Situasi ini mengharuskan pasien pergi ke agresif di mana fleksor tambahan selubung
Sendi tampaknya berkurang, sinar-X diambil
ruang operasi untuk reduksi terbuka baik tendon terbuka tidak dianjurkan karena
untuk memastikan bahwa sendi itu kongruen,
dengan volar atau dengan pendekatan pengeringan tendon fleksor dapat terjadi.
yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 15A-C.
punggung untuk menempatkan struktur Dalam teknik tertutup, dua sayatan dapat
Dislokasi PIPJ tidak jarang, tetapi
PIPJ ke dalam penyelarasan anatomi. dibuat, satu sayatan V di atas katrol A1 dan
perawatan belum diformulasikan dengan
sayatan mid-aksial terpisah dibuat di atas
baik dalam pengaturan gawat darurat.
Pasien-pasien ini sering ditempatkan ke
Infeksi permukaan ulnar noncontact dari
sambungan DIP untuk memberikan jalan
dalam splinting berkepanjangan untuk Pasien adalah wanita berusia 44 tahun,
keluar cairan yang diairi ke dalam selubung
memungkinkan liga air mata untuk yang mengalami eritema progresif dan
tendon fleksor secara proksimal. Sebuah
menyembuhkan. Tapi belat yang membengkak 2 hari setelah gigitan serangga
lubang kecil dibuat pada katrol A1 dan
berkepanjangan selama lebih dari 3 minggu kecil di jari manis kanannya (Gbr. 17). Pada
kateter 18-gauge kemudian dengan hati-hati
akan membuat PIPJ kaku yang akan sangat pemeriksaan, pasien mengalami infeksi jari
dimasukkan ke dalam selubung tendon
sulit untuk mendapatkan kembali fleksi yang jelas dan menyebar. Ada abses pada
fleksor dan dengan lembut mengairi selubung
aktif penuh begitu jaringan parut terbentuk dorsum jari, tetapi yang lebih
tendon untuk mengevakuasi semua isi
di sekitar PIPJ. Pada cedera ini, latihan memprihatinkan adalah nyeri luar biasa
nanah. Setelah cairan menjadi jernih, sayatan
gerak aktif kontrol dini harus dilakukan dengan ekstensi jari yang pasif, yang
dapat dibiarkan terbuka untuk berkontraksi
untuk mencegah kontraktur sendi. Setelah mengindikasikan potensi florour
dan sembuh kedua. Jika ada kekhawatiran
reduksi yang adekuat, pasien ditempatkan tenorinovovitis yang supuratif.
untuk infeksi residu, kateter dapat dibiarkan
dalam duri pemblokir dorsal untuk menjaga Tanda-tanda klasik infeksi selubung
ke dalam selubung sepuluh don dengan
PIPJ yang berkurang pada 30 derajat fleksi fleksor meliputi pembengkakan fusiform,
menjahitnya ke kulit dan selubung tendon
dalam upaya untuk menghindari dislokasi kemerahan di sepanjang jari, nyeri tekan
dapat diirigasi setiap 8 jam selama 48 jam ke
lagi. Pasien akan memulai rentang gerak dengan palpasi di atas tendon fleksor, dan
depan untuk mengevakuasi nanah
aktif untuk menjaga mobilitas sendi dan nyeri dengan ekstensi jari secara pasif.
tambahan. Seseorang harus sangat berhati-
mencegah kontraktur. Setelah sekitar 3 Semua tanda ini menunjukkan infeksi
hati untuk tidak mengairi cairan secara
minggu latihan aktif, struktur ligamen tendon fleksor sarung yang terkadang
agresif karena kebocoran cairan di sekitarnya
seharusnya sudah cukup pulih bagi pasien merambat di sepanjang sarung tendon ke
untuk memulai gerakan jari penuh (Gbr. pergelangan tangan. Infeksi tangan adalah
16A dan B). keadaan darurat bedah itu membutuhkan
Ada situasi sesekali ketika PIPJ tidak abses untuk dikeringkan (Gbr. 18). Abses pada
dapat dikurangi. Alasan untuk kesulitan ini dorsum jari dapat dikeringkan dengan sayatan
adalah bahwa pelat volar mungkin robek terbuka, sedangkan infeksi selubung tendon
dan disisipkan dalam sambungan untuk fleksor harus dievakuasi menggunakan irigasi
mencegah reduksi. Situasi lain mungkin kateter tertutup seperti yang ditunjukkan pada
adalah kepala phalanx proksimal yang Gambar 19. Pendekatan terbuka yang jauh
ditangkap antara tendon fleksor dan otot lebih
lumbrical, yang menciptakan efek ikatan
dan mencegah reduksi.
252 Bagian II: Keterampilan Bedah Dasar: Teknologi Baru dan Berkembang
A B
A B
Gbr. 16. A dan B: Ekstensi dan fleksi penuh setelah perawatan yang memadai.
Gbr. 17. Eritema yang menyebar di jari manis kanan. Gambar 18. Evakuasi nanah dari jari manis.
254 Bagian II: Keterampilan Bedah Dasar: Teknologi Baru dan Berkembang
Gambar 19. Drainase kateter tertutup dari tenosinovitis fleksor Gambar. 20. Cedera tangan kiri akibat gerjaji.
supuratif jari manis.
A B
Gbr. 21. A dan B: Amputasi dilakukan untuk ibu jari dan jari telunjuk dengan sisa saraf dan cedera tendon pada jari tengah.
A B
Gambar 22. A and B: Fungsi yang dapat diterima setelah rekonstruksi saraf dan tendon ke jari tengah kiri
Bab 16: Bedah Tangan: Cidera Traumatis Tangan 255
jari atau tangan yang perlu dikeringkan, berpartisipasi dalam pengujian aktif
kecemasan menghadapi berbagai cedera yang
seperti tenosynovitis bakteri, sering tendon fleksor. Untuk alasan ini, anak- menimpa tangan dan anggota badan.
dianggap darurat. Adalah penting bahwa anak sering dibawa ke ruang operasi
abses dikeringkan dengan benar, terutama
untuk pasien yang immunocompro-mised
untuk eksplorasi untuk menentukan
tingkat cedera dan memperbaiki struktur
BACAAN YANG DISARANKAN
seperti individu dengan diabetes atau yang terluka. Dalam situasi ketika pasien Bindra RR, Dias JJ, Heras-Palau C, et al. Assessing
kondisi defisiensi imun lainnya. Pendek dari yang tidak sadar tidak dapat outcome after hand surgery: the current state.
kedua kondisi itu, sebagian besar cedera berpartisipasi dalam pemeriksaan tangan J Hand Surg 2003;28B(4):289–4.
karena pengaruh obat atau alkohol atau Cable D, Mullany C, Schaff H. The Allen Test. Ann
tangan dapat dirujuk ke ahli bedah tangan cedera kepala, pasien mungkin
untuk perawatan elektif. Masalah tangan Thorac Surg 1999;67:876–7.
memerlukan pemeriksaan lain setelah Chung K. Reconstructive surgery of the hand. In:
umum yang ada di ruang gawat darurat kondisi medis mereka stabil dan pasien
termasuk cedera saraf digital, yang dapat Greenfield LJ, ed. Surgery, scientific principles
cukup sadar untuk menyampaikan
diperbaiki dalam 2 hingga 3 minggu atau pemeriksaan yang akurat. and practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams
cedera tendon yang dapat diperbaiki dalam Bab ini memberikan panduan praktis & Wilkins; 2001:2294–302.
tentang cara mendekati pasien cedera Chung K. Anatomy and biomechanics of the hand.
10 hari. Fraktur pengungsi sering dapat
tangan dalam keadaan darurat. In: Chung K, ed. Hand surgery, plastic surgery.
dikurangi di departemen darurat dan fiksasi St Louis: Mosby; 2008:935–40.
yang pasti dapat dilakukan dalam 1 atau 2 Pemeriksaan tangan yang terluka
Chung K, DJ Smith, MC Robson. Management of
minggu. membutuhkan latihan yang konstan untuk thermal, electrical radiation, and chemical in-
Berkembang
injeksi tekanan tinggi, tetapi tampaknya dari mulai dari phalax distal. Para penulis
KOMENTAR EDITOR beberapa angka terlihat bahwa ada kekuatan
destruktif yang sangat besar tergan tung pada apa
menggunakan ini sebagai tes keberhasilan
perbaikan saraf tetapi memperingatkan
yang terjadi dengan cedera injeksi, terlepas dari bahwa meskipun ini mungkin merupakan
Ini adalah bab yang ditulis dengan baik yang penampilan luka yang tidak berbahaya ( Gbr. 2). indikasi pemulihan saraf, reaksi CIVD positif
mengasumsikan bahwa cedera tangan akan terus ada 3. Tetapkan indikasi operasi untuk perawatan tidak termasuk gejala subyektif dari
dan bahwa banyak cedera tangan harus dirawat oleh kontraktur Dupuytren. intoleransi dingin pascatrauma.
ahli bedah umum karena kekurangan ahli bedah 4. Memahami peran pengobatan operatif pada Bukan untuk mengusulkan bahwa ahli bedah
tangan. Ini mungkin tujuan yang akurat untuk bab ini rheumatoid arthritis dan osteoarthritis. Seseorang umum akan dapat melakukan teknik perbaikan ini,
karena tidak mungkin bahwa akan ada cukup banyak tentu tidak ingin siapa pun kecuali ahli bedah Ho AM dan Chang J menulis dalam The Journal of
ahli bedah tangan untuk berkeliling, jadi apa yang tangan khusus untuk melakukan pengobatan Hand Surgery (2010; 35A: 308-11) menggambarkan
sebenarnya dilakukan adalah melakukan tri-usia osteoartritis parah dan mengatur ulang sendi. operasi flap perforator arteri yang mereka percayai.
dengan cedera yang kurang konsekuensial dirawat flas fasciocutaneous lengan retrograde radial adalah
oleh ahli bedah umum dan kemudian cedera yang Perawatan infeksi tangan mungkin merupakan flap pekerja keras untuk menutupi banyak cacat
lebih konsekuensial dan rumit dirawat oleh ahli bedah aspek terbaik danpaling bermanfaat yang dapat tangan dan pergelangan tangan. Mereka membahas
tangan setelah trivia awal dan mungkin perawatan dilakukan oleh ahli bedah umum dalam melihat indikasi anatomi bedah, teknik operasi, protokol
darurat oleh ahli bedah umum. pasien dengan infeksi tangan. Pertama dan rehabilitasi, dan potensi komplikasi dalam
Bagian yang sangat penting dari bab ini adalah terutama, sebelum kultur atau drainase dapat melakukan hal ini. Tampaknya mekanisme
pemeriksaan tangan; terkait dengan itu adalah ulasan diperoleh, orang harus dapat mengasumsikan perbaikan ini berada di luar kapasitas sebagian
yang baik tentang otot, tendon, dan saraf, yang dapat bahwa sebagian besar infeksi tangan disebabkan besar ahli bedah umum, tetapi saya akan
dengan mudah diperiksa oleh beberapa manuver oleh Staphylococcus dan Streptococcus, dan membayangkan bahwa dalam keadaan darurat,
sederhana. Dengan cara ini, triase awal dapat sefalosporin atau obat lini pertama lainnya tanpa ada orang di sekitar, semua komunikasi
diperoleh untuk jenis pasien yang akan dirawat oleh mungkin berguna. Pada pasien dengan terputus, dan isolasi, bahwa mungkin ada waktu
ahli bedah tangan dan mereka yang mungkin dapat penggunaan obat intravena atau yang dipenjara ketika seorang ahli bedah umum mungkin harus
dirawat oleh ahli bedah umum. atau mereka yang nondiabetes, Staphyococcus membawanya. di luar. Beberapa gambar diberikan
Perbaikan esensial yang perlu dijaga dalam aureus yang resisten methicillin mungkin dalam bab ini menunjukkan manfaat dari flap
beberapa situasi oleh ahli bedah umum merupakan organisme yang menyebabkan perforator radikal yang dilakukan dengan baik
meliputi: infeksi. Dalam situasi ini, infeksi harus diobati retrograde atau prograde agar sesuai dan
1. Perbaikan tendon secara empiris dengan Bactrim, 850 mg, tiga kali memperbaiki sejumlah cacat.
2. Pengaturan fraktur sehari atau vankomisin. Mereka Melihat beberapa gambar dalam beberapa
3. Perawatan avulsi tendon sederhana atau memperingatkan bahwa cakupan Streptococcus bab ini, orang terkesan pada betapa rumitnya
bagian intrinsik tangan lainnya buruk dengan Bactrim dan vankomisin adalah mekanisme dari cedera tangan ini dan apa
4. Perbaikan lainnya yang mungkin bakteri-statis, bukan bakterisidal. Dengan
demikian, pentingnya data kultur dan rejimen manfaatnya bagi seseorang dengan pelatihan
diperlukan pada awalnya tanpa adanya akses antibiotik yang sesuai dengan apa yang biasanya lanjutan.
ke survei tangan dimiliki oleh infeksi di masyarakat. J.E.F.
Jelas dalam kasus terakhir, tidak semua ini akan Ruijis et al. (Jurnal Bedah Tangan 2011;
dilakukan dengan baik, atau pasti. diterbitkan online) berupaya menggunakan
Dengan pemikiran ini, ulasan oleh Watt et al. tes diagnostik vasodilatasi dingin (CIVD)
(dipublikasikan secara online di PRSjournal, Plastic setelah median traumatis atau cedera saraf
Re- constructive Surgery 2010; 126: 288e-350a) ulnaris. CIVD dapat dideteksi dengan
menyarankan agar apa yang harus dapat dilakukan pendinginan yang lama pada suhu rendah.
oleh peserta dalam ulasan ini adalah meliputi: Para penulis menguji 12 pasien, 6 di
antaranya memiliki median dan 6 sisanya
1. Kenali dan rawat infeksi tangan yang umum.
memiliki cedera saraf ulnaris, 4 hingga 76
Saya ingin menambahkan bahwa dokter bedah
bulan setelah perbaikan saraf. Mereka
umum yang menangani infeksi tangan harus
menggunakan lempeng dingin pada suhu 5 °
memiliki gagasan yang baik tentang apa
C dan mengukur suhu kulit jari-jari
kompartemennya dan bagaimana kompartemennya
menggunakan termografi video. Mereka
dapat ditutup oleh berbagai fasia dan tulang.
memplot grafik perubahan suhu dari dasar
2. Tetapkan patofisiologi dan kelola cedera injeksi
kuku. Kehadiran reaksi CIVD didefinisikan
tekanan tinggi dengan tepat. Secara pribadi, saya
sebagai peningkatan minimal suhu 2,5 ° C
hanya memiliki sedikit pengetahuan tentang cedera
256 Bagian II: Keterampilan Bedah Dasar: Teknologi Baru dan Berkembang
17 Bedah Robotik
Santiago Horgan dan Michael F. Sedrak
Gbr. 2. Penempatan Trocar untuk bypass lambung Roux-en-Y yang dibantu robot.
beanbag ditempatkan di bawah pasien anastomosis, tang Cadière melekat pada Tang Cadière melekat pada lengan kanan dan
untuk mendukung posisi Trendelenburg lengan kanan dan dudukan jarum ke pisau bedah harmonik ke lengan kiri.
terbalik yang curam selama operasi. Dosis lengan kiri. Lapisan posterior gastrojejunal Langkah pertama operasi terdiri dari
tunggal antibiotik profilaksis pra operasi anastomosis dilakukan dengan sutra 3-0. melepaskan liga phrenogastrik untuk
(sefalosporin generasi pertama) diberikan. Kemudian, dengan menggunakan listrik, mengekspos crura kiri. Kemudian,
Stoking antiemboli paha panjang dan alat pembukaan 1,5 cm dibuat di jejunum dan ligamentum gastrohepatik dibuka. Lobus
kompresi pneumatik berurutan ditempatkan kantong lambung; untuk pembukaan, kaudat hati, vena cava inferior, dan crura
pada kedua ekstremitas bawah sebelum kauterisasi dihubungkan ke lengan kiri. kanan kemudian diekspos. Setelah
induksi anestesi. Dosis tunggal 5.000 heparin Setelah usus dan perut dibuka, mengidentifikasi struktur-struktur ini dengan
subkutan U diberikan untuk profilaksis anastomosis buatan tangan menggunakan benar, kami membuat terowongan
terhadap trombosis vena. Setelah anestesi robot dimulai. Jahitan yang berjalan retrogastrik menggunakan diseksi tumpul.
umum tercapai, tabung NG ditempatkan di ditempatkan di kanan dan kiri anastomosis Kami memulai diseksi antara tepi crura
perut dan kateter Foley diletakkan pada menggunakan jahitan yang dapat diserap 3- kanan dan dinding posterior lambung, dan
posisinya. 0. Lapisan serosa anterior dari anastomosis dilanjutkan sampai ujung artikulasi
Penempatan trocar untuk bantuan pintas gastrojejunal ditutup menggunakan sutra instrumen robot divisualisasikan di sisi lain
lambung Roux-en-Y yang robotik ditunjukkan 3-0. Setelah anastomosis selesai, gerobak lambung, di sudut perut-Nya. Pada saat ini,
pada Gambar 2. Prosedur ini dimulai dengan bedah robotik dikeluarkan dari sisi pasien. dan menggunakan troli 18-mm, pita
membagi usus kecil ~ 50 cm di bawah sudut Tabung NG diturunkan ke dalam ditempatkan di dalam perut. Setelah ini,
Treitz menggunakan stapler vaskular; mesinasi kantong lambung. Ekstremitas ileum distal ujung tubing ditempatkan di antara rahang
dijepit, dan 60 mL metilen biru forsep Cadière, melekat pada lengan kiri, dan
usus juga dibagi menggunakan stapler diperkenalkan untuk menyingkirkan
vaskular. Setelah membuat anggota tubuh 150 adanya kebocoran. Pasien dianjurkan pita diikatkan di sekitar perut (Gbr. 3). Karena
cm, anastomosis jejunojejunal dilakukan untuk ambulasi pada hari operasi yang ujung instrumen diartikulasikan, maka tidak
menggunakan 2 reload stapler vaskular. sama. Pada hari 1 pasca operasi, pasien perlu menggunakan pelintas pita. Kemudian
Pembukaan usus ditutup menggunakan menjalani gastrografin walet untuk ujung tubing dimasukkan ke dalam band
dudukan ujung jarum dengan jahitan terputus mengevaluasi status gastrojejunal buckle dan dikunci. Dengan band tertutup
dari sutra 3-0. Cacat antara mesenterium anastomosis. Setelah ini, mereka memulai dan dalam posisi, bungkus dibungkus keluar
diet cairan bening. Pada hari ke 2 pasca dari perut untuk mengamankan band di
ditutup menggunakan jahitan sutra 3-0. operasi, jika tidak ada komplikasi yang
Pada saat ini, pasien ditempatkan dalam tempat. Kami menempatkan 3 (atau 4 jika
dialami, mereka dipulangkan ke rumah.
posisi Trendelenburg terbalik; omentum perlu) jahitan seromuskuler yang tidak dapat
dimobilisasi dan dibelah menggunakan pisau diserap selama pembuatan bungkus ini (Gbr.
bedah haronik. Selanjutnya, dimulai pada Banding Lambung yang Dapat 4). Yang pertama ditempatkan di aspek lateral
kurva yang lebih rendah (~ 5 cm dari Disesuaikan dengan Bantuan Robot kiri kantong gas, dan dua lagi ditempatkan di
persimpangan gastroesofageal), terowongan aspek anterior. Setelah band dalam posisi,
retrogastrik dibuat menggunakan pisau bedah Teknik Bedah port kemudian diamankan menggunakan
harmonik. Beberapa penembakan stapler Pasien ditempatkan dalam posisi empat jahitan polypropylene 2-0.
bedah dilakukan untuk membuat kantong litotomi rendah dengan kaki dan
lambung ~ 30-cm3; setelah selesai, bagian tangan terbuka. The (sefalosporin
distal dari ileum diangkat untuk membuat generasi pertama) serta 5.000
gastrojejunostomi. Di kali ini, sistem bedah heparin subkutan U diberikan
robot sisi-pasien keranjang bedah diposisikan. kepada pasien selama induksi
Untuk melakukan gastrojejunal anestesi.
Bab 17: Operasi Robot 259
mulas pasca operasi, dan waktu operasi
setelah kurva pembelajaran awal dari teknik Ini diikuti oleh perluasan miotomi
yang dibantu robot. Studi retrospektif ini jelas minimal 6 cm secara proksimal dan ~ 2
menunjukkan peningkatan keamanan cm distal ke lambung.
teknologi canggih untuk operasi ini. Operasi antireflux yang lebih disukai
adalah fundoplikasi Dor, yang
Teknik Operasi merupakan fundoplikasi 180 derajat
Setelah induksi anestesi enkracheal umum anterior. Fundoplication Dor melibatkan
yang memuaskan, pasien ditempatkan dua baris jahitan, masing-masing terdiri
dalam posisi semilithotomy di atas "bean dari tiga jahitan. Baris pertama jahitan
bag." Penggunaan "bean bag" secara rutin termasuk fundus lambung, crura kiri,
memungkinkan pasien diamankan ke tabel dan sisi kiri myotomy. Baris kedua
ketika tanjakan terbalik Trendelenburg jahitan dibuat dengan menempatkan
dibutuhkan. Stoking kompresi pneumatik jahitan di antara perut dan tepi kanan
ditempatkan di kedua kaki secara rutin, dan myotomy.
dan Berkembang
lanjut 1 minggu setelah operasi, kemudian
laparoskopi, identik untuk setiap prosedur
Gbr. 3. Bandul gastrik yang dapat disesuaikan setiap 3 bulan untuk tahun pertama. Setelah
esofagus lanjutan. Dua trocar 8-mm
dan dibantu robot. (ukuran trocar ini khusus untuk sistem ini, pasien terlihat secara berkala 6 bulan, atau
robot) dan dua trocar 12-mm dimasukkan. sesuai kebutuhan.
Sayatan 0,5 cm dibuat di daerah subxifoid, Selama setiap kunjungan tindak lanjut,
Akalasia dan lobus kiri hati kemudian di-traksi evaluasi gejala rinci dilakukan untuk semua
Miotomi sfingter esofagus bagian bawah, kembali secara anterior menggunakan pasien. Pasca operasi, uji fungsi barium,
atau myotomy Heller, adalah pengobatan retraktor hati Nathanson. Pada titik ini, endoskopi atas, dan esofagus diperintahkan
standar emas untuk akalasia. Perforasi gerobak bedah robot diposisikan, dan sesuai kebutuhan.
mukosa adalah komplikasi paling signifikan lengan melekat pada tiga trocar spesifik.
yang spesifik untuk operasi ini dan Tang Cadière ditempatkan di tangan kiri Fundoplication Lambung dan
digambarkan dengan insidensi 5% hingga dokter bedah, dan kauterisasi artikulasi kait Perbaikan Hernia Paraesophageal
10% dengan pendekatan laposkopik. diperkenalkan dengan tangan kanan. Fundoplikasi lambung berbantuan robot telah
Dengan instrumen presisi dan 3-D yang Pemasangan robot biasanya dilakukan oleh terbukti layak dengan hasil yang sama sebagai
diperbesar, visualisasi HD yang diberikan yang tahan di samping tempat tidur. Asisten pendekatan laparoskopi tradisional.
oleh teknologi bantuan robot yang ahli bedah diposisikan di sisi kiri pasien. Peningkatan utilitas teknologi dicatat dengan
ditingkatkan-komputer, myotomy dapat Selama kasing, asisten bertanggung jawab perbaikan hernia paraesophaal bersamaan,
berhasil dan aman dilakukan dengan atas pemotongan, pengisapan, dan dan dinilai secara eksponensial ketika salah
visualisasi yang ditingkatkan secara pencabutan. Juga, jika perlu, asisten satu dari operasi ini dilakukan dalam
signifikan dari transisi ke mukosa. Dengan mengganti instrumen robot untuk ahli pengaturan operasi ulang karena visualisasi
teknik ini, sebuah studi multi-institusi yang bedah yang beroperasi. Untuk alasan ini, anatomi yang ditingkatkan dengan perbesaran
melibatkan 121 pasien, yang memiliki data pelatihan dasar dalam bedah laparoskopi 3-D yang diperbesar. , Teleskop stereo HD
pra operasi serupa, menunjukkan dan robotika sangat penting. scopic memfasilitasi diseksi halus dengan alat
kemampuan untuk melakukan operasi ini
Pendekatan crura kiri digunakan secara artikulasi yang stabil, sehingga
dengan perforasi 0% pada kelompok
rutin. Diseksi dilanjutkan di mediastinum memungkinkan ahli bedah untuk berhasil dan
miotomi yang dibantu robot dibandingkan
posterior lateral dan anterior untuk aman melakukan upaya ini karena mereka
dengan 16% pada kelompok laparoskopi.
mengekspos sepertiga bawah esofagus. bekerja untuk mengidentifikasi anatomi vital
Semua data operasi dan pasca operasi
Pembuluh lambung pendek kemudian dibagi seperti saraf vagus, aorta, vena cava, pleura,
lainnya yang diukur adalah serupa dalam
dengan hati-hati. Mobilisasi penuh fundus dan perikardium di bidang reoperatif yang
hal menghilangkan gejala, dilakukan dengan membagi adhesi posterior ke sering sulit.
kapsul anterior pankreas dalam upaya untuk
membuat ketegangan fundoplikasi parsial Operasi Kolorektal
bebas. Hanya bagian anterior esofagus yang Pemanfaatan bantuan robot yang ditingkatkan
dibedah, dengan menghormati perlekatan dengan komputer meningkatkan kemampuan
posterior. Liga gastrohepatik dan membran ahli bedah untuk melakukan reseksi rektal
frenoesofageal dibagi. Crura kanan dikenali selama reseksi anterior rendah (LAR) dan reseksi
dan dipisahkan dari kerongkongan oleh diseksi abdomino-perineum (APR). Visualisasi superior
tumpul. Tidak ada diseksi posterior yang yang disediakan oleh 3-D, stereotele HD
dilakukan. Setelah bougie 44-Fr telah memfasilitasi diseksi distal maksimal dengan
dilewatkan melalui mulut, bantalan lemak instrumen artikulasi di batas panggul sementara
dikeluarkan untuk paparan yang lebih baik juga memungkinkan limfadenektomi on-cologic
dari persimpangan gastroesofageal. Cabang dilakukan selama eksisi mesorektal total (TME) )
anterior saraf vagus dimobilisasi dari dinding
esofagus.
Miotomi dimulai tepat di atas
persimpangan gastroesophageal pada
posisi jam 12 menggunakan robot
elektrokauter yang diartikulasikan robot.
Gbr. 4. Jahitan pembungkus pita lambung yang Pesawat submukosa dicapai dalam satu
dapat disetel dengan bantuan robot. langkah.
260 Bagian II: Keterampilan Bedah Dasar: Baru dan Muncul
Technology
sambil menghindari cedera saraf otonom invasi struktur yang berdekatan (mis., saraf Gerobak bedah robotik dibawa ke posisi
selama operasi invasif minimal. Selain itu, laring rekuren, pohon trakeobronkial, aorta, cephalad kepada pasien. Lengan robot melekat
ketangkasan alat memungkinkan untuk atau perikardium) dikeluarkan dari reseksi. pada tiga trocar spesifik (Gbr. 5). Tang Cadière
anastomosis tangan berdasarkan preferensi Sebagai gantinya, pasien-pasien ini diletakkan di tangan kiri ahli bedah. Dengan
ahli bedah. Dengan adanya beberapa kuadran
menawarkan terapi paliasi (mis., Stent yang tangan kanan, dokter bedah memperkenalkan
abinal yang terlibat dalam operasi, karena
kolon desendens dan fleksura lienalis membesar dan terapi kemoradiasi). kauterisasi kait yang terpasang. Pengaturan ro-
dimobilisasi untuk memberikan anastomosis bot biasanya dilakukan oleh asisten di samping
bebas-ketegangan, laporan awal
Teknik Operasi tempat tidur. Asisten ahli bedah diposisikan di
Setelah induksi anestesi endotrakeal
menggambarkan pendekatan laparoskopi sisi kiri pasien.
umum yang memuaskan, pasien ditempatkan
hibrida. Namun, karena teknologi robot telah dalam posisi semiototomi di atas "kantong Diseksi transhiatal pada kerongkongan
membaik, bagian belakang sepenuhnya kiri kacang." Penggunaan "kantong kacang" secara dimulai dan dilanjutkan dalam arah cephalad.
robotik dan kanker dubur telah dijelaskan. teratur memungkinkan pasien diamankan ke Kauterik artikulasi kait dan forceps Cadière
meja ketika perlu membalikkan trendelenburg
Mengingat potensi reseksi onkologis maksimal digunakan untuk diseksi sirkumferensial
yang tajam. Stoking kompresi pneumatik
sambil mempertahankan fungsi otonom ditempatkan di kedua kaki secara rutin, dan esofagus yang tepat, memungkinkan akses
genitourinari selama LAR dan APR, teknik ini kaki ditempatkan di sanggurdi. Tabung mudah ke lubang masuk toraks. Lampiran
tentu dapat dianggap sebagai pendekatan yang orogastrik ditempatkan, yang mengompres
esofagus dan lambung. Antibiotik pra operasi jaringan lunak terbagi secara terus-menerus,
lebih disukai untuk pasien ini.
diberikan kepada pasien. dengan sangat hati-hati untuk menghindari
Trocar 12-mm ditempatkan pada awalnya pembukaan pleura.
BEDAH TORAKS di bawah penglihatan langsung di perut kiri-
Setelah proksimal ke carina, diseksi robotik
tengah dua jari di lateral umbilicus dan satu
lebar telapak lebih rendah dari margin kosta diselesaikan, dan gerobak robot dihilangkan.
