Membuat Keripik Buah & Sayur dgn Penggoreng Hampa...

Untuk menggoreng buah-buahan yang akan dijadikan sebagai produk olahan keripik, kita memang harus
memiliki sebuah alat yang dinamakan vacuum fryer atau vacuum frying (Mesin Penggoreng Hampa).
Kita tidak mungkin menghasilkan produk buah olahan berupa kripik dengan menggunakan alat
penggoreng biasa. Seperti kita ketahui bersama, untuk komoditi buah-buahan hampir semuanya
memiliki kandungan glukosa (gula) yang cukup tinggi.
Karenanya, bila kita mengolahnya dengan cara menggoreng menggunakan alat penggoreng biasa,
keinginan untuk bisa berubah menjadi keripik tidak akan kesampaian, justru buah yang kita goreng
malah meleleh seperti jelly. Atau kalau tidak malah membuat buah menjadi gosong dan tidak layak
untuk dijual maupun dikonsumsi.
Beda halnya bila kita menggunakan teknologi
terapan vacuum fryer atau vacuum frying (Penggoreng Hampa). Dengan teknologi ini, akan
mampu menurunkan titik didih minyak sehingga buah-buahan berkadar air tinggi yang diolah
menjadi keripik tidak mudah hangus.Dengan menggunakan mesin vacuum fryer buatan
INDOCITAGRO waktu yang diperlukan sekitar satu jam. Tetapi, kita mendapatkan banyak
kelebihan. Hasilnya menjadi lebih bagus, Keripik tidak gosong, tetap cerah seperti warna
aslinya. Atau dengan kata lain, kecil kemungkinan untuk terjadi peristiwa oksidasi pada
produk buah olahan yang dihasilkan. Serta kandungan vitamin dari buah olahan tidak rusak.
Kelebihan lainnya adalah dengan adanya penurunan titik didih menjadikan minyak memiliki
umur pakai lebih lama. Dengan menggunakan mesin penggorengan yang diproduksi oleh
INDOCITAGRO ini, minyak goreng yang dipakai dapat digunakan hingga 60 kali penggorengan.
Selain itu, kelebihan lainnya adalah mesin penggorengan tidak mudah terkena korosi, sebab
uap air yang dihasilkan dari penggorengan dikondensasikan dan disedot keluar lewat pipa
kapiler. Dengan mekanisme kerja semacam ini secara otomatis menjadikan mesin menjadi
lebih awet dan tahan lama.

3.1. Pendahuluan
Setiap makanan atau produk pangan pasti memiliki warna, bau dan rasa. Demikian pula
mereka masing-masing memiliki sifat mekanis yang unik, bisa keras atau lunak, liat atau
empuk, lembut atau kasar, rapuh, renyah, mudah dan tidak mudah mengalir, dan
seterusnya.
Ada dua cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk menguji sifat mekanis produk pangan. Pertama,
menggunakan indera manusia, dengan cara menyentuh, memijit, menggigit, mengunyah,
dan sebagainya, selanjutnya kita sampaikan apa yang kita rasakan. Ini yang disebut
dengan analisa sensori. Karena reaksi kita sebagai manusia yang menguji berbeda-beda,
maka diperlukan analisa statistik untuk menyimpulkan skala perbedaan ataupun tingkat
kesukaan penguji terhadap produk tersebut. Cara uji kedua dengan pendekatan fisik,
menggunakan instrument atau peralatan tertentu, hasilnya dinyatakan dengan unit satuan
meter (m), kilogram (kg) dan detik (dt). Pendekatan fisik untuk mempelajari sifat
mekanis bahan disebut rheology. RHEOLOGY adalah suatu cabang ilmu fisik yang
didefinisikan sebagai ilmu yang mempelajari perubahan bentuk suatu mat erial. Gesekan
antara bahan padat, sifat alir material bentuk tepung, bahkan pengecilan ukuran suatu
partikel seperti pada proses penggilingan, proses emulsifikasi dan atomisasi juga
termasuk.
Mengapa kita mempelajari Rheology ?
Ada beberapa alasan utama kenapa kita mempelajari sifat reologi suatu bahan. Pertama,
Kita bisa melihat lebih dalam struktur suatu bahan. misalnya hubungan antara ukuran
molekul dan bentuk nya dalam suatu larutan terhadap kekentalan, hubungan antara
tingkat cross-linkage polymers dengan elastisitasnya. Kedua, test reologi sering
diterapkan untuk mengontrol bahan dasar dan mengontrol proses suatu pengolahan.
Contohnya: sifat reologi adonan tepung gandum pada pengolahan roti. Ketiga,

