations in Hox genes create new body plans or phyla.
 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

MicroRNA genes:
Their evolutionary significance has only
been recently understood. They come
from “redundant” DNA. They are
responsible for developmental precision.
 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

MicroRNAs are continually acquired and fixed in animal genomes with the
most morphologically complex animals having the greatest number of
microRNAs.

Diploblasts

Protostomes

Triploblast

Deuterostomes

Vertebrates
Tetrapods

Kevin Peterson,
Time, Ma Dartmouth
 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

MicroRNA constrains variability during development so that morphological

innovations are constrained as developmental precision increases
allowing more complex animals. Note that the microRNA differences
between phyla were 95% complete by the end of the Cambrian, and 90%
for classes by the Ordovician.

Kevin Peterson, Dartmouth

 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

The Burgess Shale of British Columbia: record of the Cambrian Explosion

 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

The Burgess Shale of British Columbia: record of the Cambrian Explosion

 The Cambrian “Explosion” of Life

The Burgess Shale of British Columbia: record of the Cambrian Explosion

The Story of the Evolution of Life

• We have come 5/6 of the way through the

history of the Earth.
• Earth forms 4.6 billion years ago
• Solid surface forms 4 billion years ago
• Life starts (?) 3.8 billion years ago
• Age of Bacteria
• Oxygen atmosphere develops 2 Bya.
• Eukaryotes develop.
• Edicarian life: 650 Mya. First multicellular
life, forms unknown today
 TUGAS EVOLUSI
14 Maret 2024

1. Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud dengan “Endosymbiotic Theory”!

2. Mengapa pada Cambrian Period terjadi “ledakan” kehidupan?
3. Sebutkan dan jelaskan mengapa pada Archean Era disebut sebagai
Age of Bacteria!
4. Mengapa “kehidupan awal bermula di bawah laut” lebih banyak
diterima para ahli?
5. Sebutkan dua kelompok fosil prokaryota!
6. Bagaimana proses terbentuknya “oksigen bebas” di bumi primitif?

PENTING KARENA ADA NILAINYA, YAITU:

Tuliskan sumber/referensinya secara lengkap!
 Tugas
Subject : Tugas_Kuliah_Evolusi_Tanggal tugas
Isi email : Nama lengkap & NIM lengkap
Attachment files email:
File Words Tugas Kuliah Evolusi 14032024
Dalam File Words JANGAN LUPA ditulis Nama Lengkap &
NIM!!

Misal
Subject : Tugas_Kuliah_Evolusi_14032024
Isi email: Rury, NIM. 1999/BI/129468/06843
Nama attachement file: Tugas_Evolusi_Rury_14032024

Kirim ke: rurybiougm@ugm.ac.id