Operasi Toraks Non-Kardiak kiri. Port ini digunakan untuk kamera robot. Leher disiapkan dan dibungkus, setelah itu
Dua trocar 8-mm kemudian ditempatkan
Esofagektomi untuk lengan robot: satu di garis midclavicular
dibuat sayatan serviks di sepanjang batas
Esofagektomi transiatal invasif minimal invasif sub-costal kanan dan satu di garis anterior otot sternokleidomastoid kiri.
robot adalah operasi yang jelas-jelas midclavicular subkostal kiri. Insisi subfoidoid Mobilisasi esofagus proksimal sepanjang
memanfaatkan manfaat platform robot yang 5 mm digunakan untuk penempatan retraktor mediastinum selesai.
ditingkatkan dengan komputer. Kemampuan hati Nathanson. Asisten port (10 mm)
peralatan untuk memungkinkan ahli bedah dimasukkan dalam garis aksila anterior kiri 2 Setelah mobilisasi esofagus selesai, lambung
untuk berhasil melakukan operasi mengurangi cm di bawah margin kosta. di tubularisasi sepanjang kelengkungan yang
morbiditas kepada pasien dengan Operasi dimulai dengan menggunakan lebih rendah menggunakan stapler pemotongan
teknik laparoskopi konvensional. Pasien
memungkinkan trans-abdomen, pendekatan ditempatkan dalam posisi Trendelenburg 3,5 mm linear. Saluran lambung kemudian
trans-hiatal, sehingga menghindari sayatan terbalik curam, dan ahli bedah berdiri di ditarik ke atas ke mediastinum dan keluar
toraks. Peralatan memiliki artikulasi dan antara kaki pasien. Asisten pertama berdiri di melalui sayatan serviks. Spesimen diangkat
jangkauan yang cukup, sedang 7,5 cm lebih sebelah kiri pasien.
melalui sayatan leher.
panjang dari alat laparoskopi standar, Crus kiri kiri pertama kali dimobilisasi dari
memungkinkan diseksi yang aman dan membran phrenoesophageal dengan bantuan Kami menggunakan dua teknik berbeda
mobilisasi proksimal di luar tingkat carina. gunting ultrasonik. Setelah ini selesai, diseksi untuk menyelesaikan anastomosis
Selanjutnya, visualisasi stereoskopik yang tumpul dilakukan untuk memisahkan gastroesofageal. Anastomosis staples total
kerongkongan dari crus kiri, sehingga
ditingkatkan juga memfasilitasi diseksi yang meminimalkan risiko perforasi. Pembuluh menggunakan perangkat stapler GIA 3,5 mm
aman dan limfadenektomi onkologis di seluruh lambung pendek ditranseksi menggunakan untuk dinding posterior, dan perangkat TA 55
batas terbatas dari seluruh mediastinum energi ultrafik, mulai dari kutub inferior limpa. untuk penutupan dinding anterior. Atau,
posterior. Anastomosis di leher lebih disukai Selama transeksi pembuluh, perawatan
karena potensi komplikasi kebocoran dapat khusus dilakukan untuk menghindari anastomosis dua lapis yang dijahit tangan dapat
dikelola dengan mudah; Namun, anastomosis kerusakan arteri gastroepiploik kanan karena dilakukan. Saluran tunggal 7-mm ditempatkan
mediastinal secara teknis layak dengan pembuluh ini bertanggung jawab untuk dekat mediastinum segera lateral dan posterior
bantuan robot dan masih memberikan memelihara saluran lambung. Ligamentum
gastrohepatik kemudian dibuka, dan cabang ke anastomosis. Jejunostomi makan
pendekatan invasif minimal yang dapat hati dari saraf vagus ditranseksi. laparoskopi dapat dilakukan saat ini.
mengurangi potensi morbiditas yang terkait Selanjutnya, crus kanan dilepaskan dari
dengan sayatan perut atau dada yang lebar. koneksi menggunakan electrocautery. Jendela Manajemen Pasca Operasi
retro-sophageal dibuat, dan saluran Penrose Pasien dipindahkan ke ICU untuk observasi
Evaluasi Praoperasi lewat dan terpotong di depan. Tiriskan pasca operasi. Ambulasi dini dianjurkan.
digunakan untuk mengelilingi esofagus untuk
Evaluasi pra operasi terdiri dari mengevaluasi manipulasi lebih lanjut sebagaimana diseksi
Kontrol nyeri pasca operasi disediakan oleh
status fungsional pasien dan kemampuan berlanjut. Arteri dan vena lambung kiri analgesia yang dikendalikan pasien. Pada hari
untuk mentoleransi esofagektomi (mis., Fungsi kemudian ditranseksi dengan alat stap linier 1 pasca operasi, pemberian J-tube dimulai.
jantung dan pernapasan). Ini juga terdiri vaskular. Diseksi dilanjutkan terus Studi kontras GI bagian atas dengan kontras
pementasan tumor dengan barium lengkungan yang lebih besar dan juga posterior yang larut dalam air dilakukan pada hari ke-3
esophagram, endoskopi bagian atas dengan lambung untuk memungkinkan mobilisasi pasca operasi untuk mengesampingkan adanya
biopsi, ultrasonografi endoskopi, dan CT-scan yang memadai. Pilorus dibedah dengan hati- kebocoran anastomosis. Diet cairan bening
perut dan dada. Selama skrining pra operasi, hati. Dalam seri saat ini, manuver Kocher dan dimulai jika tidak ada kebocoran pada kontras
pasien dengan penyakit metastasis ke kelenjar pyloroplasty tidak dilakukan dalam 15 kasus
getah bening (mis., Celiac, serviks, atau terakhir.
supraklavikula) atau organ padat (mis., Hati
atau paru-paru), dan mereka dengan
Bab 17: OperasiRobotik 261
belajar. Jika ada kebocoran, saluran di leher
dibiarkan di tempat sampai kebocoran ditutup
secara spontan, dan nutrisi diberikan
sepenuhnya melalui jejunostomi makan.
Mediastinum Anterior
Batas-batas anterior mediastinum
mewakili area anatomi di mana platform
robot yang ditingkatkan-komputer dapat
memungkinkan ahli bedah untuk
melakukan operasi invasif minimal
dengan aman. Visualisasi anatomi
berbahaya ini membutuhkan keuntungan
Reseksi Pulmoner
Lobektomi paru menggunakan bantuan
robotik telah terbukti layak dan telah
memfasilitasi prosedur torakoskopi karena
teknologi ini memungkinkan diseksi invasif
minimal yang ditingkatkan.
OPERASI UROLOGIS
Nefrektomi and Nefrektomi Parsial
Apakah nephrectomy dilakukan untuk
penyakit primer atau untuk pemulihan organ
dalam keadaan nephrectomy donor hidup,
morbiditas yang terkait dengan sayatan lebar
dalam operasi terbuka jelas dikurangi dengan
munculnya teknik laparoskopi pada awal
1990-an. Namun, keterbatasan teknis
membuat diseksi laparoskopi standar hilus
ginjal dalam ruang yang terbatas secara
teknis menuntut, dan visualisasi dan isolasi
ureter juga merupakan tantangan.
Keuntungan dari visualisasi yang lebih baik
dari topografi bedah serta artikulasi seperti
pergelangan tangan dari alat-alat bedah
dalam contoh-contoh ini jelas menunjukkan
manfaat dari teknologi canggih dalam
melakukan operasi dengan gangguan
seminimal mungkin kepada pasien.
Dengan perbaikan seperti itu dalam
peralatan dan teknik, manfaat tambahan
untuk perawatan donor ginjal potensial dapat
berfungsi untuk meyakinkan pasien bahwa
keputusan mereka untuk menawarkan
hadiah organ mereka untuk transplantasi
akan dilakukan dengan gangguan minimal
terhadap kualitas hidup mereka sendiri. .
Gbr. 5. Pemasangan robot untuk operasi esofagus tingkat lanjut.
262 Bagian II: Keterampilan Bedah Dasar: Baru dan Muncul
Technology
Nephron sparing nephrectomy parsial sangat
berguna dalam potensi perawatan berlebih
dengan nephrectomy lengkap dapat dihindari
karena massa ginjal dapat divisualisasikan
baik dengan teleskop bedah dan USG
intraoperatif, memungkinkan eksisi lengkap
lesi dengan margin yang jelas sambil
mempertahankan fungsi ginjal.
Teknik Operasi
Donor Nefroktomi
Setelah pemberian anestesi umum, pasien
ditempatkan pada posisi lateral lateral kanan
dengan titik-titik tekanan terlapisi. Perut
kemudian disiapkan dan dibungkus dengan
cara steril standar. Dimulai dari umbilikus,
insisi infraumbilikus 7 cm dibuat di garis
tengah, kemudian diturunkan melalui fasia
dan masuk ke rongga ab- dominal. Port
bantuan tangan dimasukkan, dan
pneumoperitoneum dicapai dengan 14 mm Hg
karbon dioksida (CO2) inflasi. Dari situs inilah
ginjal donor nantinya akan diekstraksi. Di
bawah visualisasi langsung, trocar 12-mm
ditempatkan di dinding perut lateral kiri; Troli
8-mm ditempatkan di subxifoid dan perut
lateral kiri bawah; dan trocar 12 mm lainnya
ditempatkan di daerah inguinal kiri. Gerobak
sisi pasien bedah robotik kemudian dibawa ke
posisi, dan lengan dihubungkan ke trocar (Gbr.
6).
Usus besar turun bebas dari perlekatan
lateral peritoneum menggunakan elec-
trocautery dan direfleksikan secara medial.
Saluran diidentifikasi selama diseksi sepanjang
psoas, dan dibedah secara bebas melingkar
dalam arah cephalad, dimulai pada tingkat
arteri iliaka umum kiri. Lampiran posterior
ginjal kemudian diturunkan.
Vena gonad diidentifikasi secara medial dan Gbr. 6. Pengaturan ruang operasi untuk donor
diikuti superior sampai persimpangan dengan nephrectomy.
vena ginjal kiri. Vena ginjal kemudian dibedah
bebas, dan anak-anak sungainya (goadal, Setelah penembakan stapler, setelah arteri
Prostatektomi
lumbar, dan vena adrenal kiri) dibagi antara dibagi dan pemaparan yang tepat dari vena Salah satu area pertama di mana manfaat
klip pengunci. Pada titik ini, ginjal ditarik renalis tercapai, stapler pemotong linier telemanipulasi robot yang disempurnakan
kembali secara medial, dan arteri renalis utama laparoskopi digunakan sendirian untuk dengan komputer jelas ditunjukkan adalah
bersama dengan arteri renalis asesoris transeksi vena renalis. Pada titik ini, ginjal kiri dalam penggunaan teknologi untuk
diidentifikasi dan dibedah hingga tingkat lepas dipindahkan melalui sayatan garis tengah karsinoma prostat lokal. Mempertahankan
landas aorta. bawah dan dibawa ke meja belakang di mana manfaat onkologis sambil mempertahankan
Ureter dijepit dua kali secara distal pada ia disiram dengan larutan dingin larutan status fungsional dan kualitas hidup adalah
tingkat arteri iliaka dan ditranseksi dengan University of Wisconsin. Pemeriksaan unggun pertimbangan utama untuk prosedur ini.
tajam. Pada titik ini, heparin intravena (IV) Sebagian besar margin positif terjadi di
ginjal kemudian dilakukan dengan sistem
diberikan dengan dosis 80 U / kg. Arteri renal puncak prostat, di mana bundel
robot untuk memastikan hemostasis neurovaskular berada. Dengan pembesaran
ditransisikan dengan stapler penembakan dan sementara IV protamin dosis yang tepat 3D, pencitraan HD, diseksi sepanjang
endo-TA pertama saat lepas landas dari arteri diberikan. prostat dan mempertahankan fasia prostat,
renalis. Selanjutnya, klip pengunci Setelah evakuasi pneumoperitorinum sambil meminimalkan gangguan pada saraf,
ditempatkan di atas garis staples. Arteri dan pengangkatan trocar, fascia garis tengah dengan kemampuan untuk menggunakan
kemudian dengan tajam dibagi dengan gunting bawah ditutup dengan monofilamen abl alat artikulasi di ruang terbatas
robot yang terletak agak jauh ke garis kawat sorbable nomor 1. Sayatan kulit ditutup memungkinkan kesempatan maksimal
jepit. Kami lebih suka teknik endo-TA ini dengan monofilamen subcuticular 4-0 yang untuk berhasil melakukan operasi
daripada stapler pemotongan karena hanya dapat diserap dan secara rutin diinfiltrasi sementara mencapai tujuan keberhasilan
menembakkan satu garis staples, menawarkan menggunakan bupivakain 0,25% dengan onkologis dan mempertahankan fungsi
panjang arteri tambahan. epinefrin. genitourinari pasien .
Bab 17: Operasi Robotik 263
18 Laparoskopi Diagnostik
Kevin C. Conlon and Paul F. Ridgway
dan Berkembang
Ada banyak teori, dirangkum terbaik oleh penggenggam (termasuk setidaknya dua
karya Ziprin pada tahun 2002, tetapi penggenggam usus atraumatic), dan gunting Pendahuluan
pesannya sama; kondisi spesifik untuk (Gbr. 1). Penggunaan lensa bersudut (30/45 Pneumoperitoneum
lingkungan bedah laparoskopi derajat) diinginkan jika memungkinkan,
Induksi pneumoperitoneum dicapai dengan
meningkatkan penanaman dan kemampuan terutama jika kondisi pelvis atau pendekatan terbuka yang dimodifikasi. Banyak
invasif yang lebih agresif untuk sel-sel gastrointestinal bagian atas (GI) diduga kuat yang telah ditulis tentang keamanan
tumor yang ditumpahkan. Dengan sebelum operasi. Ini memiliki manfaat pemasangan pneumoperitoneum dengan ditutup
demikian, penggunaan laparoskopi pada kemampuan optik yang ditingkatkan tetapi (Veress) atau port optik. Dalam menafsirkan data
terapi reseksi keganasan intraabdomen mengandalkan bantuan kamera yang memiliki ini, harus dipertimbangkan bahwa metode
pantas dilakukan analisis terpisah, dan keterampilan lebih besar daripada dengan induksi pneumoperitoneum harus nyaman bagi
walaupun introduksi sudah penuh, ia cakupan yang lurus. Pelabuhan harus dipilih ahli bedah. Kami berpendapat bahwa teknik
terbuka adalah yang paling aman meskipun
memiliki pelajaran untuk kita semua. tergantung pada kenyamanan dan praktik
teknik kami sedikit berbeda; tidak satu pun dari
masing-masing. Obesitas adalah alasan utama kita
TEKNIK UMUM kami mengubah instrumen diagnostik kami,
mendukung pelabuhan bariatrik yang lebih
Faktor Pasien dan Posisi panjang di mana mandat ketebalan dinding
perut. Ada pengaturan yang sama untuk
Persiapan pasien telah dimodifikasi dari waktu ke proses peradangan perut bagian atas, Monitor
waktu. Pada hari-hari awal, tabung nasogastrik
dan kateter urin wajib untuk laparoskopi
diagnostik. Dalam waktu yang lebih baru, kami
telah meninggalkan semua ini kecuali beberapa
kasus yang dipilih. Kami meminta pasien kami Monitor
untuk membatalkan kandung kemih mereka
begitu petugas tiba untuk membawa pasien ke
ruang operasi. Pengaturan ruang operasi
tergantung pada pertimbangan faktor pasien dan
patologi. Pengaturan dasar kami tetap serupa
untuk penyelidikan sebagian besar nyeri iliac
fossa kanan (RIF) darurat. Pasien berbaring
terlentang di atas kasur busa-gel yang cocok dan
diamankan dengan dua tali meja, satu di tingkat
Equipment
paha tengah dan yang lainnya di dada bagian Surgeon rack
tengah. Jika dicurigai adanya patologi pelvis yang
signifikan atau perlunya reseksi kolon, maka Assistant
pasien ditempatkan pada bean bag dan
diamankan dengan tali dada tengah (ini
memungkinkan lebih banyak fleksibilitas dan
akses ke serviks jika mobilitas diperlukan).
Nurse
Pemilihan Alat
Set laparoskopi dasar termasuk laparoskop
(baik 5 atau 10 mm), kisaran
Surgical
instruments
Umbilicus
Scalpel making
subumbilical skin
B
incision (longitudinal)
A
Gbr. 3. Teknik Modifikasi “Hasson”.
KONTRAINDIKASI
Dalam laparoskopi kontemporer, ada beberapa
kontraindikasi absolut. Umumnya, mereka
pada pasien yang secara medis dianggap tidak
Liver layak untuk anestesi umum atau yang
memiliki diatesis perdarahan yang sedang
berlangsung. Kontraindikasi relatif juga ada
Blunt 10-mm dan muncul dalam setiap keputusan untuk
instrument beroperasi berdasarkan kasus per kasus .
Stomach Ini tercantum dalam Tabel 1. Perlu dicatat
Gbr. 5. Pemeriksaan pada liver. bahwa kekhawatiran sebelumnya bahwa
penciptaan pneumoperitoneum akan
menghasilkan penyebaran penyakit ganas
dalam rongga peritoneum belum
ditanggung oleh pengalaman klinis. Seri
klinis besar telah menyarankan bahwa
kejadian port-situs atau rekursi insisional
mirip dengan operasi terbuka setelah
kurva pembelajaran telah
Liver diperhitungkan.
BUKTI KESIMPULAN
Laparoskopi diagnostik memiliki peran
penting dalam pengelolaan berbagai kondisi
perut akut dan subakut. Ini layak dan aman
pada pasien trauma yang stabil secara
modinamik. Sebagian besar kontraindikasi
sekarang relatif. Laparoskopi dalam
diagnosis dan pengobatan keganasan
sekarang sudah mapan dengan metastasis
port-site jarang terjadi.
Gbr 6. Pemeriksaan lambung menggunakan probe linear array laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS).
Bab 18: Laparoscopi Diagnostik 269
Emerging Technology
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EDITOR’S COMMENT tend to use a left upper quadrant location to place laparoscopy is usually considered a basic proce- the
Veress needle. After drop test and insufflation dure, advanced laparoscopic skills may be neces-
pressures confirm intra-abdominal needle posi- sary if bleeding, perforation, or other complica-
As an early proponent of laparoscopic ultrasonog- tion, I will use an optical trochar. Radial expanding tions are encountered. Even though laparoscopy
raphy and diagnostic laparoscopy for staging of ports do not slip or require a fixation device. is usually safe, if laparotomy is planned, laparos-
malignancy, Professor Conlon is uniquely quali- In general, I will examine the pelvis, midabdo- copy offers little-to-no added benefit.
fied to summarize the indications, contraindica- men, right upper quadrant, and left upper quadrant Diagnostic laparoscopy is contraindicated
tions, and value of diagnostic laparoscopy. His in that order. Adjusting the patient and table posi- in the setting of a frozen pelvis, uncorrected co-
initial studies demonstrated the value of laparo- tions in Trendelenburg and steep reverse Trendelen- agulopathy, inability to tolerate general anesthe-
scopic evaluation prior to pancreatic resection, burg, or “airplaning” the table right and left makes sia, or inability to tolerate laparotomy. Previous
and today laparoscopic evaluation is a common use of gravity to better expose the operative field surgery increases the potential of visceral injury.
practice among hepatobiliary surgeons. from bowel loops. Pelvic structures are best visual- The authors review relative contraindications.
In order for diagnostic laparoscopy to be a ized with the patient in 40-degree Trendelenburg Morbid obesity requires longer instruments,
useful adjunct, surgeons need to develop a sys- (head-down) position. I will consult gynecology and sometimes higher insufflation pressures
tematic approach to ensure a thorough laparo- specialists if an abnormal ovary, fallopian tube, or to maintain an adequate pneumoperitoneum
scopic abdominal exploration. I use a 5-mm lap- uterus is identified at laparoscopy, and will digitally working space. Injury to the gravid uterus or fe-
aroscope, and will increase size and use a 10-mm record all abnormalities. The midabdomen is best tal distress may occur during pregnancy. Vascu-
laparoscope only if I intend a therapeutic inter- seen with the patient flat and in neutral position. lar injury is more likely in the presence of aortic
vention. A second port will facilitate adhesiolysis. The anterior stomach and intestine can be run with or iliac aneurysm. High insufflation pressures
A third port is usually required to retract, extract, blunt graspers. Next, with the patient head-up and may reduce cardiac preload and require abor-
or biopsy tissues. If intraoperative ultrasonogra- rotated to the left, the gallbladder can be inspected. tion of the procedure.
phy is planned, larger ports will be required. Lastly, the left upper quadrant is best seen with the Laparoscopic examination has proven to be
Drs Conlon and Riddway favor an open Hasson patient in reverse Trendelenburg and the table ro- valuable in a variety of clinical settings: acute
technique for abdominal access in order to avoid tated to the right. Laparoscopic examination must abdominal pain, chronic pain syndromes, fo-
bowel injury, vascular injury, bladder perforation, be done systematically or the surgeon may miss cal liver disease, abdominal masses, ascites, and
hematoma, and extraperitoneal insufflation. He abnormalities. retroperitoneal disease. Future applications for
uses the infraumbilical site. Alternatively, he de- Biopsies should be performed for suspicious diagnostic laparoscopy are evolving as surgeons
scribes a closed technique in which he lifts the skin lesions, although all lesions should not be biop- become more experienced with laparoscopy and
with two towel clips and inserts the Veress needle, sied. Biopsy of hepatic hemangiomas, for example, ultrasonography.
again at the umbilicus. A drop test is performed. I can cause brisk hemorrhage. Although diagnostic D.B.J.
Kepala dan Leher III
19 Anatomi Kepala dan Leher
Aaron Ruhalter
bepergian dengan saraf hypoglossal, pro- Akar dan batang ini melewati antara otot- kompas semua otot tali. Lapisan fasia ini
vide persarafan motorik ke otot tirohyoid otot scalene anterior dan tengah. Batang meluas ke lateral ke otot omohyoid dan karena
dan geniohyoid. Cabang dari C4 turun pada bawah disampirkan di atas rusuk pertama itu hanya terkait dengan segitiga otot dan
permukaan anterior otot scalene anterior, di segera posterior ke arteri subklavia (Gbr. 2). subklavia.
dalam fasia pra-vertebral. Ini adalah saraf Vena subklavia, tidak seperti arteri yang Selubung karotid adalah selubung fasia
frenikus dan dapat menerima cabang dari menemani, tidak lewat di antara otot-otot tuba pelindung yang ditemukan antara
C3 dan C5. Ini, pada awalnya, terlihat pada skalen. Ini melewati anterior ke otot scalene pangkal tengkorak dan akar leher. Ini
aspek lateral otot scalene anterior, tetapi anterior. Menutupi latar belakang skeletal dan menerima kontribusi jaringan dari semua
ketika turun ia melewati miring di lapisan neuromuskuler adalah bagian lapisan fasia serviks yang dalam dan
permukaan anterior otot dan mencapai tepi prevertebral dari fasia serviks yang dalam. membungkus saluran pembuluh darah jugular
medial di akar leher. Kemudian melewati Struktur neurovaskular akan menembus fasia dan jugular internal yang umum serta saraf
anterior ke arteri subklavia dan kursus serviks yang dalam dan menyeret sebagian vagus. Setelah percabangan arteri karotis
medial ke arteri mamaria internal sebelum darinya, menciptakan selubung aksila atau umum, cabang karotis interna akan
memasuki thorax. Ini memberikan servicoaxillary. mengambil posisinya dalam selubung. Vena itu
persarafan sensorik dan motorik pada anterolateral ke arteri, kecuali di dasar
diafragma pernapasan (Gbr. 2). Ada tengkorak, di mana vena terletak di posterior
beberapa cabang proprioseptif yang timbul Fascia Leher arteri. Saraf vagus berada di antara, dan
dari pleksus serviks yang berpindah ke otot Fasia serviks terdiri dari lapisan superfisial sedikit di belakang, pembuluh darah. Ansa
sternocleidomastoid dan trapezius. dan dalam. Fasia superfisial tidak cervicalis ada di permukaan anterior selubung
Seperti yang kita lulus inferior di serviks berkembang dengan baik dan tidak mudah dalam bidang krikoid. Rantai simptomatik
Namun, saraf yang sekarang ditemukan. Ini terdiri dari lemak dan bersentuhan dengan permukaan posterior
ditemui akan terdiri atas akar dan batang beberapa jaringan ikat. Otot platysma selubung.
pleksus brakialis. Pleksus brakialis dibuat berada di fasia superfisial. Ia muncul secara
oleh ventral rami C5 hingga T1. Akar ini
akan membentuk tiga batang. C5 dan C6
inferior dari fasia otot pektoralis mayor dan AKAR LEHER
serabutnya menyatu ketika mereka naik ke Akar leher adalah bagian anatomi antara dada,
bergabung untuk membentuk batang atas. insersi mereka di bagian inferior dari daerah
Root C7 akan menjadi trunk tengah, dan leher, dan aksila. Bukaan toraks superior, atau
mandibula. Beberapa serat otot naik dan lubang masuk toraks, dan selubung aksila (atau
root C8 dan T1 akan bergabung dan bercampur dengan otot-otot penekan serviksaksis) menciptakan jalur untuk
membentuk trunk bawah. intrinsik neurovaskular
Bab 19: Anatomi Kepala dan Leher 275
struktur ditemukan di daerah ini. Struktur dapat diwakili oleh beberapa saluran kecil. Ia memanjang di atas tepi superior dari klavikula.
leher juga berkontribusi pada kompleksitas menerima getah bening dari hemithorax Penebalan mirip fasia prevertebralis seperti
anatomi di wilayah penting ini. Lewat antara kanan, ekstremitas kanan atas, dan sisi kanan tenda memanjang dari massa transversal C7
klavikula dan tulang rusuk pertama adalah kepala dan leher. Limfatik dari semua bagian ke tulang rusuk pertama. Ini disebut Sibson,
saraf, arteri, dan vena pada ekstremitas tubuh lainnya diangkut oleh saluran thorax. atau vertebropleural, fasia dan memberikan
atas. Penyempitan kanal costoclavicular ini Rantai simpatik berada dalam kontak dengan perlindungan terhadap pleura ketika sayatan
dapat menyebabkan kompresi struktur kepala tulang rusuk di tingkat ini. Saraf laring dibuat di daerah ini.
neovaskuler ini. Lubang masuk toraks berulang, cabang dari saraf vagus (X), juga Struktur lateral termasuk arteri subklavia
dibuat oleh ujung atas manubrium di medial. Saraf laring rekuren kanan muncul di dan vena subklavia dan cabang-cabangnya,
anterior, tulang rusuk pertama dan tanda akar leher, loop di sekitar arteri subklavia dan cabang saraf dari pleksus serviks dan
kosta kosta lateral, dan vertebra toraks kanan, dan melewati superomedial saat jalan brakialis. Daerah serviks atau apikal paru-
pertama di belakang. Struktur yang menuju alur trakeo-esofagus. Rekannya di paru juga ditemukan di bagian lateral dari akar
melewati area ini berada pada posisi medial sebelah kiri muncul di mediastinum, loop di leher. Tulang rusuk pertama dan otot-otot
atau lateral. Kerongkongan dan trakea sekitar lengkung aorta, dan kemudian naik ke scalene memiliki hubungan spasial yang
bersifat medial saat memasuki leher melalui alur trakeo-esofagal kiri. Saraf penting dengan anatomi di area ini.
mediastinum. Saluran toraks terletak tepat berulang kanan, di akar leher, bergerak Batang brakiosefalika adalah cabang
pertama lengkung aorta (Gbr. 4). Ia melewati
di sebelah kiri, dan posterior ke, esofagus. menuju alur trakeo-esofagus kanan, tetapi superolateral dan bercabang dua di tingkat
Di akar leher, di tingkat C7, saluran mungkin belum mencapai posisi terlindungi ini sendi sternoklavikula kanan ke dalam arteri
melewati lateral. Ini mengarah ke anterior dan karena itu lebih rentan terhadap cedera. karotis dan subkutan kanan kanan. Arteri
vertebra kiri dan arteri tiroid inferior kiri dan Puncak pleura parietal serviks naik karotis umum akan melewati superior di sisi
kanan leher dalam selubung karotis. Ini akan
posterior selubung karotis. Kemudian ke leher tulang rusuk pertama. Ujung dibahas lebih terinci di bab ini. Cabang
perjalanan anterior ke otot skalen anterior. anterior dari tulang rusuk lebih rendah dari lengkung aorta berikutnya adalah arteri karotis
Ini dangkal ke lapisan prevertebral dari fasia ujung poste- rior; oleh karena itu, apeks kiri. Cabang terakhir dari lengkungan aorta
adalah arteri subklavia kiri (Gbr. 4). Otot skalen
serviks yang dalam. Saluran kemudian paru-paru dapat naik dari toraks ke akar anterior membagi arteri subklavia menjadi tiga
turun ke anterior ke arteri subklavia kiri dan leher (Gbr. 3). Kenaikan ini paling ditandai segmen. Bagian pertama memanjang dari asal
berakhir di tepi lateral persimpangan antara selama inspirasi mendalam dan menempati pembuluh ke tepi medial otot skalen anterior.
jugularis internal kiri dan vena subklavia bagian lateral dari lubang toraks superior. Bagian kedua terletak di belakang otot, dan
segmen ketiga berkembang dari tepi lateral otot
kiri (lihat Gambar 5). Bagian dari pleura serviks ini mungkin ke tepi bawah tulang rusuk pertama. Sebagian
Setara dengan saluran toraks pada sisi besar cabang arteri subklavia muncul dari
kanan akar leher disebut saluran limfatik bagian pertama. Cabang pertama dan terbesar
adalah arteri vertebralis. Ini muncul dari tepi
kanan. Ini jauh lebih kecil dan superior pembuluh induk, naik secara vertikal,
dan memasuki foramen dalam massa
transversal vertebra servikal keenam. Vena yang
menemani menutupinya.
Foramen terletak di puncak sebuah
segitiga berotot yang diciptakan oleh otot
longus coli di bagian tengah dan otot sisi
anterior secara lateral. Ini disebut sebagai
Fig. 4. Structures of the Neck-3. Branch of the aortic arch. brachiocephalic vein.
of the thyroid gland. The transverse cervical the internal thoracic or internal
and the suprascapular arteries are branches mammary
of the thyrocervical trunk that run trans-
versely as they head for the lateral aspect of Thoracic duct
the neck. They cross the anterior scalene
muscle and the phrenic nerve, but are su-
perficial to the prevertebral fascia. The
transverse cervical artery will divide into an
ascending and descending branch when it
reaches the margin of the trapezius muscle.
The suprascapular artery will dip down be-
low the clavicle after entering the posterior
triangle, pass inferiorly, and contribute to
the periscapular vasculature.
The next branch originating from the su-
perior aspect of the subclavian artery is the
costocervical trunk (Fig. 4). It may arise External jugular
from the second portion of the subclavian, vein
and is therefore less at risk during surgical Subclavian
procedures. It arches over the cervical vein
pleura and, when it reaches the neck of the
first rib, divides into the deep cervical ar-
tery that passes up and supplies the mus-
cles in the back of the neck and the supreme
intercostal artery that creates the first and
second posterior intercostal arteries. The
first posterior intercostal vein that will
enter the ipsilateral brachiocephalic vein,
accompanies it.
The last branch of the subclavian artery is Internal jugular
Vertebral
vein
vein
Bab 19: Anatomi Kepala dan Leher 277
Di luar hutan anatomi ini terdapat kelenjar ruang ular. Vena berada di bagian tersempit 4. Angiografi karotid: arteri karotis yang umum
timus. Ini terbesar selama masa kanak-kanak, dari ruang ini, dan jika terjadi penyempitan teraba pada triangulasi karotis. Sebagian
dan kemudian mulai mengalami kemunduran tambahan, aliran keluar vena dari ekstremitas tertutup oleh otot sterno-cleidomastoid.
dengan timbulnya pematangan seksual.
atas dapat terganggu. Retraksi lateral otot akan memfasilitasi
Kelenjar dapat memanjang dari tulang rawan
tiroid di atas, ke kantung perikardial di bawah Tulang leher rahim dapat muncul pemasangan kateter ke dalam arteri yang
ini. Oleh karena itu, bagian superiornya adalah dengan beberapa cara. Seringkali bilateral. teraba.
bagian dari bagian tengah, atau anterior, dari Ini adalah perluasan dari massa transversal 5. Kateterisasi vena jugularis interna: vena
akar leher. Kelenjar ini terdiri dari dua lobus vertebra servikal ketujuh dan mungkin jugularis interna menemani pembuluh
asimetris yang terpisah. Kelenjar ini merupakan tulang rusuk lengkap yang karotis interna dan interna. Mereka semua
bersebelahan dengan vena besar yang berartikulasi dengan sternum. Kadang- berbaring di dalam selubung karotis. Vena
sebelumnya dijelaskan. Ini menjelaskan kadang, ia dapat bergabung dengan tulang
mengapa invasi vena sering terlihat dengan
adalah anterolateral dari arteri yang
rusuk pertama atau hadir sebagai pita teraba.
penyakit kelenjar ganas.
berserat yang menempel pada tulang rusuk 6. Vena jugularis dan jugularis interna
Akar pleksus brakialis, C5 hingga T1, akan
membuat tiga batang: batang atas (C5, C6), pertama. Pada beberapa pasien, itu kanan, bersama dengan vena cava
batang tengah (C7), dan batang bawah (C8, T1) mungkin memiliki ujung anterior yang superior, membuat saluran lurus ke
(Gbr. 4). Mereka akan melewati antara otot-otot bebas. Pembuluh subklavia dan pleksus atrium kanan dan vena cava inferior .
scalene anterior dan tengah dalam perjalanan brakialis, terutama batang bawah, akan 7. Pembuluh subklavia dapat mendekati saat
mereka ke aksila. Ini adalah batang bawah terpengaruh secara negatif ketika mereka melewati ruang costoclavicular. Arteri
yang bersentuhan langsung dengan mencoba untuk melewati hambatan dapat diraba dan vena terletak di anterior
permukaan atas tulang rusuk pertama. Itu tambahan ini. dan medialis ke arteri. Vena adalah
terletak segera posterior ke arteri subklavia. struktur yang paling medial melewati
Sindrom kompresi skalen anterior terjadi
Batang melewati segitiga posterior. Setiap interval costoclavicular. Teknik supra-
batang akan membelah menjadi divisi anterior akibat kejang, atau hipertrofi, dari otot skalena
klavikula, atau infraklavikula, dapat
dan posterior. Divisi ini, bersama dengan kapal anterior, dengan konstriksi resisten elemen- digunakan untuk kateterisasi.
subklavia yang menyertainya, kemudian akan elemen neurovaskular ketika mereka melewati
8. Blok pleksus brakialis mendekati
melewati ruang costoclavicular. Vena trias sudut skalena. Jika dokter mengobati saraf ketika mereka melewati ruang
subklavia adalah yang paling cepat dari kondisi ini dengan mentransaksikan otot costoclavicular. Arteri subklavia
struktur yang melewati ruang ini (Gbr. 5). Vena skalen anterior dekat sisipannya, posisi saraf adalah anterior ke cabang-cabang
ini berlawanan dengan arteri subklavia yang frenikus dan vena subklavia, lewat anterior pleksus.
menyertai dan oleh karena itu, dapat didekati otot, harus diingat. Istilah "sindrom kompresi
setelah denyut nadi arteri yang menyertai 9. Pada krikotiroidotomi, bagian dalam
dipalpasi. Akar dan batang pleksus brakialis outlet toraks" sering digunakan ketika laring dimasukkan melalui interval
berada di dalam lapisan prevertebral fasia mendefinisikan beberapa kondisi klinis yang krikotiroid. Arteri krikotiroid, cabang
serviks yang dalam. Ketika mereka menuju ke ditemui di akar leher. Outlet toraks adalah tiroid superior, menembus
aksila, disertai dengan vena subklavia, mereka keliru ketika digunakan untuk ligamentum krikotiroid dekat
pertengahan interval antara krikoid
menyeret beberapa fasia yang dalam ini mengidentifikasi masalah klinis di daerah ini.