pengetahuan reologi diperlukan didalam mendesain alat tertentu seperti pompa, pipa-pipa
aliran. dan lainnya. Desain akan lebih efektif bila reologi bahan yang menggunakan
pompa atau melalui pipa alir tersebut diketahui. Keempat, Penerimaan konsumen
terhadap suatu produk dipengaruhi oleh sifat reologinya. Misalnya, mudah tidaknya jam
atau selai dioleskan, liat dan empuknya daging , dan sebagainya.
Kendala dalam mempelajari reologi suatu produk pangan secara garis besar disebabkan
oleh: pertama, sangat bervariasinya produk pangan, ada yang bersifat padat, cair atau gas,
dan ada yang dalam bentuk-bentuk antaranya. Kedua, disebabkan karena masing-masing
produk tersebut mempunyai sifat berbeda pada kondisi yang berbeda. Contohnya, sebuah
batu bersifat sebagai bahan padat, tapi kumpulan batu bisa dikatagorikan bersifat sebagai
bahan cair. Kapankah hal ini terjadi?
Referensi
Karena bervariasinya sifat reologi bahan, maka ahli reologi mendefinisikan bentukbentuk bahan ideal. Bahan padat ideal dan bahan cair ideal. Artinya kalaupun ada bahanbahan padat yang pada kondisi tertentu bisa bersifat sebagai bahan cair yang bisa
mengalir, tidak demikian halnya bahan padat ideal, yang selalu sebagai bahan padat, tidak
pernah tidak. Bahan padat ideal disebut juga Hooked Solid atau Hookean untuk
mengenang Robert Hooke (1635-1705) pencetusnya, seorang arsitek dari Inggris. Bahan
cair ideal disebut Newton Liquid atau sering juga disebut Newtonian untuk mengenang
pencetusnya Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726) seorang ahli matematik dari Inggris. Jadi
didunia ini tidak ada bahan yang lebih padat dari pada Hooked Solid dan tidak ada yang
pernah lebih cair dari pada Newton Liquid. Kedua bahan ini tidak mempunyai struktur
dan bersifat isotropik, artinya bersifat sama kesemua arah, dan mengikuti hukumnya
sebagai bahan padat dan bahan cair. Tentu saja kedua bahan ideal ini tidak pernah ada
nyata didunia ini.
Dengan mengkombinasi kedua model reologi ideal ini dikenal Bingham Model yang
mewakili material ideal plastik. Model Maxwell merupakan model ideal visco-elastic
liquid dan model Kevin-Voigt mewakili suatu bahan padat.
3.2. Reologi Bahan Pangan Padat
Dalam mempelajari reologi bahan pangan padat kita perlu mempelajari konsep mendasar
tentang stress dan strain.
STRESS
1 . Force adalah suatu beban atau gaya yang dikenakan pada suatu benda yang
mengakibatkan terjadinya deformasi, biasanya tercatat berunit g, kg atau Newton (1 kg f
= 9.807 N).
2. Stress adalah intensitas beban force pada suatu luas permukaan.

stress = (beban force)/luas lintang permukaan

artinya beban force yang sama dikenakan pada luas lintang permukaan yang lebih kecil
akan memberikan stress yang lebih besar. Contoh: sebuah balok segi empat dengan
ukuran tinggi 2 cm, tebal 1 cm, panjang balok 4 cm, ditekan dengan beban force 4 N pada
salah satu ujungnya, maka stress pada setiap titik didalam balok tersebut adalah sebesar:
s = ( 4 N) / (0.02 m x 0.01 m) = 20 000 N/m 2 = 20 000 Pa = 20 kPa
3. Satuan Stress. Stress didefinisikan sebagai beban force per satuan luasan, seperti
halnya tekanan. Tekanan hidrostatik pada kenyataannya adalah satu contoh bentuk stress,
satuannya pun sama dengan satuan stress.
4. Compressive Stress. Contoh terapan compressive stress bila kita menekan bola atau
suatu adonan roti misalnya dengan kedua telapak tangan kita.

5. Tensile Stress.Contoh terapan tensile stress terjadi bila kita menarik atau meregang
karet gelang.

6. Normal Stress. Didalam perhitungan, baik compressive maupun tensile stress yang
arah sumbu force nya tegak lurus atau bersudut 90 derajat terhadap lintang permukaannya
disebut dengan normal stress.
7. Shear Stress

Didalam perhitungan, shear stress ini disebut sebagai tangential stress

8. Isotropic Stress adalah stress yang seragam pada semua arah, seperti halnya pada
tekanan hidrostatis.

STRAIN
1. Deformasi. Bila suatu bahan padat dikenakan beban stress, maka satu atau lebih
dimensinya akan berubah. Perubahan dimensi ini mengakibatkan apa yang disebut
dengan deformasi.
2. Strain . Strain adalah perubahan dimensi relatif terhadap dimensi awal.

