NOTA MINGGU KE-

4
PROF. DR. RUHIZAN MOHAMMAD YASIN
Nota Penting

 Sebelum membentuk kerangka konseptual dan kerangka teori,

penyelidik perlu mengetahui apakah konstruk dan/atau
pembolehubah yang terlibat dalam kajian mereka.
 Perkara ini perlu dipastikan semasa pembentukan pernyataan
masalah lagi.
What We Need to Know to Design Quantitative Purpose Statements,
Research Questions, and Hypotheses

 What is a variable?
 What is a theory?
 What elements go into these statements and questions?

Pernyataan tujuan, persoalan dan hipotesis kita mestilah ada kaitan

dan digambarkan dalam kerangka konseptual kajian.

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

Apakah Pembolehubah?
Pembolehubah
(satu ciri atau atribut)
Yang boleh dan

Di ukur
Berubah
( boleh dicerap
menggunakan instrumen (boleh wujud
dan di record.) nilai/ skor berbeza
untuk individu yang
berbeza)
 Contoh pembolehubah dan bukan pembolehubah

Pembolehubah
Susah di ukur ttp. Hampir mustahil
masih boleh diukur
untuk diukur
• Style Kepimpinan  Socialization
• Subconscious
 Kebimbangan  Imagination
thoughts
 Autisme  Intuition
• World poverty
 Discrimination
• Stereotypes

APAKAH CONTOH LAIN YANG ANDA

DAPAT SENARAIKAN ?
 Variables and Constructs
 A Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way
 A Construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general
way.

Construct Student Achievement

Variable Grade Point Average

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

 The Family of Variables in Quantitative Studies
Probable
Cause Effect
(X) (Y) (Z)
Independent Intervening Dependent
Variables Variables Variables
• Treatment
• Measured

Control
Variables

Moderating Confounding
Variables Variables

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

Jenis-Jenis Pembolehubah

 Pembolehubah Bersandar: Sesuatu ciri atau atribut yang

(akan) dipengaruhi oleh pembolehubah bebas (tidak bersandar)
 Contoh: Kemahiran Penyelesaian Masalah
 Fikirkan apakah yang akan mempengaruhi kemahiran
penyelesaian masalah.
 Selalunya dalam kajian ia adalah pembolehubah utama yang
hendak diukur.
 Jenis-Jenis Pembolehubah

 Pembolehubah Bebas (Tidak bersandar): Sesuatu

ciri/atribut yang mempengaruhi atau memberi kesan keatas
hasilan atau pembolehubah bersandar.
 Pembolehubah rawatan (treatment)
 Pembolehubah diukur (measured)
 Pembolehubah kawalan (control)
 Pembolehubah Moderator (Moderating)

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

 Intervening Variables

 Intervening Variables (Mediating Variables): An attribute

or characteristic that “stands between” the dependent and
independent variables.

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

 Confounding Variables
(Pembolehubah Pengganggu)

 Pembolehubah Pengganggu : Faktor atau pembolehubah

yang bukan dalam kawalan kajian selalunya pembolehubah
penyelidik sukar untuk mengawalnya dan kesannya rumit
untuk dibezakan drp. pembolehubah lain .

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

Four Types of Independent Variables

Measured Control Treatment Moderating

Variable Variable Variable Variable
Definition An independent A special type of An independent A special type of
variable that is independent variable independent
measured in a variable that is of manipulated by variable that is of
study secondary the researcher. secondary
interest & is interest and
neutralized combines with
through statistical another
or design independent
procedures variable to
influence the
dependent
variables.
Use in Experiments, Experiments, Experiments Experiments
Survey correlational
studies.
Examples Age, performance Demographic Teaching Can be
on a test, variables, i.e age, methods, class demographic
attitudes gender,race, SES size. variables or other
variables such as
interest.
 Example of an Intervening Variable