SEGITIGA PADA LEHER segitiga meliputi area antara tepi anterior dari
otot sternokleidomastoid. Batas superior
otot digastrik. Tendon penyisipan otot
stylohyoid ke tulang hyoid terbelah dan
Rekreasi lapis demi lapis dari anatomi leher adalah mandibula dan garis yang ditarik dari memungkinkan untuk lewatnya tendon
sekarang membutuhkan penambahan sudut mandibula ke ujung proses mastoid. intermediate dari otot digastrik. Segitiga
selubung karotid dengan isi pembuluh Dua otot perut ganda, omohyoid dan digastrik, anterior meliputi segitiga submandula dan
darah dan cabang-cabangnya, empat saraf membagi segitiga. Perut inferior otot omohyoid karotis. Mereka dipisahkan satu sama lain oleh
kranial terakhir, dan visera leher, yang menempel pada ligamentum skapula median segitiga berotot dan berotot.
meliputi kelenjar tiroid dan paratiroid, transversal superior dan bagian tepi superior Tulang hyoid adalah struktur sentral di
faring, dan laring. Pleksus servikal skapula yang berdekatan. Ia melewati superior leher. Secara langsung atau tidak langsung
superfisial juga akan diuraikan. Jalur ke klavikula dan memasuki bagian bawah tri- melekat pada sebagian besar entitas otot
limfatik serviks kemudian akan dijelaskan, sudut posterior. Tendon antara ada di bidang dan membran pada segitiga anterior dan di
dan akhirnya sirkulasi vena superfisial akan cri-coid, anterior ke selubung karotid, dan dasar mulut. Jika seseorang
diperiksa. Informasi ini disajikan dengan angulasi oleh selempang fasia yang melekat mempertimbangkan tulang hyoid dan perut
diskusi tentang segitiga leher . pada klavikula dan manubrium. Perut superior posterior terpasang dari otot digastrik,
naik ke tulang hyoid. adalah mungkin untuk membagi segitiga
Segitiga posterior sekarang terdiri dari anterior menjadi bagian suprahyoid dan
Anterior and Posterior Triangles segitiga oksipital besar dan subklan kecil. infrahyoid. Segitiga submandibular, atau
Digastric adalah otot double-bellied lainnya digastrik, dan segitiga submental, adalah
Otot sternokleidomastoid dan trapezius
membagi leher menjadi segitiga anterior
yang menciptakan subdivisi dari segitiga entitas suprahyoid dan terkait dengan dasar
dan post-rior (Gambar 6; juga lihat anterior. Perut posterior menempel hanya mulut. Mereka telah dibahas dalam bab
Gambar 13). Batas-batas segitiga medial ke proses mastoid. Tendon antara lain. Segitiga karotis dan berotot ditemukan
posterior adalah otot trapezius di posterior ditambatkan ke tulang hyoid oleh lipatan di bagian frahyoid dari segitiga anterior .
dan otot sterno-cleidomastoid di bagian fasia servikalis yang dalam. Otot stylohyoid
anterior. Sepertiga tengah klavikula muncul dari proses styloid tulang temporal
menciptakan batas inferior, dan puncak dan berhubungan intim dengan permukaan Trias Karotis
segitiga meluas ke garis nuchal superior. anterior dari perut posterior.
Segitiga berbentuk spiral. Bagian inferior Batas otot tri-sudut karotid adalah otot
anterior di leher, tetapi apeks posterior. sternokleidomastoid di posterior, perut
Pada anterior posterior dari otot digital anterosuperior, dan
perut superior dari otot omohyoid anteroin-
feriorly (Gbr. 7). Tanduk yang lebih besar dari
tulang hyoid adalah bagian dari segmen
anterior dan superior dari lantai segitiga ini.
Posterior belly of Otot hyoglossus dan thyrohyoid melekat pada
digastric muscle bagian tulang hyoid ini, dan merupakan bagian
dari bagian anterior dari lantai otot. Sebagian
Stylohyoid kecil dari membran thyiritoid ditemukan tepat
muscle di belakang otot thyrohyoid dan membentuk
sebagian kecil lantai. Otot konstriktor faring
tengah dan inferior menciptakan bagian
Anterior belly of posterior dari lantai otot dari segitiga karotis.
digastric muscle Longus capitis, otot prevertebral, juga
Superior belly of berkontribusi pada bagian posterior dari lantai
omohyoid muscle otot dari segitiga ini. Lapisan pretracheal dari
Trapezius
Sternocleidomastoid fasia serviks yang dalam menciptakan sifat
muscle fasia. Lapisan investasi deep fascia
muscle:
(Muscular head) menciptakan atap fasia.
Inferior belly of (Tendon head) Isi segitiga akan ditentukan Scribed
omohyoid muscle diawali dengan struktur terdalam (Gbr. 8).
Saraf laring superior adalah cabang dari
saraf vagus yang dilepaskan di pangkal
Subclavian tengkorak. Ia bergerak secara inferior,
Triangle dalam kontak dengan konstruktor superior,
menuju jauh ke dalam arteri karotis interna
dan eksterna, lewat di bawah perut posterior
otot digastrik, dan sekarang berada dalam
segitiga karotis. Ketika mencapai otot
konstriktor tengah, ia menciptakan cabang
internal dan eksternal .
Cabang internal memasuki laring setelah
Anterior belly of
segitiga oksipital, dan segitiga yang lebih kecil,
digastric muscle inferior, subklavia. Lantai berotot dari seluruh
segitiga posterior terutama terdiri dari tiga otot
Mylohyoid muscle yang serat-seratnya berjalan secara intolateral.
Mereka adalah, dari atas ke bawah, capitis
splenius, levator scapula, dan otot-otot scalene
Hyoid bone tengah (Gambar 14). Otot skalen anterior tidak
Posterior belly of terlihat pada segitiga poste- rior karena otot
digastric muscle sternokleidoma-toid menutupinya. Di apeks
Omohyoid muscle terlihat beberapa serat yang berorientasi
Thyrohyoid muscle vertikal dari otot semitispialis. Ini, bersama
Sternohyoid
dengan spinalius capitis, diklasifikasikan
muscle sebagai otot punggung.
Sternothyroid Otot-otot lantai ditutupi oleh fasia
Sternocleidomastoid muscle (cut) prevertebral, yang menciptakan karpet
muscle fasia. Ada juga atap fasia, yang dihasilkan
oleh lapisan investasi fasia serviks yang
Trapezius dalam. Isi segitiga akan dijelaskan lapis
muscle demi lapis, dimulai dengan isi yang lebih
dalam yang ditemukan di bawah karpet
fasia yang bersentuhan dengan lantai
berotot (Gbr. 15). Mereka termasuk: (a)
arteri oksip, yang sering keluar dari
segitiga post-at pada apeksnya; (B)
cabang-cabang pleksus serviks yang
mendalam lewat inferolateral pada
permukaan otot levator scapula,
ditakdirkan untuk menyediakan
persarafan ke bagian inferior otot
trapezius; dan (c) bagian dari pleksus
brakialis. Akar pleksus bergabung dalam
ke dalam
Retracting
suture
Fig. 23. Posterior view of pharynx with right portion of constrictor muscle retracted laterally. the lesser horn of the hyoid bone (Fig. 25). It
supports the hyoid, and through the
pleksus faring. Saraf laring superior muncul dari Completion of the Wall of the Pharynx
vagus di dasar tengkorak. Ini menciptakan saraf Ada cacat di dinding faring yang lebih rendah
laring eksternal, yang menginervasi bagian dan lebih rendah dari asal sempit otot
bawah konstriktor inferior, dan otot krikotiroid konstriktor. Ada struktur yang melewati area-
laring. area defisiensi otot ini. Dua lapis fasia
menutup
Thyrohyoid Superior
membrane horn of
thyroid
Superior cartilage
horn of
thyroid
cartilage
Oblique
line
Inferior Arytenoid
horn of Thyroid cartilage
thyroid Inferior
cartilage
cartilage horn of
thyroid
Lamina of cricoid cartilage
cartilage Annulus of Cricoid
cartilage
Cricoid Trachea
Conus Vocal
elasticus ligaments
Cricoid
cartilage
Vocal process
of arytenoid cartilage
Muscular process of
arytenoid cartilage
langsung ke ligamen vokal dan dapat persarafan sensorik ke ruang infraglotis dan union of the posterior auricular vein
menyebabkan kontraksi dan relaksasi bagian trakea. Cabang eksternal saraf laring superior with the posterior division of the ret-
ligamen vokal yang berbeda. Serat khusus ini menginervasi otot krikoroid. Saraf laring romandibular vein. The vein passes in-
dinamai otot vocalis. Otot cricoarytenoid inferior memasok semua otot laring intrinsik ferolaterally, runs obliquely across the
lateral, antara bagian posterior lengkungan lainnya. superficial aspect of the sternocleido-
cricoid dan proses otot arytenoids, adalah Cedera saraf laring kadang-kadang dapat mastoid muscle, pierces the deep cervi- cal
adduktor utama ligamen vokal. Arytenoid terjadi selama operasi tiroid. Pengetahuan fascia in the subclavian division of the
transversal adalah satu-satunya otot laring tentang anatomi akan memungkinkan ahli posterior triangle, and empties into the
yang tidak berpasangan; melintas di antara bedah untuk melakukan prosedur apa pun, di subclavian vein. The great auricular nerve
arytenoid dan menyebabkan penyempitan rima mana saja di dalam tubuh, secara cepat dan (C2, C3) is posterior to this su- perficial
glottidis dan rima vestibuli. Kelompok otot aman. vein in the upper part of the neck.
ketiga bertanggung jawab untuk pelebaran Pembelahan saraf laring superior akan 3. Vena jugularis anterior dimulai pada
bagian leher rahim dan turun secara
ekstremitas atas melalui batang kiri kiri. Ini sebelum memasuki sirkulasi vena. Mereka Healey JE, Hodge J. Surgical Anatomy, 2nd ed.
bermuara ke dalam sistem vena pada aspek sering mengosongkan, sebagai entitas yang Philadelphia: BC Decker; 1990.
lateral persimpangan antara jugularis terpisah, ke kompartemen vaskular. Leeson CR, Leeson TS. Human Structure: A Com-
internal kiri dan vena subklavia kiri. Batang panion to Anatomical Studies. Philadelphia: WB
dapat masuk secara terpisah ke dalam Saunders; 1972.
Thorek P. Anatomy in Surgery. Philadelphia: JB
sirkulasi vena. Di sisi kanan, tidak lazim
batang bronkomediastinal, subklavia, dan
BACAAN YANG DISARANKAN Lippincott; 1951.
vertikal Arnold M. Reconstructive Anatomy: A Method for
the Study of Human Structure. Philadelphia: WB
Saunders; 1968.
EDITOR’S COMMENT those in the ENT field, it does appear as if per- symptom or sign of the presence of that
haps a 95% or 96% rate of success in “curing” tumor.
hypoparathyroidism is the norm. 5. The brachial plexus is formed by the ventral
There is little attention paid nowadays to the rami of C5 through T1. These nerve roots will
neck. It is almost as if general surgeons are ab- In addition, medical schools stopped teach- form three trunks—C5 and C6 form the up-
rogating their responsibility and interest in the ing anatomy. As medical schools became more per trunk, C7 root forms the middle trunk,
neck except in cases of diseases of the thyroid and research oriented, bragging rights was not about and C8 and T1 form the lower trunk. These
parathyroid, and even in those circumstances, in- how well the students were taught but was about pass between the middle and anterior sca-
terest may be waning, or at least the interest of the NIH grants and the total number of NIH dol- lene muscles.
others such as otorhinolaryngologists seems to lars appropriated to that school. In addition, in 6. The lower trunk of the brachial plexus is
have increased. The reason for this is difficult to schools that have not given up anatomy, there draped over the first rib immediately poste-
know. were inappropriate instructors who were utilized rior to the subclavian artery.
to [make] up the funds that were [not] appropri- 7. The fascia of the neck: The superficial fascia,
1. Otorhinolaryngologists were liberated from ated in their NIH grants. A classic example of this which is often is not well developed, forms
the destructive surgery, for example, in mas- is to have acute abdomen taught by internists the platysma, which may or may not be very
toids and with otitis media, with the advent who were not called to the emergency room robust; the cervical branch of the facial nerve
of effective antibiotics. In addition, pharyn- to see patients with acute abdomen. In many enervates the platysma, which contributes to
geal neck abscesses from various colds and schools, surgeons are no longer asked to teach facial expression.
infections also vanished from the scene the acute abdomen. It is also now thought that 8. The cutaneous branches and the superficial
with effective antibiotics. Thus, they tried to medical students can learn in a truncated gen- veins are below the muscles of facial expres-
reinvent themselves in the same area in eral surgery rotation, which is now increasingly sion, which are the platysma.
which they were trained, but in which much shared with other surgical specialties, such as 9. Deep cervical fascia: The superficial or invest-
of the destructive surgery based on infectious ophthalmology, in the time frame which in the ing layer of the deep cervical fascia splits to
disease was not cared for with antibiotics. past was solely utilized by general surgery. I am surround the trapezius and the sternocleido-
In those cases, they turned, as well as oth- not criticizing ophthalmology in this statement, mastoid muscle and the submandibular and
ers, from destructive surgery to constructive but I am just pointing out that those surgical spe- parotid glands.
surgery. cialties have now lost their own space to surgery 10. The carotid sheath, which is part of the
2. The rise of oral surgery. Oral surgery emerged time. deep cervical fascia, surrounds the com-
One appreciable thing about this chapter is
(continued)
296 Part III: The Head and Neck
16. Sibson’s fascia is at the apex of the lung and neck—muscular and membranous—attach strap muscles, at times with a bulge in the
runs between C7 and the first rib. It is some- to the hyoid bone. If one considers the hyoid lower neck.
what protective of the apex of the lung. bone and the attached posterior belly of 27. When one enters the cleavage between the
17. The inferior thyroid artery is superficial to the digastic muscle, it is possible to divide sternothyroid muscle and the thyroid gland,
the prevertebral fascia. It courses posterior the anterior triangle into suprahyoid and in- this provides excellent exposure of and facili-
to the carotid sheath and anterior to the ver- frahyoid portions. tates surgical approach to the gland, which
tebral artery. 23. The vagus nerve is behind and slightly pos- is avascular.
18. The last branch given off by the subclavian terior to the carotid and internal jugular 28. The long thoracic nerve originates from C5,
artery, as it goes from medial to lateral, is vessels. C6, and C7 and courses inferiorly, passing to
the internal mammary, which then travels 24. The posterior belly of the digastic muscle is the other portions of the brachial plexus, and
behind the sternum and attaches to the ster- superficial to the neurovascular structures then passing over the first rib to reach the
num medial to the ribs. and presses them against the pharyngeal superficial surface of the serratus ventralis,
19. The anatomy of the root-of-the-neck com- wall. Therefore, owing to this structure, inci- which it innervates.
pression syndromes includes the following: sions can be made without the risk of injur- 29. Dissection on the posterior triangle is safe
(a) Costoclavicular compression syndrome. ing the nerves or arteries. in the area superior to the spinal accessory
(b) Cervical-rib compression syndrome. 25. The intermediate tendon of the omohyoid nerve.
(c) Anterior scalene compression syndrome between the two bellies is in the cricoid plane 30. A good landmark for the upper thyroid glands
(thoracic-outlet syndrome). with a number of other venous and tendinous is that they are usually at the level of the thy-
(d) Pectoralis minor syndrome. structures. roid cartilage.
26. The transection of the strap muscles closer 31. If there is a high origin of the recurrent laryn-
The following are the clinical anatomic appli- to the superior end will preserve the ner- geal nerve, it may not be in the tracheoesoph-
cations which are practical in the surgery of this vous innervation, since the nerve enters the ageal groove and it is called a nonrecurring
area. muscle near the inferior end. Most individu- nerve. Obviously, if there is a high origin, it is
20. Cervical incisions should be made parallel to als who divide the strap muscles to get at more exposed and not protected by not being
the skin lines for good cosmesis. the thyroid do so at the interior end. Per- in the tracheoesophageal groove.
21. Control of bleeding may be possible, if the sonally, I have never been taught that one
divides the strap muscles at the superior The neck is a very hostile place from the
common carotid artery is compressed against standpoint of anatomy. We are very privileged
the transverse mass of the sixth cervical ver- end because the nerve enters inferiorly, but
it is something good to remember, because to have an anatomist of Professor Ruhalter’s skill
tebra, which is the cricoid plane. and knowledge to keep us out of trouble.
22. The hyoid bone is the central structure of one of the cosmetic difficulties following
thyroid surgery is the denervation of the J.E.F.
the neck. Most of the structures of the
Submental triangle
Submandibular gland INDICATIONS FOR
with extension
Submandibular triangle
Fig. 1. The submental triangle is bounded by the mandible, mylohyoid muscle (cut edge shown here), SURGERY
and superiorly by the oral mucosa. The most common indications for removal of
the submandibular gland are suspicion of
neoplasm and chronic obstruction of
Prior to the specific examination of the evaluation of calculi along Wharton’s duct in Wharton’s duct by calculi with resultant
submandibular triangle, a thorough head and cases of sialadenitis. sialadenitis. Neoplasms of the sublingual gland
neck examination, including inspection of the The utility of fine-needle aspirate biopsy are rare, with most sublingual gland excisions
upper aerodigestive tract and the skin of the head (FNAB), often performed in conjunction with being performed for ranulas.
and neck, is mandatory. Cervical palpation an ultrasound, is controversial. While an FNAB
should be performed to identify any associated may provide a preliminary diagno- sis, some
lymphadenopathy or masses in other levels of the may argue that surgical removal will be Neoplasm
neck. Bimanual palpa- tion is a useful diagnostic necessary regardless. However, if the FNAB The incidence of salivary gland tumors in the
maneuver to eval- uate the floor of mouth or reveals a salivary gland malignancy, the surgical general population is 2.5 per 100,000,
submandibular triangle, performed with one approach should include a com- plete representing 0.3% of all cancers and 1% to 3%
finger palpat- ing intra-orally and the other hand submandibular triangle dissection at of all head and neck tumors. There are various
assessing the mass from the neck. The mass minimum, and may also require a compre- neoplasms that may involve the sub- mandibular
should be evaluated for qualities such as hensive neck dissection. Further, the patient may and sublingual glands; subman- dibular and
tenderness, mobility, whether it feels cystic or need to be counseled on the role of hy- poglossal sublingual salivary gland neo- plasms represent
rekurensi yang tertunda atau metastasis jauh; Trauma yang terisolasi pada tri-sudut dengan pijatan kelenjar. Sialadenitis
39% harapan hidup 10 tahun diharapkan. Ada submandibular yang memerlukan intervensi berulang berulang dengan batu dapat
tiga variasi histologis: cribriform, tubular, dan diobati dengan lithotripsy, sialoendoskopi
solid; varietas padat membawa prognosis yang
bedah jarang terjadi, dan biasanya melibatkan dengan pengambilan keranjang dari batu,
lebih buruk. Penyakit ini dikaitkan dengan gangguan neurovaskular yang disebabkan oleh atau eksisi kelenjar submandibular.
tingkat kekambuhan lokal yang tinggi, dan benda tajam. Struktur pembuluh darah yang Penyebab lain sialadenitis termasuk
metastasis jauh-paling umum, paru terjadi pada beresiko paling besar untuk cedera semacam obstruksi neoplastik dan stenosis duktus.
~ 50% pasien. Pasien-pasien ini memiliki masa itu adalah pembuluh-pembuluh wajah. Saraf Yang terakhir dapat diatasi menggunakan
hidup rata-rata 3,5 tahun setelah identifikasi yang terancam bahaya adalah cabang
penyakit yang jauh.
sialendoskopi dengan sinuplasti atau dengan
mandibula marginal dari saraf wajah, saraf
Karsinoma mucoepidermoid adalah tumor pengangkatan kelenjar sub-mandibula.
lingual, dan saraf hipoglosus. Pendarahan dari
ganas paling umum kedua, terdiri dari 17% arteri wajah kadang-kadang bisa begitu cepat
dari semua keganasan submandibular. Secara untuk menunjukkan cedera arteri karotis. Ranula
histologis, ini terdiri dari unsur-unsur mukoid Identifikasi sumber untuk perdarahan sangat
dan epitel; semakin tinggi jumlah komponen penting dan paling baik diperoleh dengan Istilah ranula berasal dari kata Latin untuk
epitel, semakin tinggi derajat tumor. Tumor eksplorasi lengkap segitiga. Pengangkatan katak, dinamakan demikian karena
kelenjar submandibular dan identifikasi perut penampilan pasien dengan ranula yang terjun.
tingkat rendah memiliki prognosis yang baik Ranula sederhana dapat berupa kista
(71% kelangsungan hidup 5 tahun); tumor posterior otot digastrik sangat memudahkan penolakan lendir atau pseudokista dari
tingkat tinggi lebih agresif dan dikaitkan hal ini. Kontrol proksimal dari arteri wajah ekstrasifikasi lendir yang terbatas pada dasar
dengan prognosis yang lebih buruk. Yang dapat dilakukan dengan membedah hanya mulut. Ranula yang jatuh adalah pseudokista
terakhir ini biasanya membutuhkan radiasi dalam dan lebih rendah dari perut positif dari ekstravasasi yang timbul dari kelenjar
otot digastrik.. sublingual yang memanjang ke leher, baik
pasca operasi. Ada kontroversi mengenai hasil melalui dehiscence otot untuk bundel
pasien dengan tumor tingkat menengah, Dengan eksplorasi apa pun, semua saraf
kranial neurovaskular otot mylohyoid atau di sekitar
tetapi data yang muncul menunjukkan bahwa batas posterior otot mylohyoid. Ini biasanya
harus diidentifikasi dan dinilai integritasnya. muncul sebagai pembengkakan leher yang
pasien ini memiliki hasil yang
Cabang mandibula marginal dari saraf wajah lunak dan kistik. Jika ada bagian dari ranula
menguntungkan yang memperkirakan terletak di sepanjang tepi inferior ramus yang dicurigai solid untuk palpasi,
mereka dengan tumor tingkat rendah. horizontal mandibula di dalam fasia yang kemungkinan neoplasma harus tetap dalam
Adenokarsinoma menyumbang 11% dari mengelilingi arteri dan vena wajah. Saraf diagnosis banding. Juga, meskipun jarang,
keganasan kelenjar sub-mandibula. Pola histologis lingual terletak lebih rendah dari mandibula malformasi limfatik harus tetap dalam
meliputi papiler, asinus, dan padat; jumlah elemen dan dalam ke otot mylohyoid; paling mudah diagnosis diferensial, terutama pada anak-
glandular menentukan grade. Tumor ini agresif diidentifikasi dengan retraksi anterior dari anak.
dan cenderung kambuh; histologi menengah dan batas posterior otot mylohyoid. Saraf Drainase kista, baik secara spontan atau
tingkat tinggi biasanya menunjukkan perlunya hipoglosus juga harus diidentifikasi dengan dengan aspirasi, biasanya menyebabkan
radioterapi pasca operasi. retraksi anterior otot milohyoid, karena kekambuhan. Pengamatan tepat jika ranula kecil
Squamous cell carcinoma terdiri 9% dari terletak jauh ke bidang saraf lingual dan dan tidak mengganggu fungsi lidah.
keganasan kelenjar submandibular. Diagnosis duktus submandibular, dan biasanya diapit Marsupialisasi dari kista menghasilkan tingkat
banding harus mencakup karsinoma oleh vena. Dengan mengidentifikasi saraf- rekurensi 50%. Perawatan yang paling pasti dari
mucoepidermoid derajat tinggi, meta- tase, dan saraf ini proksimal atau distal dari cedera dan ranula adalah eksisi kelenjar sub-bahasa dengan
penyebaran yang berdekatan. Ada prognosis diseksi sepanjang perjalanannya, tingkat pseudokista; ini mengurangi tingkat perulangan
yang sangat buruk (ketahanan hidup 5 tahun hingga <2%. Sebagian besar ranula kecil dapat
24%) terkait dengan penyakit ini dan gangguan potensial dapat dipastikan dan
langkah-langkah yang tepat diambil untuk dieksisi dengan kelenjar sublingual secara
radioterapi pascaoperasi umumnya transalis, dengan hati-hati mengidentifikasi dan
diindikasikan.. memperbaikinya, jika perlu. Di hadapan
edema, hematoma, atau perdarahan, menjaga saraf lingual. Pendekatan untuk
Malignant mixed tumor umumnya hadir
identifikasi ini bisa sulit dan memakan waktu. neoplasma kelenjar sublingual yang
sebagai massa yang tumbuh perlahan
Jika hanya ada dugaan cedera saraf sebelum mencurigakan untuk kanker harus dilakukan
yang memiliki peningkatan ukuran
operasi, lebih baik untuk menunda prosedur secara transcervial dengan menarik kembali otot
secara tiba-tiba, dan menyumbang 9%
dan melakukan eksplorasi di kemudian hari, mylohyoid sebagai alternatif untuk prosedur yang
dari semua keganasan submandibular.
Komponen ganas dari tumor dapat lebih disukai dalam 7 sampai 14 hari.. lebih pasti..
berupa karsinoma yang tidak
berdiferensiasi, adenokarsinoma, atau SUBMANDIBULAR TRIANGLE
karsinoma sel skuamosa. Diperkirakan Sialadenitis DISSECTION
56% kelangsungan hidup 5 tahun dan
31% kelangsungan hidup 10 tahun. Massa submandibular atau sublingual paling
Undifferentiated carcinoma terdiri dari
sering adalah sialadenitis yang disebabkan Lateral Transcervical Approach
oleh sialolithia. Delapan puluh persen dan 1%
<5% dari keganasan submandibular. Secara kalkulus saliva terjadi di kelenjar Ini dilakukan melalui sayatan melengkung dari
histologis, ini adalah tumor sel kecil yang submandibular dan kelenjar sub-lingual, hyoid lateral ke batas anterior otot
dapat menunjukkan diferensiasi masing-masing. Satu batu adalah penyebab sternocleidomastoid, sekitar tiga sidik jari di
neuroendokrin. Ada insiden yang meningkat pada 75% kasus. Jika kalkulus dapat diraba bawah batas bawah ramus horizontal
sepanjang saluran Wharton secara intra-oral, mandibula (Gbr. 3). Dokter bedah harus
pada Greenlandic Eski-mos, yang dikaitkan
sayatan dapat dibuat tepat di atas batu untuk menentukan apakah kedalamannya
dengan virus Epstein-Barr. Tumor ini sangat
agresif, ditandai oleh invasi lokal yang
melepaskannya. Manajemen medis meliputi
pemijatan kelenjar, sialogogues, dan hidrasi;
signifikan, metastasis jauh awal, dan tingkat
kelangsungan hidup yang rendah.
Chapter 20: Surgery of the Submandibular and Sublingual Salivary Glands 299
saraf ini, meskipun minimal, tidak diragukan
lagi akan menghasilkan beberapa kelemahan
sudut ipsilateral mulut. Oleh karena itu,
semua pasien harus diberitahu tentang ini
sebelum operasi. Pada kebanyakan pasien,
kelemahan ini bersifat sementara.
Setelah saraf ditarik keluar dari jalan yang
berbahaya dan kelenjar getah bening arteri
wajah ditarik kembali dengan inferior,
pembuluh darah wajah dapat diikat. Jika
massa difiksasi ke periosumum pada batas
bawah mandibula, ini harus dimasukkan
dengan spesimen sebagai margin onkologis
(Gbr. 6). Jika massa tidak melekat pada
periosteum, bidang diseksi harus
dikembangkan di sepanjang tepi inferior bebas
ramus manula dari garis tengah menjadi hanya
posterior ke sudut mandibula. Diseksi
kemudian dilanjutkan, menyapu paket
kelenjar getah bening fibrofatty dengan
inferior. Ini memperlihatkan perut anterior otot
digastrik dan saraf yang memasok otot
mylohyoid. Yang terakhir harus dibagi untuk
melepaskan kelenjar posterior. Jika massa
ganas, pemeriksaan patologis saraf ini
mungkin diperlukan, terutama jika massa
Incision for submandibular triangle dissection adalah karsinoma kistik adenoid; penting
Extension for combined neck dissection (Schobinger) untuk mengetahui apakah saraf ini telah
diserang karena ia menentukan perilaku dan
Fig. 3. Incision site for a submandibular triangle dissection and extension for combined neck dissection. luasnya
memungkinkan kelenjar getah bening arteri disease, and may determine whether the
sayatan harus dalam ke otot platysma atau wajah yang berdekatan, yang terletak lebih
dangkal (Gbr. 4); ini penting jika prosedur patient requires postoperative radiation.
tinggi dari saraf karena merambat di lateral Dokter bedah sekarang dapat melanjutkan
dilakukan untuk massa yang dekat dengan ramus mandibula, harus diangkat dengan dengan membedah paket kelenjar getah bening
kulit sehingga memasukkan platysma dalam massa sambil menjaga saraf (Gbr. 6). Prosedur fibrofatty inferior-posterior, mengekspos perut
reseksi memberikan margin onkologis. Dalam pengikatan arteri wajah dan vena di batas anterior otot digastrik. Setelah ini selesai, perut
bawah mandibula dan memantulkannya anterior otot digastrik dapat ditarik kembali
kebanyakan kasus, flap ditinggikan dalam secara medial. Semua jaringan nodal dan
bidang subplatysmal (Gbr. 5). secara superior (Hayes Martin manuver)
adiposa dikeluarkan dari dalam ke otot ini ke
Fig. 5. Skin flap raised superiorly in a subplatysmal plane. Other Transcervical Approaches
otot ke submukosa dari dasar mulut, saluran harus dibedah di sepanjang perut posterior dari Dua pendekatan transcervical lainnya telah
Wharton harus dihilangkan secara keseluruhan otot digastrik, berlanjut secara positif sampai dijelaskan: submental dan retroaurikular. Tidak
dengan bagian dari lantai sekitarnya dari mukosa satu pun dari ini cocok untuk diseksi segitiga
vena wajah bertemu melintasi otot ini, di mana ia submandibular lengkap dan harus dicadangkan
mulut (Gbr. 8) sebagai margin onkologis.
harus diregangkan. Karena sisa paket kelenjar untuk kasus di mana patologi dikonfirmasi
Sekarang setelah lampiran ke kelenjar getah bening fibrofatty dibedah bebas di sebelum operasi menjadi jinak, hanya
submanulular telah dilepaskan ke anterior dan sepanjang bidang yang dalam, perlekatan yang membutuhkan pengangkatan kelenjar sub-
superior, kelenjar dapat ditarik kembali ke tersisa harus menjadi arteri wajah, karena mandibula. Pembaca harus mencatat bahwa ini
posterior dan inferior. Jika massa tidak melekat melintasi jauh ke perut posterior otot digastrik adalah pendekatan yang tidak standar.
pada fasia yang berada di atas saraf hipoglosur (Gbr. 7). Ini harus diikat dengan setidaknya satu
dan pleksus vena yang terkait, bidang diseksi Pendekatan submental terjadi melalui sayatan
cm manset untuk mencegah retraksi di bawah horizontal garis tengah yang ditentukan oleh
sangat mudah dibuat dangkal untuk struktur ini otot, sehingga melepaskan isi dari segitiga lipatan submental-serviks, biasanya pada tingkat
sehingga seluruh kelenjar dengan kelenjar submandibular. hyoid. Proses diseksi posterolateral dalam bidang
preglandular dan postglandular dapat diangkat. Indikasi lengkap untuk diseksi leher subplatysmal sampai kelenjar ditemukan. Itu
Dengan evolusi ini, aspek inferior dari segitiga terkait dan perawatan ajuvan berada di luar dibedah tanpa ikatan dengan lampiran fasia, dan
pembuluh darah wajah diikat. Terakhir, lampiran
cakupan bab ini. Secara singkat,
ganglion dan duktus submandibular terbagi,
Marginal branch of 7th cranial nerve with facial
Parotid gland vessels and lymph node(s)
Pendekatan retroauricular terjadi melalui
sayatan yang ditempatkan di bagian bawah
sulkus postauricular, terus posterior sepanjang
garis rambut, seperti pada sayatan facelift.