3. Satuan Strain . Strain merupakan perbandingan antara dua dimensi panjang, karenanya
tidak memiliki satuan.
4. Axial Strain dan Lateral Strain .
5. Poisson's ratio adalah perbandingan antara lateral strain dan axial strain .
6. Volumetric Strain
7. Shear Strain
HUBUNGAN STRESS and STRAIN
1. Bahan Elastik. Objek padat yang dikenai stress akan mengalami deformasi. Bila stress
tersebut dihilangkan bahan kemungkinan akan kembali atau mungkin tidak akan kembali
kepada kekeadaan atau bentuk semula. Bila kembali ke bentuk atau kekeadaan semula,
maka objek padat tersebut merupakan bahan elastik ideal.
2. Hooked's Law. Hukum Hooked ini mengatakan bahwa strain yang terjadi berbanding
langsung dengan stress yang dikenakan.

RUMUS !
3. Modulus Young ( E ) Konstanta E pada Hukum Hooked disebut dengan Modulus
Young, yang merupakan ketahanan material terhadap deformasi.
GAMBAR !
4. Bulk modulus ( K )
5. Shear modulus ( G ) adalah the ratio antara shear stress dan shear strain.
Jadi sifat reologi bahan padat dikaraterisasikan oleh 4 konstanta yaitu Modulus Young ( E
), Modulus Shear (G ), Poisson's ratio ( ) dan Bulk Modulus ( K ). Keempat konstanta
ini dihubungkan dengan persamaan
E = 3K(1-2 ) = 2(1 + )G
Artinya, hanya 2 konstanta yang perlu ditentukan melalui percobaan. Untuk bahan padat
dengan nilau = 0,5 maka persamaan bisa disederhanakan menjadi :
E=3G
Reologi Bahan Pangan Likuid dan Bahan Pangan Semi Padat
Bahan pangan likuid seperti susu, madu, sari buah dan minuman lainnya serta minyak
sayur menunjukkan sifat alir yang sederhana. Bahan pangan likuid yang leih kental
seperti saus salad, saus tomat dan mayonais mempunyai sifat yang lebih rumit. Bahan
pangan semipadat seperti selai kacang dan margarin beraksi diantara bahan padat dan
likuid, Hampir semua bahan pangan ini dialirkan dengan pompa pada suatu tahap
pengolahan ataupun pengemasannya, oleh karena itu karakteristik sifat alirnya penting
untuk menentukan kebutuhan tenaga pada proses pemompaan, untuk menentukan ukuran
pipa yang digunakan. Pengangkutan bahan pangan likuid dengan pemompaan ini
ditentukan oleh massa jenis dan viskositasnya.
VISKOSITAS
GAMBAR !

FLUIDA NEWTONIAN IDEAL

Untuk fluida newtonian ideal shear stress merupakan fungsi linear shear rate, dengan
konstanta merupakan dynamic viscosity.
? = - (dv/dy)

Beberapa bahan pangan likuid seperti susu, jus apel, jus jeruk, bir dan wine menunjukkan
bahwa mereka adalah bahan pangan likuid Newtonian. Satuan viskositas likuid adalah
Poise.
1 P = 100 cP (centiPoise) 1cP = 1 mPa.s

FLUIDA NON-NEWTONIAN
Bahan pangan fluida non-newtonian seperti krim, larutan gula, sirup, madu, saus salad
mempunyai karakteristik hubungan shear stress dan shear rate yang tidak linear. Bahkan
beberapa bahan pangan tipe ini memiliki yield stress yang harus dicapai sebelum mulai
mengalir. Bahan ini dikelompokan kedalam fluida tipe plastik Bingham , contohnya
saus tomat dan pasta tomat.

GAMBAR !

Bahan pangan fluida tipe pseudoplastic atau shear tinning pada proses shearing akan
menjadi encer atau viskositasnya menurun, contohnya pada selai kacang dan saus salad.
Bahan pangan fluida tipe dilatant atau shear thickening akan mengental atau
viskositasnya naik pada proses shearing , contohnya suspensi pati.
Bila fluida memiliki yield stress serta kurva shear stress-shear rate nya convec kearah
sumbu shear, fluida tersebut disebut sebagai tipe Casson Plastic.
MODEL REOLOGI
Power Law Model

3.1 Perilaku Stress dan Strain Bahan Pangan

3.2. Sifat-sifat Suspensi dan Konsentrat

3.3. Sifat-sifat Pangan Biji-bijian

3.4. Model Viskositas dan Tekstur Pangan Padat

 TUGAS

Rheology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Continuum mechanics

Laws[show]
Solid mechanics[show]

Fluid mechanics[show]
Rheology[hide]