Independent Dependent
Step 1 Variable Variable

Example Convenient office hours Student seeks help

for students from faculty

Independent
Independent Intervening
Step 2 Variable
Variable Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example to take risks
for students

Independent Intervening Dependent

Step 3 Variable Variable Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example Student seeks help
for students to take risks from faculty
Educational Research 2e: Creswell
 Theories as Bridges Between Independent
and Dependent Variables

Independent Dependent
Variables Variables

Educational Research 2e: Creswell

 Different Types of Explanations in
quantitative research
Broad
Extensive Tests by Abstractions
other researchers As a formal theory that is expressed by connected
hypotheses and variables identified by authors

As a conceptual framework often expressed as a

visual model by other authors for relationship

As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors

based on studies for relationship

As explanation posed by the author as a hunch for

why the independent variable relates to the
Narrow
No Test dependent variable Application
Educational Research 2e: Creswell
Teori dan Pengujian Pembolehubah

 Kaitan antara pembolehubah diungkapkan dalam sesuatu teori.

 Perkaitan ini terhasil daripada ujian-ujian yang telah dijalankan
melalui penyelidikan.
 Hubungkait antara pembolehubah ini mungkin berubah dalam
situasi yang berbeza. Oleh itu ujian dijalankan bukan untuk
membuktikan hubungkait tetapi untuk mengenalpasti kaitan
kesan & akibat antara pembolehubah.
Apakah Konsep?
 Konsep boleh jadi daripada pembolehubah anda atau perkara
lain atau faktor yang menjadi sasaran atau asas dalam kajian
anda.
 Contoh: Kepimpinan, kreativiti, kebimbangan, kesepaduan
sosial, pembelajaran sepanjang hayat, pendidikan non-formal,
pembelajan atas talian dll ialah konsep.
 Bagi konsep yang ingin dikaji, pengkaji harus bertanya adakah
wujud teori yang menerangkan konsep-konsep yang ingin dikaji.

 Bagaimanakah hubungan faktor-faktor/elemen dalam teori

tersebut menerangkan fenomena/konsep yang ingin dikaji oleh
penyelidik haruslah diterjemahkan kedalam kerangka
konseptual kajian.
Untuk pembacaan lanjut sila rujuk slides share
slide ( https dibawah), yang disediakan oleh Prof.
Saemah dan 4 articles yang telah di sediakan.

Kerangka Konseptual
https://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-6theoretical-
conceptual-framework
Kerangka konseptual
(Prof Dr Saemah Rahman)

• Konsep, andaian, jangkaan, kepercayaan dan teori yang

menyokong dan menerangkan kajian anda
– Menerangkan dalam bentuk grafik atau naratif perkara-perkara
utama dalam kajian anda – faktor utama, konsep/pembolehubah –
dan andaian tentang hubungan antaranya (Miles & Huberman,
1994)
• Merujuk kepada tentatif teori anda mengenai “apakah” yang
anda fikir sedang berlaku dan “mengapa”
Apakah fungsi teori dalam kajian anda ?

• Memberitahu anda tentang keseluruhan rekabentuk kajian anda

– Membantu anda menilai matlamat anda
– Membantu anda membina dan memilih Soalan kajian dan
metodologi kajian yang relevan
• Mari kita buat kerangka konseptual kajian anda ….
 Where does the conceptual framework fit?

• Preparing a conceptual framework can be likened to planning a holiday.

• The purpose of the pre-planning of the holiday is to:

 Know how to get to, and return from, your holiday destination.

 Know what to do when you are at the destination.

 To be better prepared, and able to make the most of your holiday, because you
can be guided by your previous experiences and by any information provided
by others.