Diseksi, yang dapat luas, berlanjut di bidang
superfisial ke fasia otot sternokleidomastoid,
menjaga agar vena jugularis eksterna dan saraf
aurikularis yang lebih besar, berlanjut secara
anterior pada bidang subplatysmal. Pemusnahan
kelenjar kemudian berlanjut ke arah posterior ke
anterior.
Transoral Approach
Submandibular
gland As with the submental and retroauricular
approaches, this nonstandard approach is only
indicated in confirmed benign dis-
ease, as it only allows for extirpation of the
submandibular gland and not the entire
contents of the submandibular triangle.
Fig. 6. Marginal branch of the facial nerve and its relationship with the facial vessels. Note also the lymph nodes
in the area of the marginal branch of the facial nerve and underneath the mandible on top of the mylohyoid muscle.
Chapter 20: Surgery of the Submandibular and Sublingual Salivary Glands 301
untuk pengiriman ke luka menggunakan tekanan
transcervical lembut. Saraf hipoglosus
Submandibular gland diidentifikasi dan dipertahankan. Pembuluh
wajah kemudian dibagi, memungkinkan
Nerve to mylohyoid muscle pengangkatan kelenjar.
and anterior belly of
digastric muscle
Endoscopic Approaches
Seperti dengan pendekatan non-standar yang
dijelaskan sebelumnya, pendekatan endoskopi
tidak boleh dilakukan ketika reseksi onkologis
diindikasikan. Pendekatan yang dibantu oleh
Anterior belly of endoskopi telah dideskripsikan untuk
digastric muscle pendekatan tranoral dan submental,
memungkinkan pemusnahan kelenjar
Mylohyoid muscle submandula dengan sukses melalui sayatan
12th cranial nerve
yang lebih kecil. Pendekatan endoskopi yang
lengkap hanya dijelaskan dalam model hewan .
Duktus Wharton terhadap trigonum retromolar, tidak ada penyakit residual dengan palpasi atau
Komplikasi yang terkait dengan prosedur ini menyisakan satu manset mukosa antara insisi dan gambar, maka tidak ada yang bisa diperoleh
termasuk sensasi lidah abnormal pada 43% gingiva untuk membatasi kontraktur pasca operasi. dengan operasi lebih lanjut dan radiasi pasca
hingga 74% dan pembatasan gerakan lidah Saraf lingual diidentifikasi dan ganglion operasi diindikasikan. Namun, jika terdapat
karena kontraktur parut hingga 10%.%. submandibular dan perlekatan saluran dibagi. penyakit residual bruto, baik secara klinis
Secara singkat, sayatan dibuat di lantai Kelenjar ini dibedah bebas dari ikatan fasia, maupun radiologis, pembedahan revisi
mukosa mulut dari papilla memungkinkan diperlukan, tetapi sarat dengan masalah potensial
dan pasien harus dinasihati dengan tepat. Tidak
hanya struktur kritis yang beresiko lebih besar
untuk cedera, tetapi sering kali, luasnya prosedur
Cohen EG, Patel SG, Lin O, et al. Fine-needle as- Koch M, Zenk J, Henrich I. Algorithms for treat- Schobinger R. The use of a long anterior skin flap
piration biopsy of salivary gland lesions in a ment of salivary gland obstructions. Otolaryn- in radical neck dissections. Ann Surg 1957;
selected patient population. Arch Otolaryngol gol Clin N Am 2009;42:1173–92. 146:221.
Head Neck Surg 2004;130:773. McGurk M, Brown J. Alternatives for the treat- Solomon MP, Rosen Y, Gardner B. Metastatic ma-
Gold DR, Annino DJ. Management of the neck in ment of salivary duct obstruction. Otolaryngol lignancy in the submandibular gland. Oral Surg
salivary gland carcinoma. Otolaryngol Clin N Am Clin N Am 2009;42:1073–85. Oral Med Oral Pathol 1975;39:469.
2005;38:99–105. Parekh D, Stewart M, Joseph C, et al. Plunging Spiro RH, Hadju SI, Strong EW. Tumors of the sub-
Hockstein NG, Samadi DS, Gendron K, et al. Pedi- ranula: a report of three cases and a review of mandibular gland. Am J Surg 1976;132:463.
atric submandibular triangle masses: a fifteen- the literature. Br J Surg 1987;74:304–9. Weber RS, Byers RM, Petit B, et al. Submandibu-
year experience. Head Neck 2004;26:675. Rice DH. Noninflammatory, non-neoplastic disor- lar gland tumors: adverse histologic factors
Ichimura K, Nibu K, Tanaka T. Nerve paralysis ders of the salivary glands. Otolaryngol Clin N and therapeutic implications. Arch Otolaryngol
after surgery in the submandibular triangle: Am 1999;42:835–42. Head Neck Surg 1990;116:1055–60.
review of the University of Tokyo Hospital ex-
perience. Head Neck 1997;19:48.
EDITOR’S COMMENT intensity-modulated radiotherapy achieved good metic result for the treatment of benign disease local
control in a 2.5-year-follow-up period and is improved by avoiding a cutaneous incision. was
well tolerated. The use of chemotherapy Bhatt reported on 18 patients without conversion
Although the operations described in this chap- should probably be reserved for patients with to incisional surgery. Although a majority of the ter
are not commonly performed by general particularly poor prognostic indicators (Int J Rad patient’s experienced at least transient limita-
surgeons, it is essential that the general surgeon Oncol Biol Phys 2010 [Epub ahead of print]). Noh tions in tongue movement postoperatively, there
competently evaluate lesions of the head and published a series of 94 patients with salivary were no facial or hypoglossal nerve injuries in
neck when asked to perform consultations for gland tumors treated with or without postopera- the series (Laryngoscope 2010;120(Suppl 4):S143).
“lymph node biopsy.” The consultant needs a tive radiation. They found that very early stage As the surgical robot continues to search for its
working knowledge of the alternative diagnoses tumors could be treated successfully with surgery ultimate place in the surgical world, (if any), we
and conditions that may be present. In addition, alone without additional risk of recurrence (Clin should not be surprised by reports of its use in
understanding the operative approach for these Exp Otorhinolaryngol 2010;3(2):96–101). head and neck surgery of this type (Laryngoscope
lesions will prevent counterproductive incisions Resection of salivary glands is not without 2010 [Epub ahead of print]). It will be difficult to
that could negatively impact the patient’s out- consequence. Removal of the submandibular assess the cost efficiency of this approach.
come. Fine needle aspiration should be employed glands potentially leads to the added compli- The authors state that the most common op-
liberally in the event of an uncertain diagnosis. cation of xerostomia. Although some authors eration on the sublingular glands is for ranula.
Ashraf reported high sensitivity and specific- postulate that compensatory increased flow They note correctly that drainage and marsu-
ity when benign lesions were sampled; however, from the remaining salivary glands ensues post- pialization are associated with high incidence
only intermediate sensitivity and specificity ma- operatively, recent detailed experimental data of recurrence and definitive excision is the best
lignancies were evaluated using this technique by Jaguar suggests that this is not the case (Oral long-term therapy. Plunging ranula result in cer-
(Diagn Cytopathol 2010;38(7):499–504). Oncol 2010;46(5):349–54 [Epub 2010 Mar 15]). vical swelling and may be approached from cervi-
As the authors note in this chapter, neoplasm Frey’s syndrome which is gustatory sweating, cal or intraoral approaches. Samant describes the
and chronic obstruction of Warthen’s duct by cal- more commonly occurs after parotidectomy, results of 95 patients treated for plunging ranula
culi leading to sialadenitis are the most common but can also occur after submandibular gland using a transoral technique. They experienced
indications for removal of the submandibular resection. one recurrence and only minor complications
gland. The presence of ranula is the most com- The treatment of submandibular gland duct (Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2011 [Epub ahead of
mon indication for sublingual gland excision. obstruction varies with the extent of disease, in- print]). Patel compared the results of transoral
The authors describe the submandibular cidence of recurrence, and size of the calculi as versus cervical approaches for the treatment of
triangle dissection in detail. Reports in the noted by the authors. A recent series by Nahliei ranula. Their results demonstrate a much higher
otolaryngology literature describing the use of describes combining miniature lithotripsy with complication rate associated with cervical ap-
advanced energy devices to facilitate dissection the endoscopic techniques to clear advanced proaches (Laryngoscope 2009;119(8):1501–509).
are now emerging (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg cases of sialolithiasis with <95% success rate, Ranula in children requires some unique consid-
2005;132(3):487–89). Excellent hemostasis in a thus preserving the salivary gland. Extremely erations. This lesion seems to occur more often
variety of head and neck procedures has been small endoscopes, ranging from 0.5 to 1.1 mm, in females and on the left side of the floor of the
recently described (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg are employed for duct cannulation ( J Oral Max- mouth. Traditional recommendations suggest a 5
2005;133(5):725–28). Minimally invasive tech- illofac Surg 2010;68(2):347–53). Luer studied the to 6 month period of observation after presenta-
niques for benign tumors such as using a com- learning curve associated with performing this tion and prior to surgical treatment in order to de-
bination of a hairline incision and video con- small duct endoscopy. He noted performance termine whether or not spontaneous resolution
trolled surgery in order to improve cosmesis improvements after the first 10 cases and then may ensue. Bonet-Coloma reported on 57 cases
have been described by Song for benign lesions, again after doing approximately 30 cases (Arch of pediatric ranula. They treated their patients
such as pleomorphic adenoma, of the sub- Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2010;136(8):762–65). primarily with epithelial disruption or marsupi-
mandibular gland (Laryngoscope 2010;120(5): Escudier prospectively studied 142 patients with alization; however, they observed a <12% recur-
970–74). either submandibular or parotid calculi who rence rate (Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2011;16 In
general, submandibular gland tumors are were treated by various regimens of extracorpo- (2):e158–62). Seo et al. reported no instance of
uncommon. Shoenfeld et al reported on a series real shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL). They found spontaneous resolution in 17 pediatric patients
of 35 patients’ salivary gland malignancy treated success was greater in the parotid group and was observed for 5 to 14 months. All were treated with
by surgery and radiation therapy with and with- inversely proportional to the size of the stone complete excision without recurrence. These
out adjuvant chemotherapy. The most common when ESWL was employed alone in patients who findings suggest that shorter period of observa-
tumors were adenoid cystic carcinoma in 43% are otherwise surgical candidates. tion may be sufficient prior to complete excision
and mucoepidermoid carcinoma in 17% of the The authors correctly note that transoral ap- as definitive therapy (Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryn-
patients. They concluded that when combined proaches to the submandibular gland should be gol 2010;74(2):202–5).
with surgical extirpation and neck dissection, avoided in cases of potential malignancy. The cos- J.E.F.
Chapter 21: Anatomy and Surgery of the Parotid Gland 303
Gbr. 1. Kelenjar parotis dan saraf wajah. Perhatikan bahwa saraf keluar dari foramen stylomastoid lateral
untuk proses styloid. Juga, perhatikan hubungan cabang saraf dengan struktur di sekitarnya.
304 Part III: The Head and Neck
Penelitian terbaru menunjukkan toksin tidak menunjukkan perbedaan dalam defisit Pengumpulan seroma di dalam luka di bawah
botulinum A efektif dalam menghentikan gejala dan pemulihan dari waktu ke waktu. Secara flap kulit. Penatalaksanaan meliputi aspirasi
yang berkaitan dengan obat topikal. Gangguan umum, defisit sensorik ini menurun selama berulang, penempatan drainase, pembalut
bedah dari serat sekretori dapat dilakukan periode pasca operasi, terutama antara 6 dan bertekanan, dan antikolinergik oral untuk
dengan neurektomi timpani jika tidak ada 12 bulan. Dari pasien yang melaporkan gejala, mengurangi aliran yang bervariasi selama
tindakan lain yang berhasil . 77% memiliki sedikit masalah yang proses penyembuhan.
disebabkan oleh gejala dan 90% tidak atau
hampir tidak memiliki gangguan dalam
Kelainan Sensorik kegiatan sehari-hari karena gejala mereka. BACAAN YANG DISARANKAN
Meskipun banyak pasien mengalami defisit Eisele DW, Wang SJ, Orloff LA. Electrophysiologic
Saraf aurikular yang lebih besar sering sensorik, tampaknya kualitas hidup secara facial nerve monitoring during parotidectomy.
dikorbankan selama parotidektomi keseluruhan tidak dipengaruhi oleh Head Neck 2010;32(3):399–405.
untuk memobilisasi ekor parotid dari pembelahan saraf aurikular yang lebih besar Heller KS, Dubner S, Chess Q, et al. Value of fine needle
sternokleidomastoid. Pasien mengalami
selama parotidektomi.. aspiration biopsy of salivary gland masses in clini-
defisit sensorik pada distribusi
cal decision-making. Am J Surg 1992;164(6):667–70.
dermatomal yang meliputi sepertiga
bagian bawah telinga eksternal
Mehle ME. Facial nerve morbidity following parotid
termasuk lobulus dan sekitar kulit pre Fistula dan Seroma Saliva surgery for benign disease: the Cleveland Clinic
dan postauricular. Studi Foundation experience. Laryngoscope 1993;
Fistula dan seroma saliva adalah kejadian yang 103:386–8.
membandingkan pasien dengan
pengorbanan saraf versus hemat saraf tidak biasa dengan penggunaan drainase Patel N, Har-El G, Rosenfeld R. Quality of life after great
selama parotidektomi pasca operasi yang tepat. Paling umum itu auricular nerve sacrifice during parotidectomy.
hadir dengan sialore yang jelas dari luka atau Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2001;127:884–8.
EDITOR’S COMMENT of the facial nerve, which is most at risk. There is the position of the facial nerve in anterograde also
a cervical branch off the facial nerve, which parotidectomy. They believe that there are four
enervates the platysma as is indicated in another landmarks that can be used to point to where the
The parotid gland occupies a major part of the commentary, and injury to this small branch may facial nerve will travel. They studied 26 embalmed
cheek and contributes much of the bulk of the be manifested in paralysis facial expression. Thus, cadavers using four of the most commonly used
cheek on either side. It is a salivary gland which a misadventure in the facial nerve and damage to surgical landmarks of where the facial nerve is,
exists in two lobes. Our interest in it is because the facial nerve when doing a parotid dissection particularly between the bony and cartilaginous of
the occasional parotitis or stones in Stensen’s may result in a very significant cosmetic damage ear canal and the tympanomastoid suture. As they duct,
which may actually be a significant infection in the expression of the face. The nerve plane as Dr. say, the main trunk of the facial nerve was found and
with neoplastic lesions, many of which are be- Ruhalter says is deep to the venous plane, which is 5.5 ± 2.1 mm from the posterior belly of the digas- nign.
This chapter is also in this book because gen- superficial to the arterial plane, as shown in Figure tric muscle. Another landmark included the tragal eral
surgeons get to deal with this in their everyday 3. In Figure 4, the nerve plane is clearly shown. pointer, the junction between the bony and car- surgical
practice in the areas in which there are Much of what is currently being described in tilaginous ear canal. I am not certain that these not a great
many otorhinolaryngologists who have the literature really is about the anatomy of the landmarks are very helpful because in the paper a significant
portion of the surgery for neoplastic parotid gland and related structures for successful they not only draw them on four bony landmarks, disease. In Dr.
Ruhalter’s nice chapter on anatomy, parotid surgery. There are various types of paroti- as shown in Figure 2 in a cadaver head, but also one can see from
Figure 2 the superficial area of dectomies. The most common procedures are for a they are not very clear in the other photographs of the parotid lesion.
Note that there is an external neoplasm of the parotid gland or metastases to the the dissection or where the nerve is supposed to jugular vein which
comes up off of the internal parotid lymph node, for example, in melanoma of be. I suspect it is really easier to learn the anatomy jugular vein and
heads down slightly posteriorly in the scalp (Leverstein H, et al. British Journal of Sur- rather than depend on bony landmarks.
the neck. The parotid gland extends to right below gery 1997;84:399–403; Superficial Parotidectomy Finally, Eisele et al. suggest that facial nerve
the ear and to below the mandible or at least the as in O’Brien CJ, Head and Neck 2003;25:946–52 monitoring might be helpful during parotidectomy tip
of it is below the mandible. The critical issue and Lai SY, et al. Parotidectomy in the treatment to prevent facial nerve injury. They point out that about
operating on the parotid gland is the fa- of aggressive cutaneous malignancies. Archives of temporary facial nerve dysfunction occurs in 20% cial nerve,
which actually splits it into a superfi- Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery to 40% of the patients undergoing parotidectomy, cial lobe and
a deep lobe. The facial nerve, which 2002;128:521–6). In this paper, Figure 3 demon- whereas this only permanently occurs in 0% to 4% is the seventh
cranial nerve, exits from the skull strates a left parotid neoplasm and Figure 4 a of the patients. Parotid nerve monitoring, however, through the
stylomastoid foramen. At this point, modified Blair incision coming down anterior to is also useful in any possible litigation, which may it is usually in
association with the stylomastoid the ear and then curving around underneath the occur, and that is the reason enough to learn how branch at the
posterior auricular artery, which en- mandible in order to take out the parotid. The fig- to do it. Basically, this is carried out by electrically ters the cavity
and should not be interrupted since ures, which are intended to show parotid surgery, evoked facial nerve responses during electrophysi- it supplies the
mucosa of the tympanic cavity, the are unfortunately not figures but poor photographs ological facial nerve stimulation with a close nerve mastoid cells,
and the semicircular canals. The ar- and they do not have line drawing with them so monitoring. Facial nerve injury may of course result tery is usually
superficial to the facial nerve and that I do not believe that they are very helpful. from overstimulation that may occur from a long the only reason
I bother to point this out is that Tahwinder et al. (European Archives of Oto- stimulation. However, with a direct current nerve the facial nerve is
the critical aspect of surgery rhinolaryngology 2010;267:793–800) deal with the stimulator,which is battery powered, thisis unlikely. on the parotid gland.
The facial nerve, as I said rhytidectomy incision which has been used to ap- Like any type of mechanical or electrical stimulator, earlier, comes out of the
stylomastoid foramen proach the gland and showing that it goes around overstimulation or mis-stimulation may result in and then courses between
the superficial and the the ear and directly posteriorly as a retrotragal injury as well, and here we are dealing with the face, deep lobe of the parotid
gland. The five branches skin incision. It also enters the scalp anterior to anda profoundinfluence in facial expression.
of the facial nerve take different courses between the top of the tragus. Again, in the photographic One other thing about after parotidectomy,
the superficial and deep lobe of the facial nerve pictures in cadaveric dissections it looks like you have the facial nerve which is exposed and
between the superficial and deep lobes of the pa- it gives very complete exposure, but it looks to in the chapter they make suggestions as far as the
rotid gland and they break up into the auricular me like the incision that is here is considerably material that may be used to overlay the nerve
temporal nerve and the temporal branch of the greater than that seen in Figure 5, which looks after superficial parotidectomy. This barrier to ir-
facial nerve, which course superiorly the zygo- like it is in a living human being. ritation may result in a lesser incidence of Frey’s
matic branch of the facial nerve, which usually is Rea et al. (Annals of Anatomy 2010;192:27–32) syndrome, which may occur if the nerve is rela- also
out of harm’s way for the most part, and then deal with trying to provide some landmarks, which tively exposed without any covering, except a thin the
two branches at risk, the buccal branch of the the authors claim, in addition to intraoperative flap of skin and a subcutaneous tissue.
facial nerve and the marginal mandibular branch facial nerve monitoring, will help to determine J.E.F.
Chapter 22: Anatomy of the Parotid Gland, Submandibular Triangle, and Floor of the Mouth 307
Hubungan Neurovaskular
Struktur neurovaskular melewati parenkim
kelenjar dan dapat dengan mudah
digambarkan dalam lapisan atau bidang. Dari
dalam hingga dangkal ditemukan lapisan
artial, vena, dan saraf .
Bidang Arteri
Lapisan arterial meliputi arteri rotariid
eksterna, yang memasuki ruang parotis
setelah lewat dalam ke perut posterior otot
digastrik (Gbr. 3). Pada titik ini arteri karotis
eksternal memunculkan arteri aurikularis
posterior, yang mengeluarkan cabang
stylohyoid yang memasuki foramen styloma-
toid. Pembuluh darah ini biasanya dangkal
ke batang saraf wajah karena keluar dari
tengkorak dengan cara yang sama.
Kemudian arteri aurikularis posterior
Fig. 1. Parotid bed.
308 Part III: The Head and Neck
Bidang Vena
Pesawat vena superfisialis dengan bidang
artial (Gbr. 3). Ini termasuk vena
retromanular dan cabang-cabangnya. Vena
retro mandibula dibuat oleh penyatuan vena
temporal dan maksilaris superfisialis. Vena
maksila dibentuk oleh penyatuan vena yang
merupakan bagian dari pleksus vena besar
yang mengelilingi otot pterigoid lateral.
Pleksus vena ini berkomunikasi dengan
vena-vena wajah serta dengan sinus rongga
di dalam tengkorak. Vena parotis juga
berkomunikasi dengan pleksus vena
pterigoid. Pleksus vena pterigoid ini pada
gilirannya merupakan jalur potensial untuk
penyebaran infeksi kulit superfisial ke sinus
kavernosa. Ini adalah kondisi yang
berpotensi mematikan
Bidang Saraf
Bidang saraf dibuat oleh saraf wajah dan
cabangnya (Gbr. 4). Saraf wajah (saraf kranial
ketujuh) keluar dari tengkorak melalui
foramen stylomastoid. Pada titik ini ditemukan
dengan cabang stilomastoid arteri aurikularis
posterior, yang memasuki foramen dan
memasok mukosa rongga timpani, sel mastoid,
dan kanal setengah lingkaran.
Arteri biasanya dangkal ke saraf wajah. Setelah lobus dalam (endofasial). Banyak Ini terkait dengan vena jugularis eksternal dan
muncul dari foramen, dua cabang timbul dari komunikasi ditemukan di antara cabang- berpindah ke nodus supraklavikula pada
Saraf melewati ke jaringan subkutan Batas Otot Saraf yang terakhir ini adalah cabang dari
superfisial ke kelenjar, memberikan persarafan divisi posterior dari saraf mandibula .
sensorik ke kulit di atasnya kelenjar parotis. Batas otot dari segitiga submanulular adalah
Sisa wajah menerima persarafan sensoriknya perut posterior dari otot digastrik dan Dasar Otot
hanya dari saraf trigeminal. Vena terlihat stylohyoid di posterior, dan perut anterior dari Lantai otot dari tri-sudut submandibular
muncul dari substansi kelenjar. otot digastrik di anterior (Gambar 5). Margin terdiri dari empat otot (Gbr. 5). Arah serat otot
Arteri karotis eksternal berhubungan inferior dari tubuh mandibula menciptakan dari masing-masing otot adalah karakteristik
dengan batas medial ruang parotis. Arteri batas superior untuk area segitiga ini. Otot dan memungkinkan untuk pengenalan batas
karotis interna sedikit lebih dalam. Kedua digastik menempel posterosuperior ke proses antara otot tetangga. Otot-otot ini tidak terletak
Vessel seharusnya tidak bingung. Kita mastoid tulang temporal, posterior otot pada bidang yang sama. Otot-otot anterior
harus ingat bahwa arteri kobalid internal stylohyoid, yang muncul dari permukaan lebih dangkal daripada yang posterior, yang
tidak memiliki cabang di leher. Memisahkan posterolateral proses styloid. Kedua otot menciptakan pola seperti langkah ke lantai
arteri karotis eksternal dari arteri karotis dengan cepat saling mendekati dan tetap berotot dari segitiga submandibular ini.
interna adalah proses styloid atau dalam kontak langsung ke daerah tulang Melewati dari anterior ke posterior, seseorang
ligamentum stylohyoid, otot hyoid, di mana tendon antara dari otot perut bertemu dengan mylohyoid dan kemudian
stylopharyngeus, dan saraf glossofaringeal . ganda ini ditemukan. Tendon ini melewati split musik hyoglossus. Bagian inferior dari otot
Otot stylohyoid dan perut posterior dari otot pada tendon penyisipan otot stylohyoid. pembatas superior dan bagian superior dari
digastrik berbeda pada titik-titik perlekatan Tendon antara terikat ke tulang hyoid oleh otot pembatas tengah melengkapi lantai dari
pada tengkorak. Batang utama saraf wajah penebalan fasia. Perut anterior kemudian lewat segitiga submandibular.
melewati interval ini. superomedial dan berakhir dengan melekat Otot mylohyoid (Gbr. 6) adalah
Pada persimpangan dari bagian kartilago pada aspek internal mandibula di dekat garis paling anterior dan dangkal otot-otot
dan bagian osseus dari saluran pendengaran, tengah. Otot digastrik mengangkat tulang menciptakan dasar mulut. Ini muncul
terdapat proyeksi ke bawah kartilago yang hyoid dan membantu depresi mandibula. Perut dari aspek bagian dalam mandibula, dan
menunjuk ke batang utama saraf wajah. posterior otot digastrik dan stylohyoid kedua bagian melewati secara inferomedi
Ketika vena jugularis eksternal ditelusuri dipersarafi oleh saraf wajah, dan perut anterior di mana sebagian besar serat
secara superior ke struktur induknya, vena otot digastrik dipersarafi oleh cabang saraf dimasukkan ke dalam garis serat berserat
mandibula, itu mengarah ke interval antara mylohyoid dari saraf alveolar inferior. garis tengah memanjang dari bagian
lobus superfisial dan dalam dari kelenjar
tengah mandibula ke pusat tubuh tulang
parotis. Ini juga merupakan cara untuk
hyoid. Semakin banyak serat posterior
menemukan cabang serviks atau mandibula
disisipkan ke dalam tubuh tulang hyoid.
dari saraf wajah, karena mereka melewati
Dua bagian otot membuat lantai untuk
permukaan ke vena.
rongga mulut. Otot mylohyoid
Cabang stylomastoid arteri aurikularis
posterior memasuki folikel stylomastoid dan
dangkal pada batang saraf wajah..
Vena jugularis interna mungkin
bersentuhan dengan permukaan dalam
kelenjar.
ANATOMY OF THE
SUPRAHYOID PORTION OF
THE ANTERIOR TRIANGLE
Perut posterior otot digastrik dan tulang
hyoid membagi segitiga anterior leher
menjadi daerah suprahyoid dan infrahyoid.
Segitiga submandibular dan submental
memiliki posisi suprahyoid, dan dijelaskan
dalam bab ini.
ANATOMY OF THE
SUBMANDIBULAR
TRIANGLE
Segitiga submandibular adalah bagian dari
segitiga anterior leher dan posisi suprahyoid.
Kadang-kadang disebut sebagai segitiga
digastrik atau submaksila
Struktur Neurovaskular
Struktur yang dangkal ke kelenjar sub-
mandibula termasuk cabang serviks dari saraf
wajah dan ujung distal vena wajah anterior dan
Lingual nerve cabang anterior vena retromandibular (wajah
posterior) (Gambar 7). Vena-vena ini bersatu
dalam jaringan-jaringan yang menutupi
segitiga submandibular, menciptakan vena
wajah yang umum, yang lewat di inferior
menjadi kosong ke dalam vena jugularis
Inferior
alveolar
interna. Kadang-kadang, cabang mandibula
nerve dari saraf wajah turun di bawah tepi inferior
mandibula dan dapat terluka ketika sayatan
Hypoglossal nerve dibuat di daerah ini .
Struktur dalam segitiga submandibular yang
ditemukan antara kelenjar submandibular dan
otot mylohyoid termasuk bagian wajah dan saraf
Mylohyoid nerve
mylohyoid serta pembuluh darah. Arteri wajah
adalah yang paling superior dari pembuluh yang
muncul dari anteromedial sur-
Sublingual gland
Lingual artery
SUGGESTED READINGS
Lingual veins
Arnold M. Reconstructive Anatomy, 1st ed. Phila-
delphia: WB Saunders; 1968.
Delmas A. Atlas Aide-memoire d’Anatomie (Rou-
viere). Paris: Masson; 1991.
Hollinshead WH. Anatomy for Surgeons, 2nd ed.
New York: Harper & Row; 1971.
Fig. 9. Submandibular triangle and floor of the mouth (deep structures).