Viscoelasticity

Smart fluids

Magnetorheological

Electrorheological
o

Ferrofluids

Rheometry

Rheometer

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v
t

Rheology ( /rildi/) is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in the liquid state,
but also as 'soft solids' or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow
rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force.[1] It applies to substances
which have a complex molecular structure, such as muds, sludges, suspensions, polymers
and other glass formers (e.g., silicates), as well as many foods and additives, bodily fluids
(e.g., blood) and other biological materials.
Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific
temperature. Although this viscosity will change with temperature, it does not change
with the flow rate or strain rate. Only a small group of fluids exhibit such constant
viscosity, and they are known as Newtonian fluids. But for a large class of fluids, the
viscosity change with the strain rate (or relative velocity of flow) and are called nonNewtonian fluids. Rheology generally accounts for the behaviour of non-Newtonian
fluids, by characterizing the minimum number of functions that are needed to relate
stresses with rate of change of strains or strain rates. For example, ketchup can have its
viscosity reduced by shaking (or other forms of mechanical agitation, where the relative
movement of different layers in the material actually causes the reduction in viscosity)
but water cannot. Ketchup is a shear thinning material, as an increase in relative velocity
caused a reduction in viscosity, while some other non-Newtonian materials show the
opposite behaviour: viscosity going up with relative deformation, which are called shear
thickening or dilatant materials. Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of
viscosity, the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called
Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics.[1]

The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette College,
in 1920, from a suggestion by a colleague, Markus Reiner.[2][3] The term was inspired by
the aphorism of Simplicius (often misattributed to Heraclitus), panta rhei, "everything
flows"[4]
The experimental characterization of a material's rheological behaviour is known as
rheometry, although the term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry,
particularly by experimentalists. Theoretical aspects of rheology are the relation of the
flow/deformation behaviour of material and its internal structure (e.g., the orientation and
elongation of polymer molecules), and the flow/deformation behaviour of materials that
cannot be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity.

Contents

1 Scope
2 Rheologist
3 Viscoelasticity
4 Applications
o 4.1 Materials science
4.1.1 Polymers
4.1.2 Biopolymers
4.1.3 Sol-gel
o 4.2 Geophysics
o 4.3 Physiology
o 4.4 Food rheology
o 4.5 Concrete rheology
5 Measurement
6 Dimensionless numbers
o 6.1 Deborah number
o 6.2 Reynolds number
7 See also
8 References

9 External links

Scope
In practice, rheology is principally concerned with extending continuum mechanics to
characterize flow of materials, that exhibits a combination of elastic, viscous and plastic
behaviour by properly combining elasticity and (Newtonian) fluid mechanics. It is also
concerned with establishing predictions for mechanical behaviour (on the continuum
mechanical scale) based on the micro- or nanostructure of the material, e.g. the molecular
size and architecture of polymers in solution or the particle size distribution in a solid
suspension. Materials with the characteristics of a fluid will flow when subjected to a
stress which is defined as the force per area. There are different sorts of stress (e.g. shear,

torsional, etc.) and materials can respond differently for different stresses. Much of
theoretical rheology is concerned with associating external forces and torques with
internal stresses and internal strain gradients and velocities.[1][5][6][7]
Elasticity
Solid mechanics
Continuum
mechanics
The study of the
physics of
continuous materials

Describes materials that return to their rest shape after

applied stresses are removed.

The study of the physics of

continuous materials with a Plasticity
Describes materials that
defined rest shape.
permanently deform after a
sufficient applied stress.

Rheology
The study of materials

Non-Newtonian fluids do with both solid and fluid

characteristics.
Fluid mechanics
not undergo strain rates
The study of the physics of proportional to the applied
continuous materials which shear stress.
deform when subjected to a
force.

Newtonian fluids undergo strain rates

proportional to the applied shear stress.

Rheology unites the seemingly unrelated fields of plasticity and non-Newtonian fluid
dynamics by recognizing that materials undergoing these types of deformation are unable
to support a stress (particularly a shear stress, since it is easier to analyze shear
deformation) in static equilibrium. In this sense, solids undergoing plastic deformation is
a fluid, although no viscosity coefficient is associated with this flow. Granular rheology
refers to the continuum mechanical description of granular materials.
One of the major tasks of rheology is to empirically establish the relationships between
deformations and stresses, respectively their derivatives by adequate measurements,
although a number of theoretical developments (such as assuring frame invariants)are
also required before using the empirical data. These experimental techniques are known
as rheometry and are concerned with the determination with well-defined rheological
material functions. Such relationships are then amenable to mathematical treatment by
the established methods of continuum mechanics.
The characterization of flow or deformation originating from a simple shear stress field is
called shear rheometry (or shear rheology). The study of extensional flows is called
extensional rheology. Shear flows are much easier to study and thus much more
experimental data are available for shear flows than for extensional flows.