• But is this pre-planning metaphor applicable to both quantitative and qualitative

research in terms of the conceptual framework and the research process?
 Where does the conceptual framework fit in - quantitative?
• Research problem:
• Paradigm:
• Aims and objectives:
• Literature review:
• Conceptual framework:
• Research questions:
• Data collection and analysis:
• Interpretation of the results:
• Evaluation of the research:
The issue of theoretical or practical interest.
The philosophical assumptions about the nature of
the world and how we understand it - positivism.
What we want to know and how the answer may
be built up.
A critical and evaluative review of the thoughts
and experiences of others.
Provides the structure/content for the whole study
based on literature and personal experience
Specific questions that require answers.
Methodology, methods and analysis.
Making sense of the results.
Revisit conceptual framework.
 Where does the conceptual framework fit in - qualitative?
• Research problem:
• Paradigm:
• Aims and objectives:
• Literature review:
• Research questions:
• Data collection and analysis:
• Interpretation of the results:
• Evaluation of the research:
The issue of theoretical or practical interest.
The philosophical assumptions about the nature
of the world and how we understand it – e.g.
interpretivism.
What we want to know and how the answer
may be built up.
A critical and evaluative review of the thoughts
and experiences of others.
Specific questions that require answers.
Methodology, methods and analysis.
Conceptual framework develops as participants’
views and issues are gathered and analysed.
Revisit conceptual framework.
 Qualitative research - the position of the conceptual
framework
• Normally qualitative work is described as starting from an inductive position,
seeking to build up theory, with the conceptual framework being ‘emergent’,
because existing literature/theories might mislead.

• However, Miles and Huberman (1994) note that:

 Researchers generally have some idea of what will feature in the study, a
tentative rudimentary conceptual framework, and it is better to have some
idea of what you are looking for/at even if that idea changes over time. This
is particularly true for inexperienced and/or time constrained researchers.

 Qualitative research can also be confirmatory. Yin (1994), for example,

identified pattern matching and explanation building. Pattern matching starts
with existing theory and tests its adequacy in terms of explaining the
findings. Explanation building starts with theory and then builds an
explanation while collecting and analysing data.
Membina kerangka konseptual

• Cuba jawab soalan-soalan ini:

– Pada pendapat anda apakah yang sedang berlaku mengenai isu
yang anda ingin tangani
– Apakah teori, kepercayaan dan dapatan kajian lepas yang
memberitahu anda mengenai apakah yang sedang berlaku
sekarang?
– Apakah pengalaman peribadi anda, kajian lepas dan dapatan dari
literatur yang akan anda gunakan dalam kajian anda – mengapa?
What inputs go into developing a conceptual framework?

• Experiential knowledge
 Technical knowledge.
 Research background.
 Personal experience.

• Literature review:
 Prior ‘related’ theory – concepts and
relationships that are used to represent the
world, what is happening and why.
 Prior ‘related’ research – how people have
tackled ‘similar’ problems and what they
 How might a conceptual framework be developed?

• The pieces of the conceptual framework are borrowed but the

researcher provides the structure. To develop the structure you
could:
 Identify the key words used in the subject area of your
study.
 Draw out the key things within something you have already
written about the subject area – literature review.
 Take one key concept, idea or term at a time and brainstorm
all the other things that might be related and then go back
and select those that seem most relevant.
• Whichever is used it will take time and a number of iterations
and the focus is both on the content and the inter-relationships.
Bentuk-bentuk kerangka konseptual

• There are also different kinds of concept maps, with different

purposes; these include the following:
a. An abstract framework mapping the relationship among concepts
b. A flowchart-like account of events and how you think these are connected
c. A causal network of variables or influences
d. A treelike diagram of the meanings of words (e.g., Miles & Huberman,
1994, p. 133)
e. A Venn diagram, representing concepts as overlapping circles (e.g., Miles
& Huberman,1994, p. 249)
• You can use more than one of these in a given study; the bottom line
is their usefulness
 An example of a (generic) conceptual framework
• If we look at the project in the example above of
developing research questions, the conceptual
framework might look something like this:
• If we now add the theoretical component-the learning theory, we get something like
this:
Terima kasih
Kaitan antara Teori & Konsep
Apakah Konsep?