EDITOR’S COMMENT have led to tremendous differences in approach. of up to 80%. Shock-wave lithotripsy represents a
Interventional sialography and other radiologi- therapeutic alternative of the first choice in the
cally controlled methods such as ultrasound- parotid gland and the fragments may be extracted
This is not an area in which general surgeons have guided techniques and sialendoscopy all have in an endoscopically controlled manner.
a great deal of experience. Even theparotid gland been developed lately and make the therapy of in- Stones are difficult to feel manually. I recently
which does appear every now and then in a busy flammation of the gland a much more direct and had a patient who had a neck procedure elsewhere
surgical practice yields little familiarity to the av- informed concept than just taking the gland out. and developed pain in her neck and it appeared as
erage general surgeon. This may be different in the If there is direct visualization of the findings with- she pointed to the right side of the neck that she
case of the rural general surgeon in which setting out the use on contrast material and with lack of probably did have a sialadenitis of the submandib-
there is probably no ear, nose and throat surgeon exposure to radiation, there is a high success rate. ular gland with a sympathetic adenopathy going
and the area of tenderness may be beyond the There are other gland preserving techniques such down the entire right neck. I had started her on
expertise of the general practitioner or the fam- as transoral duct slitting or transcutaneous stone antibiotics prior to seeing her because that what it
ily physician. While the general surgeon may have retrieval which likely will not be utilized by the sounded like and indeed she told me that an ENT
some familiarity with parotid disease in this case average general surgeon. In this nicely authored person she had seen years ago that she had stones
the most important aspect is to know the differ- article there is an algorithm for the treatment of in her duct. I could not feel it nor could I milk any-
ence between a parotitis and some type of tumor, various diseases of the salivary glands starting thing out through the bottom of the mouth but I
many of which are benign, in the case of the sub- with the necessity of oral therapeutic diagnostic am certain that’s what she had. It subsided.
mandibular gland and the submaxillary gland examination which include, as mentioned earlier, In the parotid gland which is not the subject
there is even less familiarity with inflammation. ultrasound and sialendoscopy. Ultrasound en- of this particular exposition the 25% of all stones
The most common malady that the general ables the presumptive diagnosis to make quickly, have an intraparenchymal location and therefore
surgeon is called upon to treat is a chronic sialad- safely and cost effectively and in the hands of ex- are more difficult to deal with.
enitis. It’s commonly associated with an acute perienced people with great precision. Endoscopy Stenoses are another major cause of symp-
chronic inflammation and an obstruction of the serves as a direct determination of the obstruc- tomatic sialadenitis and may be seen by endos-
excretory duct. But the differentiation between tion. Endoscopy controlled treatment such as in- copy. However some stenoses may be multiple,
chronic sialadenitis and obstruction of the excre- terventional sialendoscopy also is a boon to non- they may be in difficult locations, they may be tory
duct is difficult even the bestof circumstances. destructive operations on the salivary glands. long and the tissue of the stenosis may be fi- Stones
are responsible for about 60–70% and may Less than 5 mm stones and mobile stones brotic. Sialendoscopy has the advantage of a
occasionally be palpated, stenosis in 15–25%, and located in the main excretory ducts and possi- direct assessment and does allow an inflamma-
inflammation of the duct alone in about 5–10%. bly even as far as the first and second branching tory stenosis to be differentiated from a fibrous
Anatomic variations or foreign bodies (the latter ducts may be successful in the hands of the skilled stenosis. The major of the inflammatory stenoses
difficult to comprehend) are only about 1–3%. In endoscopist of which most general surgeon will may be treated non-operatively with irrigation the
past as Koch M, et al. (Otolaryngology Clinics not be. The stones may be fragmented during in- and intraductal steroid placement. In regard to of
North America 2009;42:1173–1192) point out tervention and the fragments then retrieved by the submandibular gland, symptom free steno- the
operative removal of the gland was recom- endoscopically controlled means. Micro-instru- sis, especially if one can recognize atrophy of the mended
as the therapeutic method of choice after ments also exist but probably will require a spe- gland require no or exclusively conservative form
unsuccessful non-operative treatment. As with cialist. Radiologically controlled or fluoroscopic of treatment. The basic treatment rule applies for
many other things, minimally invasive techniques methods can be preformed with a success rate symptomatic stenosis, as inflammatory stenoses
Chapter 23: Lip Reconstruction 315
are treated primarily non-operative whereas fi- Ranulas, so named for frogs, may be the result Finally Yu C, et al. Journal of Oral and Maxillo-
brous stenoses are operated on. This is an exten- of inspissated mucus and may not be an indica- facial Surgery 2010; 68:1770–1775 writing from the
sive paper and the detail that is contained in it is tion of malignancy or a situation which requires Shanghai 9th People’s Hospital at Shanghai Univer-
beyond the scope of what I wish to impart but it excision of the duct or the gland. Should such sity report on endoscopy observation and manage-
is readable and informative and the practitioner excision be required however Kauffman RM, ment of obstructing submandibular sialadenitis.
who deals with these may want to avail them- et al., Laryngoscopoe 2009;119:502–507 propose 128 cases, a very substantial number, were identi-
selves of the wisdom in this particular paper. a transoral surgical approach to excising the fied endoscopically and radiographically. They had
Beahm, David D, et al. (International Journal submandibular gland. They describe relevant three types of sialoliths in 114 or 89%, mucus plugs
of Surgery 2009;7:503–509) reviewed the surgical anatomy and what to avoid. They describe nine in 8 (6%) and stenosis in 5% (6). 47 were removed
approaches to the submandibular gland. Surgi- patients in which this approach was attempted successfully for a success rate of 92% of 51 obstruc-
cal incision of the submandibular gland is com- over the past ten years. Of the nine patients who tions treated surgically. Of 63 patients treated us-
monly indicated in patients with neoplasm or oc- underwent attempted transoral submandibu- ing interventional sialendoscopy, 52 were removed
casional with chronic sialadenitis and ranula and lar gland excision, eight operations were com- with a success rate of 83%. The remaining unsuc-
drooling. In the past, traditional SMG surgery has pleted transorally and only one operation was cessful cases were treated endoscopically or surgi-
involved a direct transcervical approach while aborted and converted to a standard external cally. Obstructive symptoms were relieved in 12 of
more recently alternative approaches through approach because of severe scarring. Six of the 14 patients without stones using dilation and ir-
the submandibular gland excision have been de- nine patients had chronic sialadenitis and three rigation under sialendoscopy. Of the 114 patients
scribed to avoid scarring and to offer minimally had obstructing sialoliths. Three other patients with a stone, the sialoliths of 67 (59%) in the distal
invasive options with better cosmetic results. presented with other benign cystic lesions con- region behind the first molar. It stands to reason
In this paper the authors utilize dissection of sistent with a ranula, an infected mucocele, and that their conclusion that the more posterior the
cadavers which were dissection via both the a cystic teratoma. The only complication with a stone the more difficult it was to remove and that
transcervical and transoral approaches together patient with incisional breakdown and delayed was correct. Three patients with treatment failure
with the use of endoscopic assistance when indi- healing because of a prior irradiated field. The underwent resection of the gland. A basin-like
cated. The authors conclude that while tradition lingual nerve, or hypoglossal nerves, were spared structure in the hilus region was found in 67%. In
submandibular gland excision (nobody seems to and there were no hemostatic complications. The 5 patients a fishbone was found surrounded by a
both much with the submaxillary gland) a direct authors conclude that this option actually is safe sialolith. The authors conclude that this is a rela-
transcervical approach is what is preferred. The and there are no external scars. Obviously some tively new technique and is sparing of the subman-
modes of excision include open, endoscopic and skill and association with a thorough knowledge of dibular gland and holds great promise. I agree.
robotic-assisted dissections. anatomy is useful. J.E.F.
23 Rekonstruksi Bibir
Bernard T. Lee and Samuel J. Lin
adynamic transfer berikut; Selain itu, revisi karsinoma, yang mempengaruhi bibir bawah
sekunder mungkin diperlukan karena efek hidung. Perbatasan vermilion-cutaneous lebih dominan. Tumor paling umum pada bibir
“bantalan pin” dari berbagai tingkat jaringan memiliki gulungan putih yang dapat dengan atas adalah karsinoma sel basal. Eksisi
asli versus flap. Rekonstruksi commissure mudah dilihat di haluan Cupid. Vermilion lengkap tumor dengan margin yang jelas
membutuhkan penataan jaringan lokal dipisahkan menjadi permukaan kering dan diperlukan sebelum rekonstruksi yang
khusus yang berada di luar lingkup bab ini basah; vermilion kering merupakan warna kompleks; Bedah mikrografi Mohs lebih
(mis., Z-plasties, V-Y advance flaps). merah dari bibir luar dan permukaan basah disukai di banyak pusat untuk mencapai
Kontraktur luka dapat menciptakan adalah batas mukosa tempat kontak bibir atas kontrol lokal.
distorsi lebih lanjut setelah rekonstruksi dan dan bawah. Rekonstruksi bibir setelah trauma paling
menyebabkan hasil fungsional dan estetika Anatomi otot terutama terdiri dari otot elips sering terlihat setelah gigitan anjing. Cedera ini
yang buruk. Bekas luka parut bermasalah dan orbicularis oris, yang melingkari bibir sebagai seringkali kompleks dan tebal penuh. Dalam
bahkan dengan perencanaan lokasi bekas luka sfingter. Otot memiliki delapan segmen, pengaturan bagian komposit yang besar,
yang ideal dapat mengompromikan hasil yang masing-masing dalam distribusi berbentuk replantasi mikro diindikasikan jika pembuluh
sangat baik dari waktu ke waktu. Mikrostomia kipas dari modiolus. Di bibir atas, otot labial dapat diidentifikasi. Luka bakar
adalah komplikasi lain yang terlihat pada orbicularis oris menyisipkan filamen yang pediatrik pada komisura sebelumnya sering
rekonstruksi bibir dan harus dihindari jika berlawanan dan secara fungsional menekan terjadi pada anak-anak yang menggigit kabel
memungkinkan. Akhirnya, tidak seperti dan mengerutkan bibir. Otot-otot tambahan listrik; Namun, cedera ini menjadi sangat
struktur khusus wajah lainnya (telinga, berfungsi untuk mengangkat atau menekan langka.
hidung, mata), tidak ada prosedetik yang dapat bibir. Leva tor labii superioris, levator anguli
menggantikan rekonstruksi.. oris, dan zygomaticus mayor dan minor
Sebelum melanjutkan dengan prosedur meninggikan bibir atas. Depresor labii PENGOBATAN
rekonstruktif, penting untuk mendiskusikan inferioris dan otot depresor anguli oris Rekonstruksi bibir memerlukan pendekatan
dengan harapan realistis pasien dan keluarga. menekan bibir bawah; yang terakhir juga individual karena tidak ada dua cacat yang
Karena dalam keadaan yang paling tidak menggerakkan komando inferior dan lateral. sama. Cacat bibir atas (Tabel 1)
mungkin untuk mengembalikan bibir normal, Akhirnya, otot meninggi mengangkat dan diperlakukan secara berbeda dari cacat
dokter bedah harus menetapkan tujuan yang menjulur ke bagian tengah bibir bawah. bibir bawah (Tabel 2) dan akan dibahas
realistis. Seiring dengan persetujuan, Cabang bukal dari saraf wajah secara terpisah. Karena perawatan cacat
dokumentasi foto pra operasi dan pasca mengganggu saraf orbicularis oris dan superfisial sangat berbeda dibandingkan
operasi penting untuk rekam medis, terutama mengangkat. Cabang marginal mandibula dengan cacat full-thickness, mereka juga
dalam pengaturan cedera traumatis yang saraf wajah menginervasi penekan bibir akan dibahas secara terpisah. Akhirnya,
dapat mengarah pada tinjauan medikolegal . bawah. Saraf infraorbital memberikan rekonstruksi vermilion dan commissure
persarafan sensorik ke bibir atas sedangkan penting dan sulit dan akan dibahas pada
saraf mental memasok bibir bawah. akhir bab ini.
ANATOMI Pasokan vaskular utama ke bibir adalah
Bibir dapat digambarkan sebagai
dari cabang-cabang arteri wajah karena
memiliki bentuk heksagoal dengan arteri labial superior dan infra-merah BIBIR ATAS
bantalan superior dan inferior, dan masing-masing memasok bibir atas dan
bawah. Arteri wajah memasok arteri lateral Anestesi regional untuk bibir atas dapat
perbatasan lateral berpasangan baik
nasal dan angular, keduanya penting untuk dilakukan dengan blok saraf infraorbital. Saraf
superior dan inferior. Perbatasan ini
terdiri dari persimpangan jaringan suplai darah flap lokal. infraorbital terletak 7 mm di bawah tepi
khusus, vermilium, antara kulit dan infraorbital dan di garis midpupilary lateral ke
mukosa rambut. Perbatasan superior ala. Jarum 25-gauge dimasukkan lateral ke
adalah dalam bentuk busur Cupid, INDIKASI dasar alar dan diarahkan secara superior
bentuk lengkung dengan dua lubang. kearah infraorbital. Pendekatan intraoral juga
Indikasi untuk rekonstruksi bibir langsung dapat digunakan dengan menyuntikkan
Kedua apeks ini mewakili karena etiologi yang paling umum adalah
persimpangan bawah ke kolom filtral, langsung di atas gigi taring.
dari neoplasma atau trauma. Tumor bibir
yang meluas secara superior ke dasar
yang paling umum adalah sel skuamosa
Cacat yang Dangkal Lesi yang berdekatan dengan batas vermilion Penutupan primer cacat yang berdekatan
paling baik dibangun kembali dengan dengan philtrum yang ditutup terutama
Defek superfisial pada bibir atas adalah umum penutupan A to T. Cacat yang terletak di dapat menggeser filtrum; namun, seiring
dari reseksi karsinoma sel basal. Cacat yang dalam philtrum dapat dibiarkan sembuh waktu ia akan kembali ke posisi garis
berukuran lebih kecil dari 1 cm biasanya secara sekunder atau direkonstruksi dengan tengahnya.
ditutup terutama dengan perlakuan tidak cangkok kulit ketebalan penuh. Akhirnya, flap Kerusakan pada bibir bagian atas
nasolabial berbasis inferior dapat tengah lebih sulit untuk dikoreksi
bijaksana. Arah penutupan lebih disukai
memberikan cakupan cacat besar pada bibir ketika ketebalannya penuh. Penutupan
membuat sayatan vertikal untuk menutupi
atas. primer pada philtrum akan
dalam garis ketegangan kulit yang santai. menghasilkan penampilan datar pada
Cacat mukosa sering ditutup terutama atau bibir atas. Pilihan terbaik untuk
dibiarkan sembuh sekunder.
Pilihan untuk penutupan cacat yang
Cacat Kurang dari 30% rekonstruksi cacat sentral adalah flap
sakelar bibir Abbe (Gbr. 2A, B).
berukuran 1 hingga 2 cm didasarkan pada Cacat ketebalan penuh membutuhkan Prosedur dua tahap ini mentransfer
lokasi. Untuk defek lateral, flap muka pipi dapat penutupan lapisan mukosa bagian dalam, otot, lipap bibir bawah dengan ketebalan
memfasilitasi penutupan saat jaringan lateral dan kulit. Pada defek yang kurang dari 30% penuh dengan pedikel vaskular di
direkrut ke garis tengah. Untuk cacat medial dari bibir atas, penutupan primer perbatasan vermilion yang mencakup
A B
Fig. 1. Upper lip reconstruction with a perialar Fig. 2. Upper lip reconstruction with an Abbe flap. (A) Lesion of upper lip and Abbe flap creation at
crescentic excision and advancement flap lower lip, (B) after flap transposition to the upper lip. Note that a second-stage procedure is necessary
to divide the vascular supply.
318 Part III: The Head and Neck
Cacat antara 30% dan 60% lipatan mental jika memungkinkan karena pita
hipertrofik dapat terbentuk. Konversi dari
Pada cacat yang berkisar antara 30% hingga sayatan ke eksisi W-plasty atau berbentuk
60% beberapa flap lokal sering diperlukan barel mungkin diperlukan .
karena penutupan primer tidak
dimungkinkan. Porsi lateral dari defek sering
ditutup dengan flap advance pipi berdasarkan Cacat Antara 30% dan 60%
lateral atau flap cialcentic perialar. Cacat
Seperti dalam kasus bibir atas,
sentral yang melibatkan filtrum sering
penutupan lesi bibir bawah dengan
direkonstruksi dengan tutup Abbe yang
ukuran ini mungkin memerlukan
disebutkan sebelumnya; namun, cacat besar
beberapa lipatan. Flap Abbe dua tahap
hingga 50% bibir dapat direkonstruksi dengan
dapat digunakan untuk rekonstruksi
lipatan ini juga. Flap nasoklial merupakan
bibir bawah, merekrut jaringan dari bibir
alternatif lain untuk defek pada kisaran
atas lateral. Flap Abbe harus dirancang
ukuran ini. Cacat bibir lateral yang melibatkan
pada 50% dari lebar cacat bibir bawah.
komisur terbaik direkonstruksi dengan lipatan
Jumlah maksimal jaringan donor dari
Estlander, yang merupakan modifikasi dari
bibir atas adalah seperempat dari bibir,
lipatan Abbe dan juga menggunakan jaringan
atau 2 cm. Pada lesi yang melibatkan
bibir bawah untuk rekonstruksi.
komisura, lipatan Estlander juga dapat
digunakan untuk cacat kecil. Gambar 4A,
Cacact Lebih dari 60% Fig. 3. Primary closure of lower lip defect. B). Tutup ini, bagaimanapun, dapat
menyebabkan mikrostomia.
Cacat bibir atas yang besar jarang terjadi dan bibir bagian bawah menunjukkan elastisitas Untuk lesi yang lebih besar yang tidak
menimbulkan tantangan yang sulit. Sekali yang besar. Bila perlu, flap kemajuan melibatkan commissure, flap kipas Gillies dapat
lagi, beberapa flap akan diperlukan. Sebagai bilateral dapat dirancang untuk dirancang (Gbr. 5). Seperti flap Estlander, flap
contoh, flap nasional bilateral dan flap Abbe memfasilitasi penutupan. Cacat yang Gillies adalah kemajuan rotasi jaringan pipi
dapat digunakan untuk menciptakan cacat berdekatan dengan perbatasan vermilion berdasarkan arteri labial superior. Flap
sentral yang besar. Pasien dengan sedikit dapat berupa rekonstruksi dengan flap A to didasarkan secara lateral dan terletak di sekitar
kelemahan kulit direkonstruksi terbaik T. Cacat mukosa dapat ditutup secara komisura, memajukan jaringan dari lipatan
dengan flap Karapandzic terbalik. Dengan primer atau dibiarkan untuk penyembuhan nasolabial. Desain flap melindungi jaringan, yang
merekrut area besar jaringan yang sekunder. bisa bermasalah dengan fungsinya.
berdekatan, mikrostomi sering terjadi setelah Flap Karapandzic pada dasarnya adalah
flap Karapandzic. modifikasi dari flap Gillies; namun
Dengan tidak adanya jaringan lokal yang Cacat Kurang dari 30% demikian, motor ini mempertahankan
cocok, transfer jaringan gratis mungkin fungsi motorik dan sensorik (Gbr. 6). Karena
diperlukan. Flap bebas yang paling umum Pada defek ketebalan penuh kurang dari
30% bibir bawah, penutupan primer fungsi otot dipertahankan, ia memberikan
digunakan untuk tujuan ini adalah flap lengan keuntungan tertentu dibandingkan flap
bawah radial. Kesulitan utama dengan flap sederhana karena mukosa, otot, dan kulit
diaplikasikan kembali dengan penyejajaran Gilles. Insisi perioral dibuat sepanjang
bebas untuk rekonstruksi bibir adalah lipatan nasolabial dan persarafan otot
perbedaan antara donor dan jaringan penerima dengan bantalan vermilion. Kurangnya
struktur sentral di bibir bawah orbicularis dipertahankan. Mikomia umum
karena flap bebas sering besar dengan terjadi dan bekas luka kulit tidak
kecocokan warna yang buruk. Selain itu, memudahkan penutupan. Bagian inferior
dari sayatan ini harus menghindari labio- tersembunyi dengan baik.
kurangnya otot dalam rekonstruksi mencegah
mobilitas dan gerak bibir yang tepat. Mungkin
ada graft tendon yang digunakan bersama
dengan radial flap bebas lengan bawah untuk
struktur yang ditempatkan dari satu modiolus
ke modiolus lainnya..
BIBIR BAWAH
Anestesi regional untuk bibir bawah dapat
dilakukan dengan blok saraf mental. Saraf
mental terletak di bidang vertikal yang sama
dengan saraf infraorbital dan garis mid-
pupillary. Eversi bibir bawah akan mengekspos
saraf, yang terlihat di mukosa. Jarum 25-
gauge diperkenalkan di mukosa 1 cm lateral ke
gigi taring di sulkus bukal.
Cacat Superfisial
Penutupan primer dari defek superfisial bibir
bawah sering kali mungkin berkurang B
A
Fig. 4. Lower lip reconstruction with an Estlander flap. (A) Lesion of lower lip and Estlander flap cre-
ation at lateral upper lip. (B) After transposition to the lower lip.
Chapter 23: Lip Reconstruction 319
kulit wajah ke permukaan mukosa di dalam
bibir. Vermilion "basah" didefinisikan
sebagai area mukosa yang kontak antara
bibir atas dan bawah. "Kering" vermilion
didefinisikan sebagai warna eksternal
merah muda ke merah dari bibir yang tidak
bersentuhan antara bibir atas dan bawah.
Gulungan putih vermilion adalah area
jaringan yang diposisikan antara mukosa
vernis dan kulit bibir. Struktur ini sangat
penting untuk berfungsi sebagai tengara
ketika membangun kembali bibir. Seperti
halnya struktur dalam tubuh, penting
untuk merekonstruksi lapisan anatomi yang
terlibat. Secara khusus, otot-otot orbicularis
penting untuk memperbaiki selain
permukaan mukosa bibir dan vermilion
basah / kering. Secara umum, pada posisi
istirahat, bibir atas menonjol 2 sampai 3
mm di depan bibir bawah. Selain itu,
konstruksi ulang bibir harus mengatasi
ketidakmampuan bibir; misalnya, dengan
Fig. 5. Lower lip reconstruction with a Gillies fan Fig. 7. Lower lip reconstruction with a Bernard–
flap. Burrow–Webster flap. gigi atas dan bawah dalam posisi tertutup,
EDITOR’S COMMENT closure. It is important, as the authors state, be- are generally restricted to defects confining less
tween the upper and the lower lip. The two struc- than two-thirds of the lip to avoid microstomia.
tures provide different degrees of function and In the current practice the reconstruction of
Reconstruction of the lip is perhaps one of the aesthetics. The upper lip is more challenging; the defects in excess of this usually involves advanc-
most sensitive and functionally important re- result is more visible; and, as the authors state, ing flaps that require significant cheek laxity or
pairs in plastic surgery. While carcinoma of the “the scars are less forgiving.” A functional restora- free tissue transfer. In this paper the authors
lip is the most common oral cavity malignancy, tion of the upper and lower lip has different goals describe a lower lip reconstruction technique in
it is crucial to have a clear plan for reconstruc- as both structures are dynamic “independently”; which the flaps are extended by recruiting tissue
tion. Briefly stated, the major goals of lip recon- the lower lip functions in multiple axes and is re- from the perioral cheek, allowing reconstruction
struction (lips after all are one of the first things quired to retain oral competence so the patient “of near-total and total lower lip defects which
that an individual sees in another human being) does not drool and is able to hold their food. The would normally not be reconstructible using the
are to provide both a functional and an aesthetic upper lip functions include not only oral compe- standard technique.” Of course, neurovascular
outcome and access to the oral cavity for eat- tency, but also speech and phonation. structures are carefully dissected and maintained
ing, which must be restored together with oral Many of the repairs that are described are to ensure enervation and perfusion. They report
competency so that the patient does not drool. specifically eponymic but the understanding of eight patients underwent successful single-stage
The lips are the focal point for facial and verbal principle is much more important. The healing lower lip reconstruction. Three cases required
expression, so doing a first-class cosmetic recon- needs to be by primary intention; otherwise, bilateral extended Karapandzic flaps for total
struction is essential. scarring is extraordinarily difficult. Having said lower lip defects. In five additional cases, only
The defects may involve muscle, mucosa, that, the evolution of the various types of flaps unilateral Karapandzic flaps were combined with
skin, the vermillion, the white roll, the philtral has gone in one direction, that is, incorporation other flaps, done locally, for near-total defects.
column, and the commissure, which may prove of other different types of tissue including muscle The critical test of success was that all patients to
be difficult areas to reconstruct. The success in from orbicularis oris, for example, or parts of the achieved oral competence at normal or near- lip
reconstruction relates to the size of the defect cheeks that are innervated and in general things normal mouth opening. Complications included and
the ease or difficulty of reconstruction. De- that will extend the range of lip repair has be- one fistula that healed with conservative therapy fects
less than 30% are usually closed with local come more common. For example, Hanasono and and one hematoma. The authors in denominating
advancement flaps as the author states. However, Langstein (Plast Reconstr Surg 2011;127:1199– the advantages of this approach indicate that the
when defects in the upper or low flips are greater 205) describe Karapandzic flaps, which consist color match of the reconstructed lip is superior
than 60%, the repairs require complex and mul- of well-vascularized, sensate lip tissue that have to reconstructions relying on tissue transfer from
tiple reconstructions and different options for been elongated because the Karapandzic flaps distant sites. Given the fact that one looks at an
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 321
individual straight on with a local reconstruction, However, considering the defect that one began significance was achieve in columella-to-Cupidís
it is no wonder that the authors claimed that this with, the proper Cupidís bow that relates this bow distance, nostril gap area, and nostril height
extensive repair is complex, takes a long time, but seems to be an excellent way to go about a dif- (P < 0.08, P < 0.001, and P < 0.001.) The alar
probably does extremely well for the patient. ficult repair. base-to-interpupillary distance is shown in Fig-
Another extension of partial-thickness ver- Cleft lips and palates are some of the most ure 2 and the nostril gap area is measured in
milion defect with a mucosal V-Y advancement difficult repairs for young people particularly in Figure 1. Both pictures are convincing, and, of
flap encompassing the orbicularis oris muscle developing countries. Gosla-Reddy et al. (Plast course, as the old wheeze a typical result is shown is
reported by Jin et al. from Peking Union Medi- Reconstruct Surg 2011;127:761–7) reported on a (meaning itís our best one) but it is impressive. cal
College ( J Plast Reconstr Aesthetic Surg 2011, complete unilateral cleft lip utilizing an Afroze In commenting on this paper, S. Anthony Wolfe,
64:472–6). They once again begin by stating that incision with primary septoplasty and evaluated a Millard trainee working in Florida, compared
when the length of defect is greater than half the by a standardized two-dimensional photographic two incisions to repair a complete unilateral cleft
vermilion and the width of the defect is greater analysis. This is a high-volume center in which lip. The author again comes down on the side of
than 1.5 cm it is impossible to correct this defect there were 1,200 patients reported, of which a the rotation advancement for all unilateral clefts.
using the traditional mucosal V-Y advancement prospective cohort study of 190 consecutive pa- He states that he does not perform precisely the flap.
They therefore describe a modified mu- tients with complete unilateral cleft lip and al- way Millard illustrated in Cleft Craft but by using cosal
V-Y advancement flap in which they have veolus with cleft lip were treated with or without the McComb method for nasal correction, which recruited
the orbicularis oris muscle and point septoplasty using the Afroze incision technique. often does not require a vestibular incision. The out that this
flap possesses the mobility sufficient Of the 190, 76 patients with primary septoplasty photographs look very nice and it would appear to serve as the
pedicle for transfer and for repair were evaluated and compared with 82 operated that when Dr. Wolfe is finished with this that it is of large vermilion
defects. Eight patients were on without septoplasty. The evaluation was car- very difficult to tell that the patient was born with repaired in this
fashion between August 2006 ried out by assessing symmetry with alar base- a crippling cosmetic defect. Certainly activities and January 2009.
A satisfactory cosmetic and to-interpupillary line distance, columella-to- such as this are in the highest level of craft and functional outcome
occurred in all cases, which Cupidís bow distance, nostril gap area, nostril can be commended for any child who has his or in fact is correct
utilizing the viewing of Figure 2 width, and nostril height. The result in this large her life ahead of him and it is nice to know that and Figure 3 in
the case of the upper lip despite volume of patients indicated that patients oper- it can be reconstructed as well as these children the fact that in
Figure 3 one can tell that there has ated on with primary septoplasty showed more can be.
been some work done on the left side of the face. nasal symmetry than patients without. Statistical J.E.F.
Pada tahun 1893, presiden Amerika Serikat ke- keseluruhan tingkat kelangsungan hidup 5 kanker orofaringeal. Kanker ini lebih sering
24 berlayar dengan kapal pesiar rahasia dari New tahun adalah 61,2. Kesenjangan ras / etnis muncul di orofaring daripada di rongga mulut,
untuk kanker mulut adalah di antara yang sering melibatkan rongga mulut dengan
gen penekan tumor p16 dan p14ARF. Proses lainnya termasuk massa, persisten, atau Namun, para peneliti telah menunjukkan
epigenetik dari metilasi gen-gen ini adalah perdarahan. Trismus, gigi lepas, massa leher, bahwa kedalaman invasi berkorelasi
mekanisme inaktivasi yang jelas. Mutasi gen dan kesulitan berbicara atau menelan langsung dengan frekuensi nodus
penekan tumor p53 telah menerima banyak biasanya menunjukkan penyakit yang lebih metastasis. Sebagian besar ahli merasa
perhatian dalam literatur tetapi mungkin parah. Ketika gejalanya menetap lebih dari 3 bahwa tumor T1 dengan kedalaman invasi
merupakan peristiwa selanjutnya dalam minggu, pemeriksaan terfokus untuk kanker lebih dari 4 mm memiliki peluang lebih
transformasi maligant. mutasi p53 pada margin mulut sangat penting. besar untuk mengembangkan metastasis
reseksi juga telah berkorelasi dengan Kanker mulut paling sering muncul di nodal daripada tumor T2 atau T3 yang
peningkatan tingkat kekambuhan meskipun dasar mulut, diikuti oleh lidah lateral. sangat dangkal..
margin yang secara histologis jelas.. Distribusi berdasarkan situs dirangkum Pemeriksaan stadium untuk tumor
dalam Gambar 1. Diagnosis biasanya dibuat rongga mulut meliputi pemeriksaan fisik
ANATOMI di kantor dengan pemeriksaan fisik lengkap dengan pemeriksaan mukosa
sederhana dan biopsi menggunakan terfokus pada saluran aerodigestif bagian
DAN GEJALA anestesi lokal. Kanker mulut seringkali atas dan pemeriksaan nodal yang cermat.
KLINIS sangat dapat disembuhkan ketika terdeteksi Palpasi rongga mulut yang hati-hati sangat
Rongga mulut memanjang dari batas pada tahap awal. Hal yang sama tidak penting dalam pemeriksaan stadium karena
vermillion bibir ke pilar tonsil anterior (Gbr. 1). berlaku untuk penyakit tahap selanjutnya. banyak dari tumor ini memiliki ekstensi
Untuk tujuan pementasan, subsitus berikut Kemudahan pemeriksaan dan akses untuk submukosa yang tidak diduga (terutama
dianggap sebagai bagian dari rongga mulut: biopsi membuat keterlambatan pengenalan kanker lidah). Pemindaian computed
bibir, lidah lisan (dua pertiga anterior), dasar penyakit sangat disesalkan. tomography (CT) dari situs utama dan leher
mulut, mukosa bukal, alveolus atas dan dapat membantu pementasan locoregional
bawah, palatum keras, dan trigonum STAGING AND yang akurat. Pencarian untuk metastasis
jauh termasuk radiografi dada dan tes
retromolar. Rongga mulut memiliki pasokan
limfatik yang kaya dan metastasis nodal
DIAGNOSTIC WORKUP fungsi hati minimal. CT scan dada dan perut
regional biasanya merupakan tempat Kanker rongga mulut dipentaskan menurut diindikasikan pada pasien yang dianggap
penyebaran pertama. Cekungan limfatik pedoman American Joint Commit on Cancer berisiko lebih tinggi terkena penyakit jauh.
primer adalah nodus perifacial, jugularis atas, (AJCC) edisi ke 7 (2010). Tumor T1 hingga T3 Pemindaian emisi positron (PET) tidak
submandula, dan submental. Situs yang dekat dipentaskan hanya berdasarkan ukuran (Tabel dianggap sebagai bagian rutin dari
dengan garis tengah sering mengering secara 1). Tumor T4 dibagi lagi menjadi T4a dan T4b pemeriksaan stadium untuk kanker kepala
bilateral. sesuai dengan tingkat invasi struktur di dan leher saat ini. Karena tumor primer
Gejala yang paling umum dari kanker sekitarnya dan daya tanggap pamungkas. kedua terdeteksi pada sekitar 10% pasien,
mulut adalah ulkus yang tidak dapat Sistem pementasan TNM belum memasukkan pemeriksaan di bawah anestesi
disembuhkan di mulut diikuti oleh rasa kedalaman invasi sebagai variabel penentu (laringoskopi langsung, esofagoskopi)
sakit yang terus-menerus. Gejala umum untuk tumor rongga mulut. Banyak dilakukan sebelum memulai pengobatan.
Bronkoskopi direkomendasikan hanya
untuk pasien dengan bukti penyakit
subglotis, batuk persisten, atau temuan
radiografi dada yang mencurigakan..
Teknik pencitraan yang dirancang
untuk mendeteksi perubahan displastik
pada mukosa mulut pada akhirnya dapat
Gingiva meningkatkan deteksi dini dan kontrol
margin untuk kanker rongga mulut.
Mikroskopi konfokal, antibodi
Hard palate
radiolabeled untuk penanda tumor,
pencitraan pita sempit, dan teknologi
Buccal mucosa fluoresensi multi-panjang gelombang dan
teknologi pemantulan adalah teknologi
yang dirancang untuk mendeteksi
penyakit subklinis pada pasien berisiko
Retromolar atau untuk mengidentifikasi displasia
trigone pada margin kanker yang diketahui..