Rheologist
A rheologist is an interdisciplinary scientist/engineer who studies the flow of complex
liquids or the deformation of soft solids. It is not taken as a primary degree subject, and
there is no general qualification. He or she will usually have a primary qualification in
one of several fields: mathematics, the physical sciences (e.g. chemistry, physics,
biology), engineering (e.g. mechanical, chemical, Materials Science & Engineering or
civil engineering), medicine, or certain technologies, notably materials or food. Typically,

a small amount of rheology may be studied when obtaining a degree, but the professional
will extend this knowledge during postgraduate research or by attending short courses
and by joining one of the professional associations (see below).

Viscoelasticity
Main article: Viscoelasticity
The classical theory of elasticity deals with the behaviour of elastic solids under small
deformations, for which,(1) according to Hooke's Law, stress is directly proportional to
the strain but independent of the rate of strain, or how fast the deformation was
applied, and (2) the strains are completely recoverable once the stress is removed.
Materials that can be characterized by classical theory of elasticity is known as linear
elastic materials, even for such materials the linear relationship between stress and strain
may be valid only for a certain range of strains. A large number of solids show non-linear
relationship between stress and strain even for small stresses (such as rubber), but if the
strains are still recoverable they are known as non-linear elastic materials. The classical
theory of fluid mechanics, governed by the Navier-Stokes equation, deals with the
behaviour of viscous fluids, for which, according to Newton's Law, the stress is directly
proportional to the rate of strain, but independent of the strain itself. These behaviour are,
of course, generally observed for ideal materials under ideal conditions, although the
behaviour of many solids approaches Hooke's law for infinitesimal strains, and that of
many fluids approaches Newton's law for infinitesimal rates of strain. Two types of
deviations from linearity may be considered here.
1. When finite strains (larger strains, as opposed to infinitesimal strains) are applied
to solid bodies, the stress-strain relationships are often much more complicated
(i.e. Non-Hookean). Similarly, in steady flow with finite strain rates, many fluids
exhibit marked deviations in stress-strain rate proportionality from Newtons law.
2. Even if both strain and rate of strain are infinitesimal, a system may exhibit both
liquid-like and solid-like characteristics. A good example of this is when a body
which is not quite an elastic solid (i.e. an inelastic solid) does not maintain a
constant deformation under constant stress, but rather continues to deform with
time or "creeps" under the same stress at constant temperature. When such a
body is constrained at constant deformation, the stress required to hold it at that
stretch level gradually diminishesor "relaxes" with time.
Similarly, a fluid while flowing under constant stress may show some elastic properties as
well, such as storing some of the energy input instead of dissipating it all as heat and
random thermal motion of its molecular constituents or having some recovery of strains
after stresses are removed, although it may never recover all of its deformation upon
removal of the initial applied stress. When such bodies are subjected to a sinusoidally
oscillating stress, the strain is neither exactly in phase with the stress (as it would be for a
perfectly elastic solid) nor 90 degrees out of phase (as it would be for a perfectly viscous
liquid) but rather exhibits a strain that lags the stress at a value between zero and 90
degrees: i.e., Some of the energy is stored and recovered in each cycle, and some is
dissipated as heat. These are viscoelastic materials.

Thus, fluids are generally associated with viscous behaviour (a thick oil is a viscous
liquid) and solids with elastic behaviour (an elastic string is an elastic solid). A more
general point of view is to consider the material behaviour at short times (relative to the
duration of the experiment/application of interest) and at long times.

Fluid and solid character are relevant at long times:

We consider the application of a constant stress (a so-called creep experiment):
o if the material, after some deformation, eventually resists further
deformation, it is considered a solid
o if, by contrast, the material flows indefinitely, it is considered a fluid

By contrast, elastic and viscous (or intermediate, viscoelastic) behaviour is

relevant at short times (transient behaviour):
We again consider the application of a constant stress[8]:
o if the material deformation strain increases linearly with increasing
applied stress, then the material is linear elastic within the range it shows
recoverable strains. Elasticity is essentially a time independent processes,
as the strains appear the moment the stress is appliled, without any time
delay.
o if the material deformation rate increases linearly with increasing applied
stress, then the material is viscous in the Newtonian sense. These materials
are characterized due to the time delay between the applied constant stress
and the maximum strain.
o if the materials behaves as a combination of viscous and elastic
components, then the material is viscoelastic. Theoretically such materials
can show both instantaneous deformation as elastic material and a delayed
time dependent deformation as in fluids.