Tongue PENGOBATAN
Frenulum Pedoman pengobatan saat ini untuk karsinoma
sel skuamosa kepala dan leher diterbitkan oleh
Floor of mouth National Comprehensive Can- cer Network
(www.nccn.org). Pedoman tersebut termasuk
informasi pentahapan, rekomendasi untuk
penilaian pra-perawatan, dan pendekatan yang
seimbang untuk pilihan pengobatan untuk
kanker rongga mulut. Perawatan optimal kanker
kepala dan leher membutuhkan upaya
multidisiplin. Anggota tim termasuk ahli bedah
kepala dan leher, ahli bedah rekonstruksi, ahli
onkologi radiasi, dan ahli kanker medis. Bicara
Fig. 1. Subsites of the oral cavity. dan menelan ahli patologi merehabilitasi fungsi
yang hilang selama terapi multimodal. Anggota
tim penting lainnya members
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 323
Table 1 2002 American Joint Committee on Cancer TNM Staging System for the Lip and Oral Cavity
Primary Tumor (T)
TX Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0 No evidence of primary tumor
Tis Carcinoma in situ
T1 Tumor 2 cm or less in greatest dimension
T2 Tumor more than 2 cm but not more than 4 cm in greatest dimension
T3 Tumor more than 4 cm in greatest dimension
T4 (lip) Tumor invades through cortical bone, inferior alveolar nerve, floor of mouth, or skin of face (i.e., chin or nose)
T4a (Oral cavity) tumor invades adjacent structures (e.g., through cortical bone, into deep (extrinsic) misuse of tongue (genioglossus,
hyoglossus, palatoglossus, and styloglossus), maxillary sinus, skin of face)
T4b Tumor invades masticator space, pterygoid plates, or skull base and/or encases internal carotid artery
Regional Lymph Nodes (N)
NX Regional nodes cannot be assessed
N0 No regional lymph node metastasis
N1 Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node, 3 cm or less in greatest dimension
N2 Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node more than 3 cm but not more than 6 cm in greatest dimension; or in multiple
ipsilateral lymph nodes, none more than 6 cm in greatest dimension; or in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none
more than 6 cm in greatest dimension
N2a Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node more than 3 cm but not more than 6 cm in greatest dimension
N2b Metastasis in multiple ipsilateral lymph nodes, none more than 6 cm in greatest dimension
N2c Metastasis in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none more than 6 cm in greatest dimension
N3 Metastasis in a lymph node more than 6 cm in greatest dimension
Distant Metastasis (M)
MX Distant metastasis cannot be assessed
M0 No distant metastasis
M1 Distant metastasis
Stage Grouping Histologic Grade (G)
eN
c
k
Stage 0 Tis N0 M0 GX Grade cannot be assessed
Stage I T1 N0 M0 ae
d nd
a
H
Stage II T2 N0 M0 G1 Well differentiated e
Stage III T3 N0 M0 G2 Moderately differentiated
Th
T1 N1 M0
T2 N1 M0 G3 Poorly differentiated
T3 N1 M0
Stage IVA T4a N0 M0
T4a N1 M0
T1 N2 M0
T2 N2 M0
T3 N2 M0
T4a N2 M0
Stage IVB Any T N3 M0
T4b Any N M0
Stage IVC Any T Any N M1
Used with the permission of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC), Chicago, Illinois. The original and primary source for this information is the AJCC Cancer
Staging Manual, Sixth Edition (2002) published by Springer-Verlag, New York ( for more information, visit www.cancerstaging.net). Any citation or quotation of this material
must be credited to the AJCC as its primary source. The inclusion of this information herein does not authorize any reuse or further distribution without the expressed,
written permission or Springer Verlag, New York, Inc., on behalf of the AJCC.
Note: Superficial erosion alone of bone/tooth socket by gingival primary in not sufficient to classify as T4.
324 Part III: The Head and Neck
cacat dangkal ini untuk granulasi.
termasuk dokter gigi, prostodontis, nutrisi, dan pairment bentuk atau fungsi. Masa inap di
Penyembuhan dengan niat sekunder lebih
pekerja sosial. Untuk pasien dengan penyakit rumah sakit adalah satu atau dua malam,
disukai daripada penutupan yang mengganggu
lanjut atau berulang, rekomendasi pengobatan penerimaan oral dilanjutkan dengan cepat,
mobilitas. Kadang-kadang, lesi yang lebih
dipertimbangkan secara optimal dalam format dan pasien biasanya melanjutkan aktivitas
besar tetapi sangat dangkal akan dieksisi pada
papan tumor multispesialis. Pendekatan tim yang penuh dalam waktu 3 minggu. Bahkan
lapisan submukosa. Cangkok kulit tipis
terkoordinasi sangat penting. orang-orang dengan pekerjaan yang
dengan ketebalan terpisah akan menutupi area
Dalam bab ini, pengobatan kanker mulut menuntut fungsi lisan yang tepat
yang lebih luas secara efektif dan mempercepat
akan dibagi menjadi dua bagian utama: (pengacara, profesor, tenaga penjualan)
proses pemulihan. Allografts dermal yang
Diskusi umum penyakit tahap awal dan lanjut biasanya menikmati hasil yang sangat
tersedia secara komersial tidak berhasil secara
secara lokal diikuti oleh rekomendasi khusus baik.es.
untuk setiap subsite. Fokus utama adalah merata di rongga mulut di tangan kita . Dalam merencanakan reseksi, ahli bedah
manajemen bedah. Opsi alternatif akan harus mempertimbangkan rute akses, status
dimasukkan tetapi uraian terperinci berada di T1 and T2 Carcinoma margin, keterlibatan tulang, dan apakah
luar cakupan bab ini. Pengobatan penyakit of the Oral Cavity limfatik memerlukan perawatan atau tidak.
leher metastasis dibahas di bagian lain dalam Rute akses lebih disukai transoral untuk lesi
teks ini dan merupakan bagian integral dari Tingkat kelangsungan hidup lima tahun yang lebih kecil. Margin harus jelas terlihat,
manajemen yang tepat dari situs primer. adalah 85% hingga 90% untuk stadium I dan bagaimanapun, dan pasien dengan gigi
Carcinoma In Situ or 70% hingga 80% untuk karsinoma sel lengkap atau pembukaan mulut terbatas dapat
skuamosa tahap II dari rongga mulut. Terapi menyajikan tantangan akses bahkan untuk
Microinvasive Carcinoma modalitas tunggal biasanya memadai. Bedah lesi kecil. Pembelahan bibir dan / atau
Awal, penyakit yang sangat dangkal dalam rongga dan radioterapi umumnya dianggap sama- mandibulotomi mungkin diperlukan untuk
mulut paling baik diobati dengan eksisi lokal yang sama efektif tetapi dalam banyak kasus operasi visualisasi margin yang memadai. Margin 2 cm
luas. Ketika penyakit terbatas pada karsinoma in lebih disukai untuk penyakit tahap awal. di semua sisi ideal untuk lesi ini. Sebagai
situ pada patologi akhir, biopsi eksisi dengan Terapi radiasi untuk kanker rongga mulut peringatan, upaya pertama untuk
margin yang jelas adalah terapi yang memadai. tahap awal efektif bila diberikan oleh sinar menghilangkan lesi ini memiliki peluang
Situs harus diikuti secara klinis dengan ambang eksternal atau brachytherapy. Xerostomia dan keberhasilan terbesar. Setiap upaya
batas rendah untuk rebiopsy atau reexcision. penyakit gigi lebih sering terlihat setelah penyelamatan berikutnya memiliki hasil yang
Karsinoma mikroinvasif harus dieksisi dengan radioterapi dan ada risiko osteoradionekrosis menurun. Untuk menahan upaya kuratif
margin 1 hingga 2 cm pada aspek perifer dan mandibula. Beberapa penelitian secara kritis penuh untuk manfaat kosmetik atau
dalam. Bagian yang dibekukan dipelajari secara membandingkan hasil fungsional terapi radiasi fungsional minimal adalah merugikan pasien.
intraoperatif karena displasia yang parah pada dengan pembedahan. Modalitas mana pun Tulang tidak akan secara kasar diserang
margin dapat sulit untuk dilihat secara kasar yang dipilih, perawatan situs utama dan leher pada lesi tahap awal I dan II ini, meskipun
(Gbr. 2). Kanker tahap awal dari dasar mulut harus konsisten. Dengan kata lain, jika situs mukosa displastik atau keganasan utama
mungkin melibatkan saluran saliva, dan utama dirawat dengan pembedahan dan ada dapat mendekati gigi atau periosteum
mendapatkan akses awal ke leher. Status nodal kekhawatiran mengenai micrometastases, mandibula. Secara umum, periosteum adalah
membutuhkan penilaian yang cermat. leher harus dirawat dengan pembedahan juga. penghalang yang efektif jika sebelumnya tidak
Penutupan primer dari situs ini optimal Demikian juga, jika rongga mulut diobati diradiasikan. Jika tumor bergerak bebas
jika dapat dilakukan tanpa menambatkan dengan radiasi, limfatik diperlakukan serupa. terkait dengan tulang, periosteum direseksi
lidah atau menghapus sulci normal. Dokter Perawatan bedah untuk oral tahap I dan II sebagai margin dan tulang dipertahankan.
bedah harus memiliki sedikit keraguan kanker rongga secara konsisten Permukaan alveolar mandibula rentan
untuk mengizinkan direkomendasikan pada awalnya oleh dewan terhadap invasi mikro dan memungkinkan
tumor multispesialis lembaga kami. Perawatan akses ke rongga meduler melalui soket gigi.
bedah efektif dan cepat selesai dengan Risiko invasi mikro mandibula lebih tinggi
minimall im- pada mandibula edentulous atau terpancar
sebelumnya. Ketika tumor secara langsung
menginvasi periosteum, segmen mandibula
tersebut harus direseksi dengan setidaknya
mandibulektomi tepi.
Risiko mikrometastasis terhadap limfatik
serviks meningkat secara proporsional
dengan kedalaman invasi tumor. Sebagai
aturan umum, tumor yang berukuran lebih
dari 4 mm memiliki risiko, dan pengobatan
limfatik serviks harus dipertimbangkan..
T3 and T4 Carcinoma
of the Oral Cavity
Kanker rongga mulut yang besar dan kanker
yang sangat menyerang lidah, tulang, atau
ruang yang berdekatan membutuhkan
terapi multimoda. Tingkat kelangsungan
hidup untuk karsinoma sel skuamosa T3
dan T4 rongga mulut adalah 50% hingga
65% tanpa adanya metastasis nodal. Metoda
nodal umumnya memangkas tingkat
kelangsungan hidup menjadi dua. Reseksi
bedah primer tetap menjadi pilihan
perawatan awal yang disukai. Sebaliknya
Fig. 2. Leukoplakia of the lateral tongue. One nodular area contained microinvasive carcinoma.
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 325
dapat ditutup terutama ketika tidak ada
keganasan orofaring lanjut sering diobati kejadian metastasis nodal dan diseksi leher
rekonstruksi tulang yang direncanakan.
awalnya dengan kemoradiasi. Ketika selektif elektif harus dipertimbangkan. Akses
Namun, kerusakan ini diucapkan, dan
merencanakan reseksi, dokter bedah harus transoral tanpa pembelahan bibir atau
sebagian besar pasien lebih menyukai
mempertimbangkan limfatik, akses, mandibulotomi seringkali dimungkinkan.
rekonstruksi bedah segera. Kembalinya
keterlibatan tulang, dan rekonstruksi karena Penampilan penuh atau pembukaan mulut
penampilan yang lebih normal dan
cacat ini jarang dapat ditutup terutama. yang buruk dapat membuat akses secara
kemampuan mengunyah adalah aspek penting
Perawatan bedah leher untuk mengendalikan mengejutkan sulit untuk lesi kecil. Pasien
penyakit limfatik dan untuk memberikan akses dari kualitas hidup. Glossektomi besar dan
harus siap untuk mandibulotomi untuk akses
ke tumor primer adalah rutin. Jarang lesi T3 atau cacat bukal ketebalan penuh tidak bisa ditutup
jika ini terjadi.
T4 dapat direseksi secara adekuat dengan tanpa jaringan tambahan. Transfer jaringan
Ketika diseksi mendalam di dasar lateral
pendekatan transoral saja. Paparan leher bebas yang divaskularisasi telah menjadi
memungkinkan pelestarian struktur mulut dikombinasikan dengan diseksi leher
andalan rekonstruksi bedah untuk cacat
neurovaskular yang penting dan memfasilitasi level 1, defek through-and-through sering
mulut besar. Cacat jaringan lunak biasanya
pengelolaan margin dalam reseksi. Lesi yang ter- terjadi yang secara mengejutkan sulit untuk
dipasangkan kembali dengan lengan radial,
lateralisasi dengan baik yang tidak melibatkan ditutup. Flap bertangkai seperti flap platysma
paha lateral, atau flap rektus abdominus.
otot lidah dalam mungkin ditangani dengan atau flap pulau submental berguna untuk
diseksi leher unilateral. Secara klinis, leher N0 Cacat mandibula dikelola dengan flap
menutup cacat kecil ini. Flap bebas lengan
diobati dengan diseksi leher selektif, yang hanya osteokutan, flap fibular menjadi yang paling
bawah bekerja dengan sangat baik. Tutup
menimbulkan sedikit morbiditas (lihat Bab 26). umum.
pectoralis sering terlalu besar untuk cacat kecil
Pasien edentulous dengan jaringan lunak perioral
lentur mungkin tidak memerlukan lip split untuk di situs ini.
akses dari sisi oral. Sekali lagi, jika visualisasi SITE-SPECIFIC SURGICAL
margin terganggu, lip split atau mandibulotomi MANAGEMENT T3 and T4 Carcinoma of the
direkomendasikan sebagai hal yang diperlukan
untuk memungkinkan paparan yang tepat. Floor of Mouth
Reseksi tumor lengkap harus menjadi perhatian Floor of Mouth Lesi dari mulut ke mulut T3 dan T4 biasanya
utama. direseksi bersamaan dengan
Lantai mulut adalah tempat yang paling
Invasi kotor dari mandibula-tanggal umum untuk karsinoma sel skuamosa oral. limfadenektomi serviks. Rencana
reseksi segmental. Kapan pun Lidah ventral yang berdekatan dan perkembangan bedah yang masuk akal
memungkinkan, seluruh rongga medula permukaan lingual dari alveolus mandibula diuraikan di bawah ini. Langkah-langkah ini
mandibula harus direseksi. Tumor yang terlibat sejak tumor membesar. Anterior, lesi akan dapat disesuaikan untuk sub-situs
menyerang mandibula dapat menyebar luas dari mulut ke mulut sering melibatkan lain di rongga mulut juga.
melalui tulang kanselus yang longgar. duktus submanerbular dan nodus
Sebagai contoh, jika lesi menyerang bagian 1. Ulangi pemeriksaan dengan
kontralateral yang berisiko. CT scan anestesi. Nilai ukuran, kedalaman,
tengah mandibula, reseksi tulang segmental berguna dalam penentuan stadium sebelum struktur yang terlibat, dan
dengan margin 2 cm dikombinasikan operasi untuk menilai luas tumor, status kedekatan dengan mandibula.
dengan pelepasan rim medula rongga yang nodal, dan invasi mandibula awal. Finalisasi pemikiran tentang akses
tersisa kembali ke takik sigmoid. dan invasi tulang.
Rekonstruksi seringkali membutuhkan 2. Trakeotomi
lebih dari penutupan primer. Pada beberapa T1 and T2 Carcinoma of the
Floor of Mouth 3. Gastrostomi perkutan. Jika
reseksi komposit lateral, cacat yang sangat diperkirakan akan terjadi pemberian
besar Lesi T1 dan T2 dari dasar mulut diobati
dengan eksisi lokal yang luas (Gbr. 3). makan tabung secara singkat,
Margin 2 cm direkomendasikan dan kontrol tempatkan tabung nasogastrik
sebagai gantinya.
Horizontal
part of
incision
in labiomental
crease Stair-step
osteotomy
A B
penyakit. Ketika pembedahan berlangsung dengan ligatur. Jangan mengandalkan 9. Periksa cacat dan tentukan metode
lebih dalam, revisualisasikan saraf kauterisasi untuk cabang yang lebih besar. penutupan. Hindari penutupan primer di
hipoglosus di leher karena akan sering 8. Lepaskan spesimen dan periksa. bawah tekanan atau penutupan yang
memasuki medial lidah ke tumor dan dapat Arahkan spesimen untuk patologi. secara signifikan akan menambatkan lidah.
dilakukan. Kontrol cabang arteri lingual Periksa margin dengan bagian beku Seringkali, tim rekonstruksi akan
melanjutkan dengan flap elevasi selama
fase akhir pemusnahan tumor.
Tongue
T1 and T2 Carcinoma of the Oral Tongue
Kanker lidah sering memiliki ekstensi
subkumis jauh melampaui margin yang
terlihat. Studi palpasi dan pencitraan sangat
membantu dalam penentuan stadium yang
akurat. Kanker lidah T2 dan T1 (> 4 mm)
memiliki tingkat metabolis okultisme
mendekati 30%. Perawatan leher biasanya
dianjurkan.
Small lateral tongue lesions can be
widely excised with very little morbidity.
These malignancies are generally more
easily visualized than floor-of-mouth
Fig. 5. Rim mandibulectomy to resect disease involving periosteum or minimally invading the mandible. lesions and rarely require lip split or man-
Resection includes the medullary cavity of the mandible. dibulotomy. If possible, a deep wedge
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 327
A B
Fig. 6. Resection of T1 carcinoma of the lateral tongue. A: Pedunculated lesion of the lateral tongue. B: Vertical excision and
closure maintains optimal mobility.
reseksi dirancang dalam bidang vertikal
yang mempertahankan margin 2 cm di
tepi periferal dan margin dalam. Reseksi
vertikal memungkinkan penutupan lidah
lateral terhadap lidah lateral yang sesuai
dan meminimalkan tethering (Gbr. 6).
Penutupan horizontal, sebaliknya,
menambatkan lidah dorsal ke dasar
mulut dan mengganggu mobilitas. Sub-
bagian dari tumor T2 superfisial pada
lidah lateral menghasilkan cacat yang
melibatkan sebagian besar permukaan
lateral (Gbr. 7). Cacat ini harus ditutup
dengan cangkok kulit tipis atau dibiarkan
granul. Pasien memulai latihan mobilitas
lidah lebih awal untuk mencegah
kontraktur parut dan kehilangan fungsi.
Kanker lidah punggung jarang
terjadi. Lesi ini direseksi dalam bidang
Untuk lesi yang meluas lebih terpusat ke 1–3. Sama seperti "Lantai Mulut" di atas. 6. Nilai margin secara kasar dan
akar yang dalam dari otot-otot lidah, 4. Diseksi leher harus bilateral untuk lesi berdasarkan bagian beku. Jangan
diperlukan pendekatan pull-through alternatif dalam yang menjalar ke arah lidah mengabaikan margin lidah yang dalam,
untuk reseksi (Gbr. 9). Langkah-langkahnya tengah. Flap penasihat kulit leher yang akan meluas hingga ke tulang
dibahas di bawah ini. diangkat ke batas bawah mandibula. hyoid.
Visor flap
Mandible
Dorsal tongue
Mucosal incision
A B
Tongue
Fig. 10. Pull-through approach for glossectomy. A: The skin flaps are elevated to the
lower border of the mandible. B: Intraoral cuts along the uninvolved floor of mouth
are connected with external cuts dividing the floor-of-mouth diaphragm. C: The spec-
imen is pulled downward and into the neck, allowing visualization of more posterior
C
cuts.
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 329
buccal cancer is the most common of all Fig. 12. T1 carcinoma of the retromolar trigone. These lesions often invade the adjacent mandible or
cancers occurring in men. Nodal metasta- masseteric space early.
330 Part III: The Head and Neck
A B
C D
Fig. 13. T4 carcinoma of the buccal mucosa with extension through overlying skin. A: Transbuccal extension B: Exten-
sive involvement of overlying skin C: Wide resection to include most of the right cheek; rectus free flap reconstruction.
D: Eighteen months postoperative. The patient was not interested in further flap debulking.
tulang dan terus ke ruang masticator Ketika ada ekstensi besar ke tonsil atau pembedahan dan radiasi ajuvan untuk
seperti disebutkan di atas. langit-langit lunak, radiasi bersamaan karsinoma trigonum bukal atau retromolar.
4. Tumor trigonum retromolar sering meluas dan kemoterapi diberikan lebih banyak 5. Node perifacial dan node parotid adalah
ke posterior ke orofaring. Banyak dokter pertimbangan sebagai terapi lini pertama cekungan nodal tingkat pertama untuk
menganggap perilaku biologis lebih untuk mempertahankan fungsi bicara tumor ini..
konsisten dengan karsinoma orofaring dan menelan. Seperti halnya untuk situs 6. Paparan transoral mungkin terbatas.
daripada karsinoma rongga mulut.. rongga mulut lainnya, bagaimanapun, Bersiaplah untuk pendekatan transfasial
tidak ada perawatan yang terbukti lebih untuk meningkatkan akses.
unggul
Masseter
muscle
Tumor in
masseteric
space
Tumor in
buccalmucosa
Tumor in
mandible
A
B
Fig. 14. T4 carcinoma of buccal mucosa. A: Extensive involvement of masseteric space demonstrated by CT scan. B: The
mandible and masseteric spaces illustrated here are the most common locations for failure of complete resection.
Chapter 24: Surgery for Cancer of the Oral Cavity 331
Hard Palate langit-langit keras dapat dikelola dengan bicara dan menelan. Banyak pasien frustrasi
eksisi lokal yang luas. Margin tepi dikelola oleh kebocoran kecil atau rasa sakit dengan
T1 and T2 Carcinoma of the Hard Palate seperti dibahas di atas. Jika periosteum kecocokan yang tidak tepat .
Karsinoma palatal jarang terjadi. Lebih banyak yang tidak terpasang diselingi antara tumor Penutupan bedah cacat yang lebih
kanker sel nonsquamous terjadi di langit-langit dan tulang di bawahnya, operasi ulang besar biasanya memerlukan
mulut daripada di lokasi rongga mulut lainnya. tulang mungkin tidak diperlukan. Jika ada rekonstruksi flap gratis. Opsi ini
keraguan, tulang palatal dapat dibor ke bermanfaat bagi pasien yang lebih
Keganasan kelenjar liur minor merupakan
mukosa hidung tanpa membuat fistula muda yang tidak akan dipaksa untuk
sebagian besar keganasan lainnya. Semua
oronasal. Jika harus dibuat fiskula kecil, mempertahankan prostesis yang pas
kecuali lesi palatal yang paling dangkal untuk sisa hidup mereka. Rekonstruksi
memiliki potensi untuk menyerang tulang yang flap mukosa palatal rotasional atau flap
miomuskum buccinator biasanya akan flap biasanya ditawarkan pada saat
mendasarinya. Foramina palatine yang tajam
A B C
Fig. 16. Minor salivary gland adenocarcinoma of the palate. A: Lesion involving left side of hard palate.
D B: Defect with clear margins. C: Initial obturator fashioned by prosthodontist to fill defect. D: Obturator in
position allowing normal oral function.
332 Part III: The Head and Neck
EDITOR’S COMMENT proven node-negative upon presentation are Speksnijder CM, et al. (Head Neck 2010, with-
generally just observed. The news, however, in out citation, published online, DOI, 10.1002/hed
this paper is that of the patients who recurred, 21573) dealt with a difficult area of deteriorated
Cancer of the oral cavity is a disease which in the mean time of neck recurrence was 6.2 masticatory performance. This series was taken
society is often associated with the underprivi- months. This suggests that the metastases were from several universities in the Netherlands, in-
leged. As a basis for the cancer of the oral cav- present in the neck at the time of presentation cluding Utrecht and the Nijmegen Medical Cen-
ity, they may smoke, they may take snuff, they and node resection was not carried out. Thirty- ter and dealt with the difficulties of mastica-
make drink alcohol to excess, and they may be two of the patients who were node-negative on tion, which affects quality of life (certainly) and
patients who are underprivileged or derelicts. physical examination at presentation recurred food choice (perhaps). The authors believe that
Because of this, they have not received ap- in the neck (30%). Two of the patients who were the altered food choice may result in lower in-
propriate care in a timely fashion. In addition, node-positive at presentation also recurred takes of key nutrients and weight loss, which is
the therapy for cancer of the oral cavity, which in the neck and the mean time for recurrence probably true. This proved to determine dental
manages to save lives, is very destructive and was 6.2 months. Among the 32 initially “node- status, bite force, and masticatory performance
results in surgical outcomes, which while may negative” patients who developed regional re- in 45 patients with squamous cell carcinoma
be curative of the disease, may be an ongoing currence, there were antecedent seven cases of the tongue and/or floor of mouth. These
problem for the patient in swallowing, nutri- of local recurrence, and 22 cases of isolated patients were examined and weighed before
tion, and so forth. regional recurrence. Figure 1 of this paper re- surgery and various times after surgery and/or
Because of this, the paper by Morris LGT, veals the regional failure rate with 38% of pT4 radiotherapy.
et al. (Head Neck 2011;33:824–830), from the Head and 18.7% of pT1, and the rest in between. In The authors conclude, not surprisingly, that
and Neck Service at Memorial Sloane Kettering, Figure 3, disease-specific survival according to surgical intervention had a large, negative im- is
most welcome. This is not a common disease, regional recurrence status is given, and at the pact on all functions. Postoperative radiotherapy and
so the 139 patients with squamous cell car- end of 60 months, those patients without re- actually worsened oral function. Recovery of oral cinoma
of the hard palate and maxillary alveolus, gional recurrence had an 81% survival, and 41% function 1 year after surgery was less prominent from 1985
to 2006, represent a fairly large series. of patients who did have regional recurrence in the group receiving both surgery and radio- The
incidence rates of regional metastasis at survived, which is statistically significant at the therapy than surgery alone.
presentation and at recurrence were calculated. P = 0.001 level. The results suggest strongly for It is difficult to ascertain whether or not
They also attempted to determine what the etiol- elective node resection independent of what these patients had significant weight loss. The
ogy was of recurrence and what was associated the nodes feel like, and if there are a significant authors seem more interested in maximum
with it. hard palate or alveolus cancer, elective node re- bite pressure and dentition and mixing ability
Not surprisingly, regional failure occurred section should be carried out. than the actual outcome as far as weight loss,
in 28.4% of patients and was of course associ- Another troublesome tumor is reviewed by preferring dentition index. Presumably, the ated
with the extent of disease and the patho- Kokemuller H, et al. (Head Neck Oncol 2011;3), loss of dentition index and bite force resulted logic T
classification, which ranged from 18.7% who reviewed the German experience over 30 in a poorer outcome as far as weight mainte- (pT1) to
37.3% (pT4). T classification was an years of 341 patients with squamous cell carci- nance with these patients.
independent predictor of regional recurrence- noma of the tongue treated in the Department An attempt was made to determine whether free
survival on multivariate analysis. Sadly, as of Head and Neck Surgery in Hanover, Germany. or not there are various growth factor influences the
authors state, most patients (66%) with re- Average follow-up was 5 years. A total of 309 of with tumor differentiation in oral squamous gional
recurrence were not able to be salvaged. the 341 patients received surgical therapy, and cell carcinoma. Hanabata Y, et al. (Odontology,
Interestingly, however, the recurrence was not of these, 10% had neoadjuvant therapy and 20% published online, 2011) determined whether or
local, despite the alarming title of the paper, with postoperative radiation and occasionally not overexpression of epidermal growth factor
“High Rates of Regional Failure in Squamous chemotherapy. Primary radiation remained receptor (EGFR) is associated with resistance to
Cell Carcinoma of the Hard Palate and Maxil- the primary and only course of treatment of 32 various forms of treatment, including and not
25 Diseksi Leher
Jatin P. Shah and Ian Ganly
that metastatic spread to level VA lymph Fig. 1. Five-year survival rates of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in relation to extent of
nodes is exceedingly rare. disease.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 335
Fig. 2. Distribution of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck in relation to extent
of disease at the time of initial diagnosis.
Fig. 3. Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center leveling system of cervical lymph nodes (A); current modification of leveling
system (B); and levels VI and VII (C).
d nd Neck
Node level Clinical landmarks Surgical landmarks
Level I Submental and submandibular Superior-lower border of the body of the Table 2 Staging System of Regional
Lymph Nodes (N Stage) for a
triangles mandible; posterior-posterior belly of e aH
Squamous Cell Carcinoma e
digastric; inferior-hyoid bone of the Upper Aerodigestive
Th
Level II Upper jugular lymph nodes Superior-base of skull; posterior-posterior Tract Excluding
border of sternocleidomastoid muscle; Nasopharynx
anterior-lateral limit of sternohyoid;
inferior-hyoid bone Nx Regional lymph nodes cannot be
assessed
Level III Middle jugular lymph nodes Superior-hyoid bone; posterior-posterior
border of sternocleidomastoid muscle; N0 No regional lymph node metastases
anterior-lateral limit of sternohyoid; N1 Metastases in a single ipsilateral
inferior-cricothyroid membrane lymph node, 3 cm or less in
Level IV Lower jugular lymph nodes Superior-cricothyroid membrane; posterior- greatest dimension
posterior border of sternocleidomastoid N2a Metastases in a single ipsilateral
muscle; anterior-lateral limit of ster- lymph node, >3 cm but <6 cm
nohyoid; inferior-clavicle in greatest dimension
Level V Posterior triangle lymph nodes Posterior-anterior border of trapezius N2b Metastases in multiple ipsilateral
muscle; anterior-posterior border of lymph nodes, none >6 cm in
sternocleidomastoid muscle; inferior- greatest dimension
clavicle
N2c Metastases in bilateral or contralat-
Level VI Anterior compartment of the Superior-hyoid bone; inferior-suprasternal eral lymph nodes, none >6 cm in
neck notch; lateral-medial border of carotid greatest dimension
sheath on either side
N3 Metastases in a single ipsilateral
Level VII Superior mediastinal lymph Superior-suprasternal notch; inferior- lymph node >6 cm in greatest
nodes innominate artery dimension
336 Part III: The Head and Neck
lepaskan semua jaringan limfatik pada sisi diseksi leher mohyoid (SOHND), di mana tingkat kekambuhan 11%. Pada tahun
dilakukan secara bilateral. LND diindikasikan kedua sisi leher. Oleh karena itu, LND bilateral penyakit leher negatif patologis (pN0). Dia juga
untuk kanker orofaring ketika tumor primer direkomendasikan pada pasien dengan melaporkan tingkat kekambuhan 7,3% di
diobati dengan operasi di leher yang secara pengaturan leher negatif secara klinis. Pada antara 41 pasien dengan penyakit leher positif
klinis negatif untuk penyakit. Jika terapi kanker glotis supra-glotis dan lanjut, diseksi patologis (pN +) yang menjalani LND; 37 dari 41
radiasi pascaoperasi diindikasikan, tidak leher bilateral umumnya direkomendasikan.
pasien menerima radiasi pascaoperasi.
perlu untuk melakukan LND bilateral karena LND tidak diindikasikan untuk lesi glotis awal.
radiasi saja efektif dalam mengobati leher Pada tahun 1985, Byers melaporkan data Namun, pada pasien dengan beberapa kelenjar
kontralateral node-negatif. Kanker hipofaring efikasi untuk tingkat kekambuhan setelah getah bening positif, Byers melaporkan tingkat
sering bermetastasis ke LND 3,9% di antara 256 pasien dengan kegagalan regional sebesar 30% untuk mereka
yang diobati dengan pasca operasi radiasi
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 341
dan 33% untuk mereka yang tidak. Diseksi Mucosal Squamous Cell Cancer Lau et al. melaporkan bahwa pada pasien
leher selektif karena itu tidak diindikasikan Sebagian besar kanker rongga mulut juga yang diamati setelah respons lengkap pasca
ketika ada bukti dari beberapa node positif. mudah divisualisasikan dan, secara umum, kemoradiasi dengan penyakit leher N2 / 3,
PLND direkomendasikan untuk dapat diakses dengan injeksi langsung. Ini kelangsungan hidup bebas rekurensi
keganasan kulit primer pada kulit kepala lokoregional 2 tahun adalah 95%. Namun,
telah mengarah pada saran bahwa teknik
posterior (mis., Melanoma dan karsinoma penelitian lain melaporkan pada 65 pasien
sel skuamosa). Diseksi leher kompartemen biopsi simpul sentinel mungkin berguna yang memiliki respons lengkap terhadap
sentral direkomendasikan untuk karsinoma dalam manajemen leher untuk kanker CTRT yang dikelola dengan observasi leher.
tiroid yang berdiferensiasi di mana penyakit rongga mulut. Teknik ini untuk karsinoma Dengan rata-rata tindak lanjut 9 tahun, ada
ini terbatas pada kelenjar pretrakeal dan sel skuamosa rongga mulut pertama kali 10% hingga 15% kejadian kekambuhan
paratrakeal.. dilaporkan oleh Shoaib et al. di mana biopsi leher. Pasien yang memiliki respons lengkap
nodus sentinel dilakukan sebelum diseksi terhadap kemoterapi induksi lebih kecil
kemungkinannya untuk meningkatkan
Sentinel Node Biopsy leher elektif (END) pada pasien dengan leher
saran bahwa respons terhadap kemoterapi
negatif secara klinis. Sebuah laporan
Nodus limfa sentinel didefinisikan sebagai induksi dapat digunakan sebagai indikator
meneliti SLNB di 57 leher N0 secara klinis
nodus limfa eselon pertama tempat kanker untuk siapa yang harus merencanakan
pada 48 pasien dan melaporkan bahwa 15 diseksi leher..
menyebar. Teknik biopsi kelenjar getah
(35%) dikalahkan oleh SLNB dan 28 (65%)
bening sentinel (SLNB) memungkinkan
pemeriksaan terfokus pada kelenjar getah dipentaskan SLN negatif. Dengan rata-rata Planned Neck Dissection
bening dengan risiko tertinggi untuk follow up selama 18 bulan, hanya satu Diseksi leher yang direncanakan biasanya
metastasis, sehingga diseksi leher hanya pasien yang mengembangkan penyakit leher dilakukan pada pasien dengan penyakit
dilakukan pada pasien dengan simpul regional setelah dipentaskan negatif pada leher N2 dan N3, terlepas dari respons
terhadap CTRT. Diseksi leher biasanya
positif dan sisanya dapat terhindar dari SLNB. Sensitivitas keseluruhan dari teknik dilakukan 6 minggu setelah kemoterapi
morbiditas kelenjar getah bening. operasi. ini adalah 94%. Namun, teknik ini masih selesai; ini memiliki keuntungan
Identifikasi simpul sentinel memerlukan eksperimental dan hanya boleh dilakukan di melakukan diseksi leher sebelum
penggunaan limfosintigrafi preoperatif pusat-pusat dengan keahlian yang timbulnya fibrosis, sehingga membuat
menggunakan teknetium radioaktif dan diseksi leher secara teknis serupa dalam
diperlukan dan volume kasus yang sesuai kompleksitasnya dengan diseksi leher
kemudian injeksi pewarna biru (toluidine
blue) pada saat operasi. Node sentinel karena telah ditunjukkan bahwa pusat- nonchemadiadiation. Bukti untuk
diidentifikasi menggunakan gamma probe pusat yang melakukan teknik ini dengan kebijakan diseksi leher yang direncanakan
<10 kasus per tahun memiliki sensitivitas berasal dari penelitian, yang telah
dan dikonfirmasi dengan injeksi pewarna menunjukkan adanya tumor pada
biru pada saat biopsi. Patologi simpul yang jauh lebih rendah. . Masalah teknis spesimen diseksi leher pada pasien yang
sentinel membutuhkan pewarnaan "bersinar melalui," di mana tingkat memiliki respons radiologis dan klinis
hematoklin dan eosin dan radioaktivitas di situs utama berpotensi lengkap atau hampir lengkap di leher.
imunohistrokimia. Node membutuhkan mengaburkan simpul sentinel, adalah salah Sebelum pengenalan pemindaian PET,
pemutusan serial pada bagian 150 μm diseksi leher yang direncanakan adalah
satu masalah potensial. Peran SLNB dalam metode konvensional untuk mengelola
untuk analisis yang akurat.
kanker rongga mulut lanjut terbatas karena leher yang mengikuti CTRT. Beberapa
negatif palsu yang dihasilkan dari obstruksi kelompok masih mempraktikkan
Melanoma kebijakan ini karena keterbatasan atau
aliran limfatik yang disebabkan oleh tumor
Melanoma kulit sangat cocok untuk teknik ini ketidakmampuan PET. Namun, sebagian
penyakit di luar node positif (po) pada CT scan Diseksi berhubungan dengan tingginya
awal. Ini telah menyebabkan banyak ahli insiden hiperatiroidisme sementara dan MANAGEMENT OF THE
bedah mempertanyakan perlunya melakukan
diseksi leher komprehensif dalam situasi ini
permanen serta meningkatkan risiko
kerusakan pada saraf laring berulang.