Plasticity is the behaviour observed after the material is subjected to a yield stress:
A material that behaves as a solid under low applied stresses may start to flow
above a certain level of stress, called the yield stress of the material. The term
plastic solid is often used when this plasticity threshold is rather high, while yield
stress fluid is used when the threshold stress is rather low. However, there is no
fundamental difference between the two concepts.

Applications
Rheology has applications in materials science engineering, geophysics, physiology,
human biology and pharmaceutics. Materials science is utilized in the production of
many industrially important substances, such as concrete, paint, and chocolate, which
have complex flow characteristics. In addition, plasticity theory has been similarly
important for the design of metal forming processes. The science of rheology and the
characterization of viscoelastic properties in the production and use of polymeric
materials has been critical for the production of many products for use in both the
industrial and military sectors. Study of flow properties of liquids is important for
pharmacists working in the manufacture of several dosage forms, such as simple liquids,

ointments, creams, pastes etc. The flow behaviour of liquids under applied stress is of
great relevance in the field of pharmacy. Flow properties are used as important quality
control tools to maintain the superiority of the product and reduce batch to batch
variations.

Materials science

Polymers
The viscoelastic properties of polymers are determined by the effects of the many
variables, including temperature, pressure, and time. Other important variables include
chemical composition, molecular weight and weight distribution, degree of branching and
crystallinity, types of functionality, component concentration, dilution with solvents or
plasticizers, and mixture with other materials to form composite systems. With guidance
by molecular theory, the dependence of viscoelastic properties on these variables can be
simplified by introducing additional concepts such as the free volume, the monomeric
friction coefficient, and the spacing between entanglement loci, to provide a qualitative
understanding and in many cases a quantitative prediction of how to achieve desired
physical and chemical properties and ultimate microstructure.
Viscoelastic behaviour reflects the combined viscous and elastic responses, under
mechanical stress, of materials which are intermediate between liquids and solids in
character. Fundamentally, the viscoelasticity can be related to the motions of flexible
polymer molecules and their entanglements and network junctionsthe molecular basis
of viscoelasticity. Thus, rearrangements on a local scale (kinks) are relatively rapid, while
on a long-range scale (convolutions) very slow. In addition, a new assortment of
configurations is obtained under stress. The response to the local aspects of the new
distribution is rapid, while the response to the long-range aspects is slow. Thus there is
very wide and continuous range of timescales covering the response of such a system to
externally applied stress. From measurements of the viscoelastic properties of polymers,
information can be obtained about the nature and the rates of change of the
configurational rearrangements, and the nature of the (macro)molecular interactions over
a range of time scales.
Examples may be given to illustrate the potential applications of these principles to
practical problems in the processing and use of rubbers, plastics, and fibers. Polymers
constitute the basic materials of the rubber and plastic industries and are of vital
importance to the textile, petroleum, automobile, paper, and pharmaceutical industries.
Their viscoelastic properties determine the mechanical performance of the final products
of these industries, and also the success of processing methods at intermediate stages of
production.
In viscoelastic materials, such as most polymers and plastics, the presence of liquid-like
behaviour depends on the properties of and so varies with rate of applied load, i.e., how
quickly a force is applied. The silicone toy 'Silly Putty' behaves quite differently
depending on the time rate of applying a force. Pull on it slowly and it exhibits

continuous flow, similar to that evidenced in a highly viscous liquid. Alternatively, when
hit hard and directly, it shatters like a silicate glass.
In addition, conventional rubber undergoes a glass transition, (often called a rubber-glass
transition). E.G. The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was caused by rubber O-rings that
were being used well below their glass transition temperature on an unusually cold
Florida morning, and thus could not flex adequately to form proper seals between
sections of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters.

Biopolymers

Linear structure of cellulose -- the most common component of all organic plant life on
Earth. * Note the evidence of hydrogen bonding which increases the viscosity at any
temperature and pressure. This is an effect similar to that of polymer crosslinking, but
less pronounced.
A major but defining difference between polymers and biopolymers can be found in their
structures. Polymers, including biopolymers, are made of repetitive units called
monomers. While polymers are often randomly constructed with massive entanglement,
biopolymers often have a well defined structure. In the case of proteins, the exact
chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the
primary structure.
Many proteins spontaneously fold into characteristic compact shapeswhich determine
their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures.
Structural biology is the study of the structural properties of the biopolymers, much of
which can be determined by their viscoelastic response to a wide range of loading
conditions.