NECK IN MELANOMA
dan sekarang ada beberapa laporan yang Dengan demikian, pembedahan dari bagian
menggambarkan penggunaan selektif atau pusat hanya boleh dilakukan jika ada node Management of the
superselektif (perpindahan dua atau lebih yang tampak membesar atau Clinically Negative Neck
level leher yang berdekatan) diseksi leher ke mencurigakan.
mengobati penyakit residual tanpa Metastasis nodal regional relatif jarang pada
peningkatan kekambuhan regional. Lateral Compartment Nodes melanoma kulit tipis (tebal <1 mm) pada
Meskipun metastasis okultisme terlihat pada daerah kepala dan leher, dan oleh karena itu
END tidak direkomendasikan. Lesi yang lebih
MANAGEMENT OF THE NECK hingga 40% dari pasien, penelitian telah
menunjukkan bahwa pada pasien yang tebal (> 4 mm) dikaitkan dengan insiden tinggi
IN THYROID CANCER memiliki diseksi leher lateral dan mereka yang metastasis jauh dan oleh karena itu END
Pada pasien dengan leher negatif secara klinis, tidak, laju aliran regional sama, kemungkinan tidak berdampak pada
kejadian mikrometastasis okultisme di leher menunjukkan bahwa diseksi elektif rutin kelangsungan hidup dalam populasi ini. Peran
berkisar dari 30% hingga 70%. Insidensi lateral leher tidak diindikasikan. Terapi END pada pasien dengan melanoma dengan
tergantung pada ukuran primer (26% pada yodium radioaktif mungkin cukup untuk
ketebalan sedang (tebal 1,0 hingga 4 mm) terus
tumor <1 cm dan 66% pada tumor> 1 cm). mengobati penyakit metastasis okultisme.
Machens et al. melaporkan bahwa node pusat Pengobatan elektif pada leher latal karena itu diperdebatkan, karena hanya sekitar 15%
dan lateral terlibat dalam 29% masing-masing, bukan praktik standar. pasien yang memiliki nodus metastasis yang
sedangkan Wada et al. melaporkan 61% untuk dapat dibuktikan secara histologis sehingga
kompartemen pusat dan 40% untuk 85% sisanya dapat dianggap telah mengalami
kompartemen lateral. Miralley melaporkan Management of the Clinically perlambatan. prosedur sary. Pasien-pasien ini
bahwa node paratrakeal adalah situs yang Positive Neck dipilih untuk biopsi simpul sentinel untuk
paling umum terlibat (50%). Shaha
melaporkan pada 1.038 pasien di MSKCC Jika ada node di kompartemen pusat, diseksi memudahkan penatalaksanaan lebih lanjut.
bahwa 56% pasien memiliki leher positif secara leher kompartemen sentral dilakukan. Jika Empat percobaan acak dan studi retrospektif
klinis pada evaluasi awal. Mengingat fakta ada node di kompartemen lateral, maka diseksi yang besar pada pasien dengan melanoma
bahwa metastasis kelenjar getah bening begitu leher lateral juga harus dilakukan. Pasien yang ketebalan menengah telah gagal menunjukkan
umum, mungkin agak mengejutkan bahwa memiliki nodus lateral positif tetapi tidak ada peningkatan dalam kelangsungan hidup
kanker tiroid memiliki tingkat kelangsungan nodus di kompartemen sentral secara klinis,
hidup 10 tahun 93% hingga 98%. Masih ada setelah END.
yaitu, melewati metastasis, diobati dengan
kontroversi tentang dampak metastasis nodal diseksi leher lateral dan sentral terpadu;
pada kelangsungan hidup. Beberapa
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada
sebuah studi terbaru oleh Khafif et al. Management of the
melaporkan bahwa pada pasien dengan node
penurunan dalam kelangsungan hidup di
positif di kompartemen leher lateral, 84% dari Clinically Positive Neck
hadapan penyakit nodal, terutama pada
populasi yang lebih muda dari pasien <45 pasien ini juga akan memiliki node positif di Penyebaran limfatik regional yang tampak
tahun. Studi lain melaporkan kelangsungan kompartemen sentral. Perdebatan utama secara klinis ke kelenjar parotis atau ke
hidup yang berkurang. Ukuran nodal> 3 cm adalah mengenai jenis diseksi leher lateral apa kelenjar getah bening serviks harus dikelola
dan penyebaran ekstrakapsular adalah tanda yang harus dilakukan. Beberapa penelitian dengan parotidektomi yang memadai dan
prognostik yang buruk. Oleh karena itu telah menunjukkan bahwa berbagai level leher diseksi leher komprehensif, dengan
pengelolaan leher adalah subjek yang terlibat ketika leher lateral positif secara klinis. kemungkinan terapi radiasi tambahan.
kontroversial. Ini adalah argumen yang menentang “memetik Awalnya diyakini sebagai tumor yang resisten
buah beri” atau diseksi leher super selektif terhadap radiasi, melanoma kulit memiliki
karena hal ini dapat menyebabkan tingkat respons radiasi yang berbeda dari karsinoma
Management of the Clinically yang lebih tinggi dari penyakit yang terlewat sel skuamosa, menunjukkan kematian sel
Negative Neck dan operasi yang berulang. Direkomendasikan tumor yang efektif pada dosis per fraksi yang
lebih tinggi daripada SCC. Akibatnya, skema
bahwa RND tipe III modifikasi komprehensif
Central Compartment Nodes dilakukan untuk leher positif. Dalam studi
hipofraksiasi yang menggunakan fraksi dosis
Karena tingginya insiden metoda okultisme, besar telah digunakan. Radioterapi
banyak yang merekomendasikan pengobatan
Kuperman dari 44 pembedahan leher pada 39 hipofractionasi ajuvan telah terbukti
elektif pada kelenjar getah bening pasien, semua pasien memiliki tingkat II meningkatkan tingkat kontrol lokoregional
kompartemen pusat. Dalam sebuah studi sampai V yang dibedah; insiden metastasis aktuaria 5 tahun untuk pasien dengan
kasus kontrol dari 195 pasien yang mengalami adalah 52% di level II, 57% di level III, 41% di penyakit stadium II dan III.
diseksi leher kompartemen sentral, satu studi level IV, dan 21% di level V. Roh melaporkan
melaporkan bahwa kelangsungan hidup 10
tahun lebih besar pada kelompok yang
bahwa 76% level IV dan 70% level IIA dan III
node terlibat, 17% dari level IIB, 4% di level I,
MANAGEMENT OF THE NECK
memiliki diseksi leher dibandingkan dengan dan 16% di kompartemen infraaccessory level IN SALIVARY GLAND CANCER
mereka yang tidak (98,4% vs 89% menjadi V tetapi 0% di kompartemen saraf
92%) . Disarankan lain bahwa hanya bagian supraaccessory level V. Oleh karena itu penulis Management of the Clinically
sentral ipsilateral yang perlu dibedah untuk
tumor <2 cm; kadar tiroglobulin
ini merekomendasikan pembedahan level II ke Negative Neck
V termasuk level IIB tetapi hemat.
pascaperawatan untuk pasien yang memiliki kompartemen suaccesscessory level V. Metastasis serviks okultisme jarang terjadi
kompartemen sentral ipsilateral versus Sebaliknya, sebuah studi membandingkan pada kanker kelenjar ludah utama. Armstrong
komplit adalah setara. Penulis lain MRND tipe III dengan diseksi leher selektif et al. melaporkan kejadian metastasis
menunjukkan bahwa terapi yodium radioaktif (level II ke IV) menunjukkan tidak ada okultisme sebesar 12% pada 407 pasien
aktif mungkin menjadi pengobatan alternatif
perbedaan dalam bebas penyaki,
karena kompartemen sentral
kelangsungan hidup, kelangsungan hidup
secara keseluruhan, atau rekurensi lokal pada
80 bulan follow up.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 343
Management of the
Clinically Positive Neck
Untuk metastasis nodal yang jelas secara klinis,
pasien harus dirawat dengan parotidektomi, dan
diseksi leher komprehensif diikuti oleh
radioterapi pasca operasi. Klussman et al. telah
melaporkan bahwa pada analisis multivariat,
keterlibatan kelenjar getah bening tingkat I
adalah prediktor independen of
Fig. 11. Identification of the spinal accessory nerve in the posterior triangle of the neck.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 345
saraf vagus dan arteri karotis (Gbr. 15). Vena
tiroid tengah perlu diidentifikasi, dibagi, dan
diikat dengan sutera 3-0 saat memasuki aspek
medial vena jugularis interna. Bekerja dalam
arah cephalad, saraf hipoglosus kemudian
diidentifikasi di luar bifurkasi arteri karotis.
Mobilisasi medial tambahan spesimen
diperoleh dengan membagi pleksus serviks
superior. Batas anteromedial dari diseksi
adalah perut anterior otot omohyoid. Ini
dimasukkan ke dalam spesimen dengan
membedahnya hingga keterikatannya dengan
tulang hyoid, di mana ia kemudian terlepas.
Diseksi yang hati-hati pada level ini
memungkinkan identifikasi pembuluh tiroid
superior. Vena tiroid superior dibagi dan diikat
dan arteri tiroid superior dipertahankan.
Flap kulit superior kemudian
diangkat. Setelah membagi otot platysma,
fasia pada aspek inferior kelenjar
submanerbular dibagi dan dibedah,
memungkinkan lipatan kulit superior untuk
diangkat pada bidang ini. Hal ini
memungkinkan cabang mandinal dari saraf
wajah diekspos, dilindungi, dan
dipertahankan. Saraf ini terletak tepat di
depan fasia submandibular dan superfisial
ke posterior wajah
Fig. 12. Dissection of fibrofatty tissue in the posterior triangle of the muscular floor proceeds in a lateral-
to-medial direction.
Fig. 13. Identification of the phrenic nerve on the surface of the anterior scalene muscle.
346 Part III: The Head and Neck
Fig. 14. The lower end of the internal jugular vein is identified, dissected, and then divided between clamps.
Fig. 15. Dissection of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and internal jugular vein proceeds in a cephalad direction off the
carotid artery and vagus nerve.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 347
perut anterior dari otot digastrik, diikuti oleh
otot mylohyoid. Bundel neuro-vaskular ke otot
mylohyoid diidentifikasi, dibagi, dan diikat
(Gbr. 18). Beberapa klem digunakan untuk
menerapkan traksi lembut pada kelenjar
submandibular, sehingga memungkinkan
untuk dimobilisasi dari tempat tidurnya.
Retractor loop ditempatkan di bawah tepi otot
mylohyoid yang bebas, menariknya secara
khusus. Manuver ini memungkinkan paparan
saraf lingual dan sekretor serabut ke ganglion
submandibular. Serat-serat ini dibagi, dengan
hati-hati untuk melindungi dan menjaga saraf
lingual (Gbr. 19). Setelah ini, saluran
submandibular dibedah, dibagi, dan diikat.
Perawatan diambil untuk tidak memasuki
fasia otot hyoglossus seperti di pesawat ini
bahwa saraf hipoflalal terletak. Kelenjar
submandibular sekarang ditarik ke lateral dan
dipisahkan dari perut posterior otot digastrik.
Bagian proksimal dari arteri wajah kemudian
diidentifikasi pada aspek pos teromedial dari
perut posterior otot digastrik. Terbagi dalam
klem dan diikat dengan sutra 3-0 (Gbr. 20).
Following this, the tail of parotid is re-
tracted cephalad, allowing access to the
posterior belly of the digastric muscle. Sev- eral
small pharyngeal veins need to be divided
and ligated. After this, the posterior belly of the
digastric muscle is retracted ce- phalad with a
deep right-angled retractor. The occipital
artery and vein lying superfi- cial to the internal
jugular vein are divided and ligated, allowing
exposure of the upper end of the internal
jugular vein at the base of the skull. The vein is
Fig. 16. Identification of the marginal branch of the facial nerve anterior to the submandibular fascia
and superficial to the posterior facial vein.
able to be delivered.
Meticulous hemostasis is then secured
with ligation or electrocautery and the
vena (Gbr. 16). Vena diikat dan tunggul cabang serviks saraf wajah diidentifikasi wound irrigated with a plentiful amount of
atasnya menarik cephalad, melindungi dan dapat dibagi distal ke pemisahannya saline. Large suction drains are inserted
cabang marginal saraf wajah (Gbr. 17). Di dari cabang mandibula marginal. Diseksi
sekarang berlanjut di sepanjang batas
through stab incisions in the lower skin
luar, diseksi ini dilakukan dengan tajam, flaps (Fig. 22). Satu saluran ditempatkan di
mengangkat saraf dengan lipatan kulit. bawah mandibula. Lampiran fasia antara
otot sternokleidoma-toid dan sudut sepanjang batas anterior otot trapezius dan
Dalam melakukan manuver ini, ditahan dengan loop jahitan krom. Drain
mandibula dibagi, dan kemudian diseksi di
sepanjang batas bawah mandibula anterior ditempatkan di sepanjang otot-otot
memungkinkan pengiriman kelenjar getah tali, medial ke arteri karotis, dan sekali lagi
bening wajah prevaskular. Vena wajah dan diamankan dengan loop jahitan catgut krom.
arteri dibagi pada titik ini pada bagian Kedua saluran pembuangan diamankan ke
posterior superior kelenjar submandibular. kulit dengan jahitan sutra tali-tas. Sayatan
Identifikasi perut anterior otot ipsilateral kemudian ditutup dalam dua lapisan
dan kontralateral digastrik kemudian menggunakan 3-0 chromic catgut interrupted
dilakukan. Jaringan nodal dalam segitiga suture untuk otot platysma dan 5-0 nylon
submental dibedah, ligating pembuluh di untuk kulit.
puncak segitiga dengan ikatan sutra 3-0. Hisap pada saluran air dipertahankan saat
Jaringan lunak dari segitiga submental luka sedang ditutup. Penutup kedap udara
kemudian dibedah ipsilateral diperlukan untuk memastikan kepatuhan
Fig. 17. Ligation of the posterior facial vein with antara kulit dan struktur dalam leher. Saluran
retraction of its upper stump cephalad to protect pembuangan tetap di tempatnya selama 4
the marginal branch of the facial nerve. hingga 7 hari dan
348 Part III: The Head and Neck
Fig. 18. The neurovascular bundle to the mylohyoid muscle is identified, divided, and ligated.
dihapus hanya sekali drainase serosa minimal Diseksi segitiga submental dan submanubular
Selanjutnya, saraf aksesori tulang belakang
hadir. kemudian dilakukan dengan cara yang identik
diidentifikasi karena menembus sepertiga
dengan yang dijelaskan untuk MRND tipe I.
bagian atas otot sternokleidomastoid. Dengan
Diseksi kemudian dilanjutkan ke kelenjar
Selective Neck Dissection getah bening level II dan III. Flap kulit inferior
menggunakan gunting Reynalds, saraf dibedah
keluar, ke arah ujung proksimal vena jugularis
dinaikkan di bidang subplatysmal ke tepi
Supraomohyoid Neck Dissection posterior otot sterno-cleidomastoid secara
interna dan perut posterior otot digastrik.
Sayatan kulit yang digunakan untuk SOHND Bantalan lemak dan kelenjar getah bening
lateral dan perlekatan sternokleidoma-otot toid
berada di lipatan kulit sekitar dua jari di bawah yang terletak di level IIB kemudian dengan
secara inferior. Retractor loop digunakan
batas bawah mandibula (Gbr. 9B). Sayatan hati-hati dibedah menggunakan
untuk menarik kembali flap inferior. Fasia
kulit diperdalam melalui otot platysma dengan electrocautery, dengan hati-hati agar tidak
pada batas anterior otot sternokleidoma-toid
electrocautery. Perawatan diambil untuk merusak saraf aksesori tulang belakang.
diinsisi, dan hubungan fasia antara ekor
menjaga saraf aurikular yang lebih besar saat Jaringan ini kemudian dilewatkan di bawah
kelenjar parotis dan otot sternokleidomastoid
berjalan di atas otot sternokleidomastoid. Flap saraf aksesori tulang belakang dan ditarik ke
dibedah, memungkinkan pemaparan dari
superior dinaikkan pertama kali di bidang arah medial menggunakan penjepit. Dengan
perut posterior otot digastrik. Retractor loop
subplatysmal. Fasia yang menutupi kelenjar otot sterno-cleidomastoid ditarik ke lateral
besar digunakan untuk menarik kembali otot
submandibular yang mengandung cabang menggunakan retraksi Richardson dan
sternocleidomastoid secara lateral, membagi
marjinal dari saraf wajah diinsisi dan lapisan kontraksi pada jaringan lunak secara medial,
beberapa pembuluh makanan kecil dari
ini diangkat bersamaan dengan flap kulit jaringan yang menutupi pleksus serviks saraf
oksipital dan arteri tiroid superior saat mereka
superior menggunakan retraktor ujung terbagi. Klem ditempatkan di atas
memasuki otot sternokleidomastoid
tumpul.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 349
Jaringan lunak dan ditarik medial, diseksi adalah perut superior dari otot saraf glossal; ini perlu diikat secara individual
memungkinkan saraf yang mendasari dari omohyoid. Persimpangan antara otot ini, dengan dasi sutra 3-0.
pleksus serviks untuk divisualisasikan. otot sternokleidomastoid, dan vena Spesimen yang mencakup level I hingga
Diseksi kemudian dilanjutkan dengan arah jugularis interna diidentifikasi III kemudian dikirimkan. Luka diirigasi
lateral-ke-medial pada bidang yang hanya menggunakan loop retractor. Jaringan dengan saline, hemostasis diperoleh dengan
dangkal pada saraf-saraf ini. Batas bawah lunak yang mengandung kelenjar getah elec-trocautery, dan drain pengisapan
bagian adalah perut inferior otot omohyoid bening dari rantai midjugu kemudian tunggal dimasukkan melalui sayatan tusuk
yang terletak pada aspek inferior segitiga ditarik kembali ke arah sefalad dan terpisah dan diamankan ke kulit dengan
posterior. Saraf frenikus kemudian dibedah dari vena jugol interna dan perut jahitan tali-tas. Sayatan ditutup dalam dua
diidentifikasi pada otot skalen anterior dan superior dari otot omohyoid. Diseksi lapisan dengan catgut kromik 3-0
dipertahankan dengan hati-hati. Fasia adalah dalam pesawat hanya superfisial terinterupsi untuk otot platma dan nilon 5-
selubung karotis terbagi, memungkinkan ke pembuluh tiroid superior. Arteri tiroid 0 untuk kulit. Defisit fungsional dan
paparan saraf vagus, arteri karotis, dan vena superior dipertahankan tetapi vena perlu kosmetik yang dihasilkan tidak signifikan .
jugularis interna. Ini paling baik dilakukan dibagi dan diikat pada aspek medial vena
dengan bekerja dari arah cephalad ke caudal jugularis interna. Secara superior, vena Anterolateral Neck Dissection
menggunakan penjepit Adson untuk wajah umum kemudian diidentifikasi Diseksi ini biasanya dilakukan sebagai
menyebarkan amplop fasia untuk pembagian pada aspek medial vena jugularis interna prosedur pementasan dalam hubungannya
dengan electrocautery. Bekerja dari arah dan dibagi dalam klem dan diikat dengan dengan eksisi karsinoma primer laring atau
lateral ke medial, jaringan lunak yang meliputi sutra 3-0. Saraf hipoglosus diidentifikasi faring pada pasien dengan leher dengan
kelenjar getah bening level II dan III dibedah dan jaringan berbaring lateral dan inferior penyakit yang secara klinis negatif. Ini
dari vena jugularis interna. Batas anteromedial dibedah. Beberapa vena faring ditemukan melibatkan diseksi kelenjar getah bening
dari dekat dengan hipo- dari level II ke IV. Pada
350 Part III: The Head and Neck
Fig. 21. Exposure of the upper end of the internal jugular vein.
Chapter 25: Neck Dissection 351
EDITOR’S COMMENT tients, not surprising, but only 74 percent in sentinel ity to the spinal accessory nerve (27 percent). In this
node-positive patients, and this difference was sta- study, the majority of the tumor-bearing nodes were
tistically significant. The authors comment that the found in the posteriortriangle (72 percent). Wei, WI,
In the past five years, there has been a continuing sentinel node biopsy was a safe and accurate staging et al., Archives of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck
evolution in the place of the radical neck dissec- modality in select patients with clinical stages I and Surgery, 2001, 127:1457–1462, and found that the
tion in the treatment of head and neck cancer. II. The results are not only promising short-term, most common area was Level II in 53 percent of
Specifically, as individuals have gotten experi- but long-term as well. The significant outcome to patients. Taken all together, Khafif, et al., conclude ence
in the place of radical neck dissection in the me is the degree of control of the neck, even follow- that the best choice of recurrent nasopharyngeal treatment
of oral, hypopharyngeal, oropharyn- ing a positive sentinel lymph node result. carcinoma is dissection of N2 and N3 because this is
geal, and carcinoma of the thyroid and squamous What happens after the salvage dissections in where the recurrence generally occurs.
cell of the various orifices of the head and neck as local regional failures vs. isolated nodal failures in In a later paper from Wei’s group (Tsang, RKY,
well as melanoma, there has been a tendency to nasopharyngeal carcinoma as reported by Khafif, et al., with Wei, WI being the senior and last author,
be freer in the case of head and neck carcinoma A., et al., European Archive Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck, published online, 2011) conclude
to do radical neck dissections. Although chemo- 2010, 267:997– 999. Khafif and his co-authors wrote that neck dissection is efficacious in nasopharyn-
radiation has its supporters, in fact, recently there an editorial entitled, “Is it Necessary to Perform geal carcinoma with nodal failure despite or with
has been a recognition that despite treatment Radical Neck Dissection as a Salvage Procedure for synchronous local failure. In this paper, a retro-
with chemoradiation, the use of radical neck dis- Persistent or Recurrent Neck Disease after Chemo- spective review of all patients who underwent neck
section as salvage or in the case of recurrence, has radiotherapy in Patients with Nasopharyngeal dissections for nodal failure, the five year overall
something to offer as far as long-term survival. Cancer?” The answer appears to be that it is. This survival was 58 percent. Wei is credited with a lot
Thus, individuals have turned to sentinel node is a multi country report, including data from the of the excellent papers in this particular area.
biopsy for oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell Sackler Faculty of Medicine at Tel Aviv University in To switch gears, Porterfield, JR, et al., Archives
carcinoma to stage these lesions. Such an approach Israel (Dr. Khafif), The University of Udine, Italy (Dr. of Surgery, 2009, 144:567–574, presented data
has been recently published by Broglie, MA, et al., Ferlito), the Nijmegen Medical Center, The Nether- in the management of lymph node metastases,
Annals of Surgical Oncology, published online, lands (Dr. Takes), and the Division of Otolaryngol- which they claim represents approximately 90
2011, reviewed the long term results of sentinel ogy-Head and Neck Surgery at Southern Illinois percent of disease recurrence in papillary thyroid
node biopsy in early (T1/T2) oral and oropharyn- University School of Medicine in Springfield (Dr. carcinoma. According to their data, they define geal
squamous cell carcinoma in the Department Robbins). Initially, they referred to the radical neck (Clive Grant is the chief of the section at the of
Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, of the dissection (Khoo, ML, et al., Australia and New Zea- Mayo Clinic) of the techniques by which recur-
Kantonhospital St. Gallen, Switzerland. In this sin- land Journal of Surgery, 1999, 69:354–356) of 68 pa- rent carcinoma of the thyroid can be treated in gle
institution study, a prospective consecutive co- tients with nasopharyngeal cancer who underwent a stepwise fashion with good salvage in papillary hort
analysis of 79 patients with a median age of 60 radical neck dissection for regionally recurrent dis- thyroid carcinoma. Dr. Sally Carty of Pittsburgh in years,
and an age range of 34 to 87 years, 67 percent ease, and there were 74 neck dissection specimens. the discussion is not as sanguine as Clive Grant’s of whom
were male, was carried out between 2000 They wanted to analyze the site of positive resec- group in dissection of recurrence of papillary car- and 2006.
Lymphatic mapping was carried out in tions. Level II had the highest rate of metastases, cinoma of the thyroid, although she believes that this study,
although I am not certain that this is very and Level V immediately thereafter. 68 percent of being that aggressive may not be as much as is commonly
carried out, but utilizing a preoperative the patients had metastatic disease at a single level. called for.
lymphoscintigram and an intraoperative use of a They believe that radical neck dissection is the Finally, Falchook, AD, et al., from the Univer-
handheld gamma probe. The endpoints of this study treatment of choice because of the multiple levels sity of Florida in Gainesville (American Journal
were naturally disease overall, disease-specific, and of metastases, with Level II being the highest rate of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Medicine and
disease-free survival, as well as neck control rate. with 88 percent. The authors of this paper include Surgery, 2011, published online) took up the ques-
Sentinel node biopsy was carried out in the 79 that Level II and Level III disease after concurrent tion of the second primary after previously defini-
patients of which 37 percent (29) had positive senti- chemo radiation is appropriate, because Ferlito, tive radiotherapy. They concluded that there was
nel nodes. Isolated tumor cells only were present in A., et al., Head and Neck, 2010, 32:253–261, believes a small yield in which only one (eight percent) of
six of the 29 (21 percent), 48 percent (14 out of 29) that these would be the most fertile for metastases. 13 neck dissection specimens was positive in ten
micrometastases and nine of 29 (31 percent) mac- Wei, et al., “Pathological Basis of Surgery in the patients. Local regional control was 67 percent,
rometastases. For the entire cohort, overall survival Management of Post-Radiotherapy Cervical Me- in this group local control was 88 percent, disease
(OS) was 80 percent, disease specific survival (DSS) tastasis in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma.”, Archives of free survival was 62 percent, overall survival was
was 85 percent, and disease-free survival (DFS) was Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, 1992, 118: 33 percent, and cause specific survival rate was
87 percent; for sentinel node-negative patients; 923–929 with discussion at page 930, examined the 77 percent. There were a fair number of complica-
overall survival was 88 percent; disease specific sur- specimens of 43 patients with either persistent or tions of treatment, but it did appear that the au-
vival was 96 percent; and disease-free survival was recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma in the neck thors thought that it was worthwhile carrying out
96 percent. For the sentinel node biopsy positive as metastases. The tumors showed a fair amount of collective neck dissections for a second primary.
patients, the results were 74 percent OS, 73 percent aggressiveness including extracapsular spread in 70 Clearly, as Dr. Carty said in her discussion of
DSS, and 77 percent DFS. The DSS reached statis- percent of patients, tumor cells and isolated clusters, Clive Grant’s group’s paper, there is ample room
tical significance. The neck control rate after five again outside of the capsule (30 percent), and proba- for discussion, and this area is not yet settled.
years was 96 percent in sentinel node-negative pa- bly most troubling of all, tumor cells lying in proxim- J.E.F.
Anomali kongenital pada leher malities yang dihasilkan dari kesalahan tik malformasi. Manajemen bedah kelainan
dimanifestasikan secara klinis sebagai nodul dalam perkembangan embriologis struktur ini ditujukan untuk reseksi lengkap dan
subkutan atau lesi massa, lubang kulit, atau di kepala dan leher termasuk kista saluran mencegah infeksi.
sinus drainase. Kelainan yang paling abnor- tiroglos, sisa sumbing cabang, dan limfa -
Chapter 26: Congenital Lesions: Thyroglossal Duct Cysts, Branchial Cleft Anomalies, and Cystic Hygromas 353
Diagnosis biasanya dapat ditegakkan dari kista dimobilisasi dari struktur sekitarnya
anamnesis dan pemeriksaan fisik. Sangat menggunakan electrocautery (Gbr. 3). Dokter
Clinical Presentation and Evaluation penting untuk mengeluarkan keberadaan bedah harus menahan godaan untuk
tiroid ektopik sisa, yang mungkin merupakan berdiseksi terlalu dekat ke saluran, karena
Lebih dari setengah dari semua kista saluran berkembang ke posterior dan superior ke
tiroglos didiagnosis dalam 10 tahun pertama satu-satunya sumber hormon tiroid untuk
pasien. Jika keberadaan kelenjar tiroid normal tulang hyoid. Sebaliknya, sejumlah besar
kehidupan. Lesi biasanya hadir sebagai nodul jaringan di sekitarnya harus diambil dalam
kistik tanpa gejala, tanpa gejala di garis tengah dapat ditetapkan pada pemeriksaan fisik, tidak
diseksi hingga tulang hyoid, untuk
leher (Gbr. 2). Kadang-kadang, mereka mungkin ada evaluasi lain yang diperlukan. Namun,
mengurangi kemungkinan saluran aksesori
berada di luar garis tengah dengan 1 hingga 2 biasanya tepat untuk melakukan penelitian yang terlewat dengan kekambuhan yang
cm. Lesi biasanya lebih rendah dari tulang hyoid, USG untuk mengkonfirmasi keberadaan diakibatkannya. Ketidakmampuan untuk
dan bergerak dengan menelan. Diagnosis yang kelenjar tiroid normal. Biasanya tidak mengidentifikasi dengan jelas saluran yang
diperlukan untuk mendapatkan pemindaian meluas ke tulang hyoid menunjukkan bahwa
Fig. 4. Traction on the divided hyoid facilitates Fig. 6. Resected specimen, demonstrating the thyroglossal duct cyst on the left, and the hyoid bone in
exposure and division of the opposite ramus. the center of the specimen.