Sol-gel
Main article: sol-gel

Polymerization process of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and water to form amorphous

hydrated silica particles (Si-OH) can be monitored rheologically by a number of different
methods.
Sol-gel science (aka chemical solution deposition) is a wet-chemical technique widely
used in the fields of materials science, glass production and ceramic engineering. Such
methods are used primarily for the fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide)
starting from a chemical solution which acts as the precursor for an integrated network
(or gel) of either discrete nanoparticles or network polymers. Typical precursors are metal
alkoxides and metal chlorides, which undergo various forms of hydrolysis and
polycondensation reactions in order to form a viscoelastic network (or solid).
One of the largest application areas is thin films and coatings, which can be produced on
a piece of substrate by spin coating or dip coating. Other methods include spraying,
electrophoresis, inkjet printing or roll coating. Optical coatings, protective and decorative
coatings, and electro-optic components can be applied to glass, metal and other types of
substrates with these methods. With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a proper range,
both optical quality glass fiber and refractory ceramic fiber can be drawn which are used
for fiber optic sensors and thermal insulation, respectively. The mechanisms of hydrolysis
and condensation, and the rheological factors that bias the structure toward linear or
branched structures are the most critical issues of sol-gel science and technology.

Geophysics
Geophysics includes the flow of molten lava and debris flows (fluid mudslides). Also
included in this disciplinary branch are solid Earth materials which only exhibit flow over
extended time scales. Those that display viscous behaviour are known as rheids. E.G.
granite can flow plastically with a vanishingly small yield stress at room temperatures,
(i.e. a viscous flow). Long term creep experiments (~ 10 years) indicate that the viscosity
of granite under ambient conditions is on the order of 1020 poises.[9]

Piledriving for a bridge in Napa, California.

Deep foundations are used for structures or heavy loads when shallow foundations cannot
provide sufficient capacity. They may also be used to transfer building loads past weak or
compressible soil layers. While shallow foundations rely solely on the bearing capacity of
the soil beneath them, deep foundations can rely on end bearing resistance, frictional
resistance along their length, or both in developing the required capacity. Geotechnical
engineers use specialized tools, such as the cone penetration test, to estimate the amount
of skin and end bearing resistance available in the subsurface.
In addition, pile driving is often used to check for stability in varying soil types such as
clay, sand, gravels, fractured shale, etc. Geotechnical engineering (or 'soil engineering')
often utilizes soil logs or bore logs to show what may be evidenced while driving piles
through given stratum and soil lenses. Wave equations must often be employed when
using vibratory or mechanical impact hammers. The harmonics set up by vibratory or

impact hammers drastically change the ability of given soils to create wall friction on a
given pile type, as well as the elastic alteration or resistance to penetration in a normal
state.
Dynamic testing of soils may involve the attachment of transducers to pilings while they
are being driven. In addition, theoretical bearing calculations using a nuclear densometer
may be carried out in the field. In the end, a fairly simple linear equation may suffice to
give a good approximation of the bearing capacity of the soil.

Physiology

Heme b
Physiology includes the study of many bodily fluids that have complex structure and
composition, and thus exhibit a wide range of viscoelastic flow characteristics. In
particular there is a specialist study of blood flow called hemorheology. This is the study
of flow properties of blood and its elements (plasma and formed elements, including red
blood cells, white blood cells and platelets). Blood viscosity is determined by plasma
viscosity, hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood cell, which constitute 99.9% of the
cellular elements) and mechanical behaviour of red blood cells. Therefore, red blood cell
mechanics is the major determinant of flow properties of blood.[10]

Food rheology
Food rheology is important in the manufacture and processing of food products, e.g.
cheese.[11] Food rheology is the study of the rheological properties of food, that is, the
consistency and flow of food under tightly specified conditions. The consistency, degree
of fluidity, and other mechanical properties are important in understanding how long food
can be stored, how stable it will remain, and in determining food texture. The
acceptability of food products to the consumer is often determined by food texture, such
as how spreadable and creamy a food product is. Food rheology is important in quality
control during food manufacture and processing.

Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to an aqueous

mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such
as taste. They provide body, increase stability, and improve suspension of added
ingredients. Thickening agents are often used as food additives and in cosmetics and
personal hygiene products. Some thickening agents are gelling agents, forming a gel. The
agents are materials used to thicken and stabilize liquid solutions, emulsions, and
suspensions. They dissolve in the liquid phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly
cohesive internal structure. Food thickeners frequently are based on either
polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins.[12]

Concrete rheology
Concrete's and mortar's workability is related to the rheological properties of the fresh
cement paste. The mechanical properties of hardened concrete are better if less water is
used in the preparation of concrete paste, however reducing the water-to-cement ratio
may decrease the ease of mixing and application. To avoid these undesired effects,
superplasticizers are typically added to decrease the apparent yield stress and the
viscosity of the fresh paste. Their addition highly improves concrete and mortar
properties.[13]

Measurement
Rheometers are instruments used to characterize the rheological properties of materials,
typically fluids that are melts or solution. These instruments impose a specific stress field
or deformation to the fluid, and monitor the resultant deformation or stress. Instruments
can be run in steady flow or oscillatory flow, in both shear and extension.

Dimensionless numbers
Deborah number
Main article: Deborah number
On one end of the spectrum we have an inviscid or a simple Newtonian fluid and on the
other end, a rigid solid; thus the behaviour of all materials fall somewhere in between
these two ends. The difference in material behaviour is characterized by the level and
nature of elasticity present in the material when it deforms, which takes the material
behaviour to the non-Newtonian regime. The non-dimensional Deborah number is
designed to account for the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour in a flow. The Deborah
number is defined as the ratio of the characteristic time of relaxation (which purely
depends on the material and other conditions like the temperature) to the characteristic
time of experiment or observation.[14][15] Small Deborah numbers represent Newtonian
flow, while non-Newtonian (with both viscous and elastic effects present) behaviour
occurs for intermediate range Deborah numbers, and high Deborah numbers indicate an
elastic/rigid solid. Since Deborah number is a relative quantity, the numerator or the
denominator can alter the number. A very small Deborah number can be obtained for a
fluid with extremely small relaxation time or a very large experimental time, for example.

Reynolds number
Main article: Reynolds number
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (vs)
to viscous forces (/L) and consequently it quantifies the relative importance of these two
types of effect for given flow conditions. Under low Reynolds numbers viscous effects
dominate and the flow is laminar, whereas at high Reynolds numbers inertia
predominates and the flow may be turbulent. However, since rheology is concerned with
fluids which do not have a fixed viscosity, but one which can vary with flow and time,
calculation of the Reynolds number can be complicated.
It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used,
usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining
dynamic similitude. When two geometrically similar flow patterns, in perhaps different
fluids with possibly different flow rates, have the same values for the relevant
dimensionless numbers, they are said to be dynamically similar.
Typically it is given as follows:

where:

vs - mean fluid velocity, [m s1]

L - characteristic length, [m]
- (absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity, [N s m2] or [Pa s]
- kinematic fluid viscosity: = / , [m s1]
- fluid density, [kg m3].

See also

Liquid
Solid
Glass transition
Die swell
Microrheology
Transport Phenomena (book)

References
1.

^ a b c W. R. Schowalter (1978) Mechanics of Non-Newtonian Fluids

Pergamon ISBN 0-08-021778-8

2.

^ J. F. Steffe (1996) Rheological Methods in Food Process Engineering

2nd ed ISBN 0-9632036-1-4 page 1
3.
^ The Deborah Number
4.
^ Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The presocratic philosophers. ISBN 978-0415-05079-1.
5.
^ R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, E. N. Lightfoot (1960), Transport Phenomena,
John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-07392-X
6.
^ R. Byrin Bird, Charles F. Curtiss, Robert C. Armstrong (1989),
Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids, Vol 1 &2 , Wiley Interscience, ISBN 0-47151844-1 and 978-0471518440
7.
^ Faith A. Morrison (2001), Understanding Rheology, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 0-19-514166-0 and 978-0195141665
8.
^ William N. Findley, James S. Lai, Kasif Onaran (1989), Creep and
Relaxation of Nonlinear Viscoelastic Materials, Dover Publications
9.
^ Kumagai, N., Sasajima, S., Ito, H., Long-term Creep of Rocks, J. Soc.
Mat. Sci. (Japan), Vol. 27, p. 157 (1978) Online
10.
^ The ocular Vitreous humor is subject to rheologic observations,
particularly during studies of age-related vitreous liquefaction, or synaeresis.
Baskurt OK, Meiselman HJ (2003). "Blood rheology and hemodynamics".
Seminars in Thrombosis and Haemostasis 29 (5): 435450. doi:10.1055/s-200344551. PMID 14631543.
11.
^ S. Gunasekaran, M. Mehmet (2003), Cheese rheology and texture, CRC
Press, ISBN 1-58716-021-8
12.
^ B.M. McKenna, and J.G. Lyng (2003). Texture in food > Introduction to
food rheology and its measurement. ISBN 978-1-85573-673-3. Retrieved 200909-18.
13.
^ Ferrari, L; Kaufmann, J; Winnefeld, F; Plank, J (2011). "Multi-method
approach to study influence of superplasticizers on cement suspensions". Cement
and Concrete Research 41 (10): 1058. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.010.
14.
^ M. Reiner (1964) Physics Today volume 17 no 1 page 62 The Deborah
Number
15.
^ The Deborah Number

External links

The Origins of Rheology: A short historical excursion by Deepak Doraiswamy,

University of Sidney
Romanian Society of Rheology
British Society of Rheology
Australian Society of Rheology
American Society of Rheology
Rheonova:French Rheology Technology Platform
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