Chapter 26: Congenital Lesions: Thyroglossal Duct Cysts, Branchial Cleft Anomalies, and Cystic Hygromas 355
kemungkinan kekambuhan setelah operasi.
kesalahan dalam pengembangan aparatur filin sumbing dari mana lesi berasal. Pemindaian
Risiko-risiko ini harus diseimbangkan dengan
embrionik. Lesi tersebut mewakili sekitar 30% computed tomographic (CT) direkomendasikan
meningkatnya kesulitan melindungi saraf dan
dari massa leher bawaan. Agak keliru untuk untuk perencanaan bedah. Dalam sekitar 80%
pembuluh darah kecil pada bayi yang mungkin
menyebut anomali sumbing cabang ini, karena kasus, CT scan akan dapat menentukan secara
berhubungan intim dengan saluran fistula.
pada kenyataannya ketidaknormalan ini memiliki akurat jalannya saluran fistula. Jika dicurigai
Secara seimbang, mungkin dapat menunda
kontribusi dari celah, lengkung, atau kantong adanya fistula sumbing cabang ketiga atau
operasi sampai usia 9 hingga 12 bulan, untuk
bran. Ketika lengkungan phyngeal menunjukkan keempat, enoskopi juga dianjurkan sesaat
memfasilitasi diseksi.
obliterasi yang tidak lengkap, dan berkomunikasi sebelum operasi untuk mengidentifikasi
Anomali bronkial yang paling umum adalah
dengan kulit atau mukosa, hasil sinus. Jika ada masuknya fistula ke dalam sinus pyriform.
sisa-sisa celah faring kedua. Kista sumbing
kegagalan sumbing dan kantong untuk Kanulasi ostium ini dengan kateter
cabang paling umum, mewakili sekitar 63%
melenyapkan, akan ada komunikasi terus pengumpanan kecil dapat membantu
dari anomali sumbing faringal kedua, muncul
menerus antara mukosa dan kulit, menghasilkan menghilangkan seluruh saluran fistula.
sebagai nodul di leher lateral yang berdekatan
fistula cabang. Akhirnya, ketika sisa celah faring
dengan otot sterno-cleidomastoid (Gbr. 7).
membentuk rongga berlapis epidermis tanpa
komunikasi lainnya, kista akan menghasilkan. Surgical Management and Outcome Diagnosis banding meliputi pembesaran
kelenjar getah bening, kista dermoid, atau
Ingatan yang strukturnya normal kepala Manajemen definitif sisa-sisa sumbing faring malformasi limfatik. Sinus sumbing bercabang
dan leher timbul dari celah atau kantong faring membutuhkan eksisi bedah lengkap. Eksisi kedua mewakili sekitar sepertiga lesi yang
tertentu membantu memprediksi lokasi kelainan yang tidak lengkap berhubungan dengan timbul dari sumbing kedua. Dalam kasus ini,
yang terkait. Karena lengkungan pertama insiden tinggi infeksi berikutnya. Jika lesi traktus sinus akan melewati superior antara
akhirnya berkembang menjadi struktur telinga awalnya muncul dengan infeksi akut, aspirasi arteri karotis interna dan eksterna, dan
tengah dan saraf wajah, kista sumbing cabang jarum dan antibiotik harus digunakan untuk berdekatan dengan saraf glosofaringeal dan
pertama biasanya hadir sebagai fistula mengelola proses akut. Pembedahan harus hipoglosur, dalam perjalanan menuju faring
pengeringan di daerah preauricular atau ditunda selama 6 hingga 8 minggu. Waktu dan fossa tonsil (Gbr. 8).
postauricular, atau dapat dikaitkan dengan operasi pada pasien tanpa gejala agak Reseksi bedah harus dilakukan
saluran fistula atau kista yang berdekatan kontroversial. Beberapa penulis dengan anestesi umum, dan antibiotik
dengan saraf wajah dan kemungkinan merekomendasikan reseksi bedah definitif perioperatif harus diberikan. Sayatan
melibatkan kelenjar parotis. Demikian pula, pada saat diagnosis, bahkan pada periode awal harus secara elips memilih ostium
lengkungan faring kedua membentuk tulang neonatal. Yang lain merekomendasikan eksternal. Identifikasi dan diseksi
hyoid dan area terkait leher, dan memunculkan menunggu sampai anak-anak sedikit lebih tua, saluran dapat difasilitasi dengan
fosil tonsil dan supratonsilar. Dengan demikian, mungkin 2 atau 3 tahun. Risiko utama penempatan probe saluran lakrimal
anomali sumbing kedua terletak di leher latal menunggu sampai anak menjadi lebih besar kecil ke dalam ostium, dan dengan
yang berdekatan dengan otot sternokleidoma- adalah perkembangan infeksi yang terjadi menggunakan bedah kecil
toid, dan biasanya memiliki saluran fistula yang bersamaan, membuat pembedahan definitif
memasuki fossa supratonsillar. Akhirnya, lebih sulit; juga, ini dikaitkan dengan yang
kantong ketiga dan keempat membentuk faring lebih tinggi
inferior, dan sinus dan fistula ini biasanya
Fig. 7. Typical location of a second branchial cleft cyst. The cyst is at the level of the carotid bifurcation.
No external opening is present. Note the relationship to regional nerves. CN, cranial nerve.
356 Part III: The Head and Neck
penjepit untuk menahannya di tempat maju secara superior, mungkin perlu untuk quent following resection of lesions arising
selama prosedur. Diseksi tajam yang tepat buat tandingan "tangga" lebih tinggi di leher from the first branchial cleft, probably ow- ing
menggunakan gunting halus atau (Gbr. 10). Saluran yang dibedah dapat to the difficulty in completely remov- ing the
elektrokauter harus dilakukan di sepanjang dialihkan hingga sayatan kedua ke con - lesion that is in intimate associa- tion with
saluran (Gbr. 9). Sebagai risalah the facial nerve and the parotid gland.
LYMPHATIC MALFORMATIONS
Embryology and Anatomy
Sistem limfatik berfungsi
mengembalikan cairan jaringan
ekstravaskular ke sirkulasi darah.
Sistem ini muncul dari kantung getah
bening yang berkembang di seluruh
tubuh tempat pembuluh darah besar
bergabung. Mereka awalnya berbagi
derivasi embrionik dengan pembuluh
darah tetapi akhirnya limfatik terpisah
menjadi sistem sirkulasi yang terpisah.
Dari kantung-kantung ini muncul sel-
sel enfatik limfatik yang berkembang
biak, bermigrasi, dan bertunas untuk
membentuk saluran limfatik, kapiler,
dan pembuluh darah untuk
transportasi getah bening di antara
kantung limfa. Diperkirakan bahwa
kelainan limfatik kongenital terjadi
ketika ada kegagalan fusi lym-
Fig. 9. Technique of excision of second branchial cleft fistula. The skin ostium is incorporated in the el- phatic vessels arising from these various
liptical incision. Note the lacrimal duct probe in the tract to facilitate its dissection. lymph sacs.
Chapter 26: Congenital Lesions: Thyroglossal Duct Cysts, Branchial Cleft Anomalies, and Cystic Hygromas 357
Fig. 11. The previously mobilized tract is passed from the original incision to
the counterincision.
Fig. 10. The extent of the tract eventually limits the dissection. A clamp
is passed along the dissected tract to guide the performance of a coun-
terincision or “stepladder” incision.
Surgical Management and Outcome
Complete surgical resection remains the
preferred therapy for lesions that are local-
Clinical Presentation and Evaluation lesi dengan getah bening yang semakin ized and that do not have evidence of in-
besar kista. sinuation around other vital neck struc-
Mayoritas kelainan limfatik kongenital Malformasi limfatik adalah proses tures on magnetic resonance imaging. The
muncul di leher, hampir semuanya menjadi jinak, yang reseksi bedah lengkap procedure should be done under general
jelas sebelum usia 2 tahun. Mereka terjadi secara tradisional direkomendasikan. anesthesia, with the administration of peri-
Lesi sering menyinari saraf dan operative antibiotics. A transverse incision
paling umum pada segitiga leher post-rior
pembuluh darah, sehingga reseksi
atau anterior, biasanya menunjukkan should be made, followed by careful dissec- tion
lengkap cukup sulit. Karena sifat jinak
massa massa kompres yang tidak nyeri dari proses, tidak tepat untuk
through the platysma layer to the le- sion. It is
(Gambar 13). Mungkin ada pertumbuhan menghilangkan struktur normal untuk preferable to avoid entering the lesion during
lesi yang tiba-tiba selama beberapa hari, memastikan reseksi lengkap the course of dissection, since a distended
karena infeksi ekspirasi atas. Malformasi malformasi limfatik. Pencitraan malformation is easy to dissect from the
limfatik diklasifikasikan menurut ukuran resonansi magnetik adalah metode surrounding tissues. Care should
kista endotel di dalamnya; istilah yang paling efektif untuk menentukan
limfangioma kapiler, limfangioma tingkat anatomi lesi.
kavernosa, dan kistik hygroma digunakan
CN XI
Fig. 12. Passage of the previously mobilized tract to the counterincision facilitates fur-
ther dissection of the tract in a superomedial direction to its termination at the tonsillar
fossa, where it is suture-ligated and divided. Fig. 13. Depiction of a cystic hygroma. CN, cranial nerve.
358 Part III: The Head and Neck
sions, and especially for those with
diambil untuk menghindari cedera pembuluh
large cystic sacs.
dan saraf yang berdekatan; struktur normal
tidak boleh dikorbankan untuk mencapai
Skleroterapi dengan etanol, bleomycin, BACAAN YANG DISARANKAN
atau Picibanil (OK-432) telah menunjukkan
reseksi lengkap. Pada sebagian besar kasus, Acierno SP, Waldhausen JH. Congenital cervical cysts,
keberhasilan manajemen malformasi limfatik
saluran hisap tertutup ditinggalkan pada saat sinusesandfistulae. Otolaryngol Clin North Am
dalam banyak penelitian. Perawatan biasanya 2007;40:161–76, vii–viii.
selesai operasi. Drainase tetap sampai
terdiri dari aspirasi kista yang dipandu USG, Blei F. Congenital lymphatic malformations. Ann N Y
drainase menurun hingga nihil, yang dalam
diikuti oleh penanaman sclerosant selama 10 Acad Sci 2008;1131:185–94.
beberapa kasus mungkin memakan waktu Grasso DL, Pelizzo G, Zocconi E, et al. Lymp-
hingga 15 menit. Perawatan mungkin perlu
beberapa minggu. Setelah reseksi bedah, hangiomas of the head and neck in children. Acta
diulang beberapa kali untuk lesi yang lebih
tingkat kekambuhan yang dilaporkan adalah Otorhinolaryngol Ital 2008;28:17–20.
besar dan lebih rumit, dan paling efektif
sekitar 10% jika ahli bedah berpikir bahwa lesi Rosa PA, Hirsch DL, Dierks EJ. Congenital neck
dengan hygroma kistik dari varietas masses. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2008;
benar-benar direseksi; rekurensi adalah 50%
makrokistik.. 20:339–52.
hingga 100% pada lesi yang diketahui belum
Komplikasi manajemen operasi atau non- Schroeder JW Jr, Mohyuddin N, Maddalozzo
sepenuhnya direseksi.
Karena tingginya tingkat
operasi malformasi limfatik termasuk J. Branchial anomalies in the pediatric popu-
kekambuhan, infeksi, dan cedera pada lation. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2007;137: 289–
kekambuhan setelah reseksi bedah, 95.
ada pandangan konsensus yang struktur yang berdekatan. Kebanyakan ahli
muncul bahwa manajemen awal bedah merekomendasikan perawatan dengan
dengan skleroterapi, daripada operasi, sclerotherapy untuk lesi yang telah kambuh
direkomendasikan untuk limfatik setelah operasi.
kompleks
EDITOR’S COMMENT underwent a Sistrunk procedure, but in addition, cauterization of the sinus tract opening, 15%; and a
total thyroidectomy was performed in eight of open neck surgery with partial thyroidectomy, the
nine patients. Interestingly, the median size of 8%. The complications after surgery primarily oc-
Thyroglossal duct cysts, branchial cleft anoma- the TGD carcinomas was 10 mm. The therapeutic curred in children eight years or younger.
lies, and cystic hygromas are among the most neck dissection was included in two patients at The authors believe that their experience
common abnormalities of the neck. They may be the time of total thyroidectomy. There were two shows that fourth arch anomalies are more com-
manifested, as the authors say, as a subcutaneous patients with a regional recurrence. Eight of nine mon than once thought. Incision and drainage
nodule, a mass, a skin pit, or a draining sinus. The patients received radioactive iodine therapy. Of won as one would expect and yielded a fairly high
intent of the surgery is to completely rid the pa- the nine patients with TGD carcinoma, there was recurrence rate. Therefore, they devised evidence
tient of the lesion and of any infection associated one patient who was awaiting surgery at the time that complete incision of the entire fistula tract
with it. The authors give a no-nonsense approach of writing the article. appears preferable, which I agree with. Whether
to these lesions, whether or not it is an infection, Cystic hygromas are generally thought of as or not partial thyroidectomy will further de-
in which case needle aspiration is appropriate, being quite benign and not causing too much crease the recurrence rate, as the authors claim,
with subsequent antibiotics after culture of the trouble, yet we know that lymphatic malforma- is not clear. The authors suggest that neck open-
cystic contents. tions in children can sometimes be troublesome. ing surgery be delayed, the bases be treated with
On the other hand, there is a significant dif- Therefore, it is not surprising that a report of four antibiotics until the inflammation is decreased,
ference between thyroglossal duct cysts in chil- cases of cystic hygromas invading the brachial and then proceed to tract incision. This sounds
dren and adults. A comparison between chil- plexus or compressing it were reported by Tubbs like an appropriate approach to me.
dren and adults was reviewed by Lin et al. (Am J et al. ( J Neurosurg Pediatr 2011;7:282–5). The au- Finally, Bajaj et al. (Int J Pediatr Otorhinolar-
Otolaryngol—Head Neck Med Surg 2008;29:83–7), thors wanted to bring attention to the fact that yngol 2011, published online) reviewed all of the
in which the authors with a retrospective chart cystic hygromas, although generally not thought branchial cleft anomaly cases operated on at the
reviewed the thyroglossal duct cysts of both chil- of and with a differential diagnosis of tumors Great Ormond Street Hospital over the past 10
dren and adults between 1997 and 2002. A total of that apparently compress the brachial plexus, years. The second cleft lesions accounted for 95%
84 patients comprising 32 children and 52 adults do nonetheless occur. Although the resection of of the branchial abnormalities. They had 80 pa-
were analyzed. There was no significant sex dif- this lesion was ambivalent in the sense that not tients, evenly split—38 female and 42 male—from
ference. As compared with children, adults had all could be resected; nonetheless, there were no 1 to 14 years. There were 15 patients who had a
more left-sided and infrahyoid cyst locations. As recurrences and no damage to the neurological first branchial cleft anomaly, which is not the sub-
expected, the size of the cysts was significantly structures. ject of this paper, and 62 had a second branchial
larger in adults. Ninety percent of the adults and Other anomalies of the thyroglossal duct cleft anomaly. Complete excision was achieved in
75% of children underwent a Sistrunk operation, cysts and cystic hygromas involve congenital all first cleft cases; there was a temporary mar-
which consists of a cystectomy and excision of fourth branchial arch abnormalities as reported ginal mandibular nerve weakness in this group.
the middle of the hyoid bone and a continua- by Nicoucar et al. ( J Pediatr Surg 2008;44:1432–9), In the 62 children with a second branchial cleft
tion of excision to the thoracic inlet. There were in which a series of patients was reviewed be- anomaly, there were 12 who were bilateral and
only five recurrences, three in adults and two in tween the Department of Head and Neck Surgery the remaining 50 were unilateral. A note of cau-
children. The authors suggested that the Sistrunk at the University Hospital in Switzerland, McLean tion: in the vast majority of children, the tract ex-
operation, which has been in service since 1920, Hospital in Harvard Medical School, and the Pe- tended through a carotid bifurcation and ended
should continue to be the operation of choice. diatric Intensive Care Unit at the University Hos- up in the pharyngeal constrictor muscles. There Not
every thyroglossal duct cyst is benign. I pital in Geneva. There were 526 cases reported were two operative complications, one patient must
confess that I had never heard of a thyroglos- and fourth arch anomalies were usually located developed a seroma and one had incomplete ex- sal
duct cyst carcinoma until I read the paper by on the left and generally presented as acute sup- cision. The results suggest that even with carotid
Forest et al. (J Otolaryngol—Head Neck Surg 2011; purative thyroiditis in 45%. Recurrent neck ab- bifurcation, may be close and involved and a clean
40:151–6), in which 139 patients were reviewed scess occurred in 42%, which was surprising. Di- excision can give excellent results. One does have
from the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Camper- rect laryngoscopy was the most useful diagnostic to be careful in these patients because, in fact, the
down, Australia. Of those with thyroglossal duct tool. There were a variety of treatment options, tentacles, as it were, of the branchial cleft cysts,
cysts, nine patients—comprising 6.5%—had a but most of them were related to the technique be they first, second, or fourth, tend to conglom-
thyroglossal duct carcinoma. All were papillary that was used. Treatment options differed in re- erate, since they go to very strange places, and it
carcinoma. The median age at diagnosis was 44 currence rates: open neck surgery and tract inci- will give people difficulty.
years and the follow-up was 6.7 years. All patients sion, 15%; incision and drainage, 89%; endoscopic J.E.F.
Chapter 27: Vascular Anomalies of Infancy and Childhood 359
Anomali vaskular adalah bidang baru yang (LM)) dan lesi aliran cepat (malformasi arteri trunk (25%), atau ekstremitas (15%). Usia
melibatkan beberapa spesialisasi medis dan (aneurisma, ektasia, stenosis, fistula) atau penampilan median adalah 2 minggu; 30%
bedah. Semua anomali vaskular terlihat sangat malformasi arteriovenosa (AVM)) (Gbr. 2). Ada hingga 50% lesi dicatat saat lahir sebagai
mirip, dalam berbagai warna merah, merah juga anomali vaskular kombinasi, sering pewarnaan telekektifik atau area ekimotik.
muda, dan biru. Lapangan ini telah dihadang eponymous karena dokter dikreditkan untuk IH tumbuh lebih cepat daripada anak
oleh terminologi klinis dan histopatologis yang deskripsi awal. Salah satu contoh dari anomali selama 9 bulan pertama (fase proliferasi).
membingungkan. Istilah diagnosis tradisional vaskular kombinasi adalah Klippel-Trenaunay Ketika IH melibatkan dermis superfisial, ia
gagal memandu manajemen. Kata tampak berwarna merah. Lesi di bawah kulit
syndrome (KTS), malformasi kapiler-limfatik-
"hemangioma" adalah contoh paling mengerikan; mungkin tidak terapresiasi sampai usia 3
telah digunakan dalam arti umum untuk semua
vena (CLVM) yang terkait dengan jaringan
lunak dan hipertrofi tulang.. sampai 4 bulan ketika telah tumbuh cukup
jenis lesi vaskular.
Pasien dengan anomali vaskular sering besar untuk menyebabkan kelainan bentuk
Klasifikasi biologis anomali vaskular,
berpindah dari satu spesialis ke spesialis yang terlihat; kulit di atasnya mungkin
pertama kali diusulkan pada tahun 1982,
lainnya. Masalah mereka tampaknya berada di tampak kebiru-biruan. Pada usia 9 hingga
didasarkan pada temuan klinis, riwayat
luar bidang bedah umum dan bedah vaskular. 12 bulan, pertumbuhan IH mencapai
alamiah, dan karakteristik seluler. Skema
Karena sebagian besar anomali vaskular hadir puncak. Setelah usia 12 bulan, tumor mulai
biner ini diterima oleh Masyarakat
di kulit, "nomaden medis" ini biasanya dilihat mengalami kemunduran (fase involuting),
Internasional untuk Studi Anomali Vaskular
oleh dokter kulit atau ahli bedah plastik, dan warnanya memudar, dan lesi rata. Involusi
(ISSVA) pada tahun 1996. Anomali vaskular
kadang-kadang seorang ahli kanker karena lesi berhenti pada sekitar 50% anak-anak pada
secara luas dibagi menjadi dua kelompok:
mereka dianggap semacam tumor.. usia 5 tahun (fase involusi). Setelah involusi,
tumor dan malformasi (Tabel 1). Tumor
Pemisahan biologis dari dua kategori setengah dari anak-anak akan memiliki
vaskular ditandai oleh proliferasi sel
utama, tumor dan malformasi, telah kelainan: sisa-sisa lesi, jaringan parut,
endotel. Malformasi vaskular timbul akibat
merangsang pembentukan pusat anomali residu fibrofatty, kulit berlebihan, atau
disfogenesis dan memiliki pergantian sel
vaskular di rumah sakit rujukan utama. Jelas hancurnya struktur anatomi.
endotel yang normal. Berdasarkan
klasifikasi ini, anomali vaskular dapat bahwa tidak ada spesialis yang dapat memiliki
didiagnosis dengan riwayat dan pengetahuan yang cukup untuk merawat Head and Neck Hemangiomas
pemeriksaan fisik pada 90% pasien. pasien ini. Bidang anomali vaskular melekat di The majority of IHs are small, harmless le-
Sepuluh persen pasien memerlukan studi antara semua spesialisasi bedah, banyak sions that can be monitored under the
radiografi untuk konfirmasi diagnostik; disiplin ilmu medis, serta radiologi dan patologi watchful eye of a pediatrician. Ten percent of
histopatologi jarang diperlukan. intervensi. Ahli genetika molekuler juga proliferating IHs, however, cause signifi- cant
Tumor vaskular yang paling umum adalah terlibat. Gen penyebab untuk lesi yang deformity or complications, usually when
hemangioma infantil (IH), hemangioma diwariskan telah ditemukan dan banyak dari located on the head or neck. Ulcer- ated
kongenital (hemangioma kongenital yang cepat sindrom ini melibatkan lesi vaskular dari visera lesions may destroy the eyelid, ear, nose, or
A B C D
Fig. 1. Vascular tumors of infancy and childhood. (A) A 5-month-old male with superficial IH of cheek. (B) Newborn infant
with RICH of lower extremity. (C) A 11-month-old male with KHE of trunk. (D) A 23-month-old female with PG of right lower
eyelid.
Meskipun kebanyakan IH hepatik bersifat Hemangioma dan Anomali Struktural Ada IH khas, tumor retikular cenderung mengalami
nonproblematik dan ditemukan secara presentasi IH yang tidak biasa dengan ulserasi dan jarang menyebabkan kelebihan
kebetulan, tumor besar dapat menyebabkan malformasi, baik di kepala / leher atau di jantung. Hemangioma retikuler sering
gagal jantung, hepatoma, anemia, atau daerah lumbosakral. Asosiasi PHACE dikaitkan dengan malformasi ventral-kaudal
hipotiroidisme. Hemangioma fokus fokal mempengaruhi 2,3% pasien dengan IH, dan (ompha-locele, fistula rekto-vagina, duplikasi
biasanya asimptomatik dan tidak terdiri dari IH seperti plak dalam distribusi vagina / uterus, ginjal soliter / dupleks, anus
berhubungan dengan lesi kulit; mereka regional wajah dengan setidaknya satu dari imperatif, anus tali pusat, lipomielomenin-
sering diidentifikasi sebelum kelahiran. Ada anomali berikut: Malformasi otak posterior gokel tali pusat). Setelah involusi, vena kecil
bukti bahwa heangioma hepatik soliter fossa; Hemangioma; Anomali serebrovaskular sering tetap, yang dapat diobati dengan
adalah KAYA. Kadang-kadang tumor ini arteri; Koarktasio aorta dan defek jantung; sklerotomi. Ultrasonografi (US) diperoleh
dapat menyebabkan kelebihan jantung dan Kelainan mata / endokrin. Ketika cacat untuk menyingkirkan anomali terkait pada
trombositopenia; Namun, gejala-gejala ini perkembangan ventral (Sternal clefting atau bayi berusia kurang dari 4 bulan. MRI
sembuh saat tumor mengalami regresi. IHs Supraumbilical raphe) hadir, "S" ditambahkan diindikasikan pada bayi yang lebih tua atau
multifokal hati sering disertai dengan lesi (PHACES). Sembilan puluh persen bayi adalah ketika AS samar-samar.
pasien. Meskipun biasanya asimptomatik, anomali perempuan dan serebrovaskular
lesi multifokal dapat menyebabkan gagal adalah temuan yang paling umum (72%). Diagnosis
jantung output tinggi, yang dikelola oleh Karena 8% dari anak-anak dengan PHACE Sebagian besar IHs mudah didiagnosis dengan
kortikosteroid atau embolisasi. IH hepatik mengalami stroke pada masa bayi, pasien riwayat dan pemeriksaan fisik. Aliran cepat
difus dapat menyebabkan hepatomegali harus memiliki magnetic reso-imaging (MRI) dikonfirmasi menggunakan perangkat Doppler
masif, gangguan pernapasan, atau sindrom untuk mengevaluasi otak dan serebrovaskatur. genggam. Oleh US formal, IH muncul sebagai
kompartemen perut. Bayi juga berisiko Bayi dirujuk untuk evaluasi opthalmologis, massa jaringan lunak dengan aliran cepat,
mengalami hipotiroidisme dan cedera otak endokrin, dan jantung untuk menyingkirkan penurunan resistensi arteri, dan peningkatan
yang ireversibel karena volume tumor yang anomali terkait ini. drainase vena. Pada MRI tumor isointense pada
besar mengekspresikan cukup deodinase Hemangioma retikuler adalah varian tidak T1, hyperintense pada T2, dan meningkat selama
untuk menonaktifkan hormon tiroid. Pasien biasa dari IH yang paling umum fase proliferasi. Melibatkan IH telah
memerlukan pemantauan hormon stimulasi mempengaruhi area lumbosakral dan meningkatkan lobularitas dan jaringan adiposa;
tiroid dan, jika abnormal, penggantian ekstremitas bawah. Wanita (83%) biasanya jumlah kapal dan aliran berkurang. Jarang,
hormon tiroid intravena sampai IH mulai terpengaruh. tidak seperti biopsi diindikasikan jika keganasan dicurigai
membaik. atau jika diagnosis tetap tidak jelas setelah
pencitraan
A B C D E
Fig. 2. Vascular malformations. (A) Newborn infant with CM of the trunk. (B) A 9-year-old female with left facial LM. (C) A
2-year-old female with upper labial VM. (D) A 14-year-old male with left facial AVM. (E) A 18-month-old female with a com-
bined capillary–lymphatic–venous malformation of right lower extremity and overgrowth (KTS).
Chapter 27: Vascular Anomalies of Infancy and Childhood 361
studi. Transporter glukosa tipe-eritrosit positif diobati dengan dosis kortikosteroid yang berbeda jaringan residual setelah tumor mengalami
(GLUT1) immunostaining membedakan IT dari akan memiliki (a) stabilisasi pertumbuhan atau regresi. Namun demikian, di tangan bedah yang
tumor dan malformasi vaskular lainnya. (b) regresi yang dipercepat. Namun, hampir berpengalaman, ada indikasi untuk intervensi
semua pasien akan merespons 3 mg / kg. operasi selama fase proliferasi: (a) kegagalan atau
Nonoperative Treatment Respons pengobatan biasanya jelas dalam 1 kontraindikasi terhadap kortikosteroid; (B)
Sebagian besar IHs hanya diamati karena 90% minggu terapi dengan tanda-tanda involusi: tumor terlokalisasi dengan baik di daerah yang
kecil, terlokalisasi, dan tidak melibatkan area tingkat pertumbuhan menurun, warna pudar, secara anatomis aman; (c) reseksi akan
yang secara anatomis penting. Selama fase dan pelunakan lesi. Lokasi hemangioma tidak diperlukan di masa depan dan bekas luka akan
proliferasi, 16% lesi akan mengalami ulserasi; mempengaruhi tingkat respons. Untuk lesi sama. Lesi sirkular yang terletak di area yang
paling umum di bibir, leher, dan daerah langka yang gagal distabilkan dengan terlihat, khususnya wajah, paling baik
genital. Komplikasi lain termasuk perdarahan kortikosteroid, dosis dapat ditingkatkan hingga 5 dihilangkan dengan eksisi sirkular dan
dan infeksi. IH dijaga tetap lembab selama fase mg / kg, yang dapat meningkatkan respons penutupan purse-string. Teknik ini
proliferatif dengan minyak bumi terhidrasi pengobatan. Atau, anak tersebut dapat beralih meminimalkan panjang bekas luka serta distorsi
untuk meminimalkan pengeringan dan untuk ke vincristine. Interferon tidak lagi struktur sekitarnya. Eksisi lenticular dari
melindungi terhadap trauma insidental. IH direkomendasikan pada anak-anak di bawah 12 hangiangioma sirkular menghasilkan bekas luka
dapat dilindungi lebih lanjut dengan bulan karena dapat menyebabkan gejala sepanjang tiga kali diameter lesi (Gbr. 3). Sebagai
menggunakan penghalang kasa minyak tanah. neurologis, terutama diplegia spastik. perbandingan, reseksi sirkuler dua tahap diikuti
Jika suatu ulserasi berkembang, ia dikelola Komplikasi kortikosteroid sistemik untuk oleh eksisi lenticular / linear linear 6 sampai 12
dengan perawatan luka lokal; seringkali pengelolaan IH telah dipelajari; tidak ada efek bulan kemudian akan meninggalkan bekas luka
penyembuhan membutuhkan waktu 4 hingga buruk pada perkembangan saraf. Morbiditas yang kira-kira sama panjangnya dengan
6 minggu. jangka pendek dapat mencakup wajah diameter hemangioma asli (Gbr. 4).
cushingoid, perubahan kepribadian, iritasi
Topical Corticosteroid lambung, infeksi jamur (oral atau perineum), Involuting Phase (Early Childhood)
Kortikosteroid topikal memiliki khasiat minimal; miopati, penurunan tinggi badan, dan Sementara manajemen operatif IH
khususnya terhadap IH yang melibatkan derek penurunan berat badan. Temuan ini umumnya tidak diindikasikan selama fase
menyelesaikan setelah terapi selesai. Lebih dari proliferatif, reseksi selama involusi jauh
yang dalam dan subkutis. Agen ultrapoten
90% anak-anak kembali ke kurva pertumbuhan lebih aman karena lesi kurang vaskular
mungkin efektif untuk IH yang sangat dangkal. dan lebih kecil. Karena luas eksisi
Meskipun penerangan dapat terjadi, jika ada pretreatment mereka untuk tinggi pada usia 24
berkurang, hasilnya lebih unggul. Kira-
komponen yang dalam, itu tidak akan bulan. kira 50% IHs meninggalkan jaringan
terpengaruh. Efek samping termasuk fibrofatty atau kulit yang rusak setelah
hipopigmentasi, atrofi kulit, dan bahkan supresi Embolic Therapy tumor pulih, menyebabkan deformitas.
adrenal. IHs besar, yang paling umum lesi multifokal, Terkadang seorang anak membutuhkan
dapat menyebabkan gagal jantung kongestif rekonstruksi struktur yang rusak (mis.
keluaran tinggi. Embolisasi dapat diindikasikan Hidung, telinga, bibir). Eksisi bertahap
Intralesional Corticosteroid atau total harus dipertimbangkan selama
untuk kontrol awal dari kelebihan jantung
IHs kecil dan terlokalisasi dengan baik yang sementara terapi kortikosteroid sistemik periode ini, daripada menunggu untuk
menghalangi sumbu visual atau jalan napas berlaku. Gagal jantung sering berulang bahkan infus lengkap jika (a) jelas bahwa lesi akan
hidung atau yang berisiko merusak struktur setelah perbaikan awal, dan terapi obat harus membutuhkan reseksi (misalnya, jaringan
A B
Fig. 3. A 2-year-old female with involuting phase IH of the scalp resulting in fibrofatty residuum and alopecia: lenticular
excision and linear closure.
A B C
D E F
Fig. 4. (A,B) A 2.5-year-old female with frontal IH and fibrofatty residuum. (C) Lenticular excision would result in a scar
approximately three times the diameter of the tumor. (D,E) Circular excision/purse-string closure. (F) Small scar 3 months
postoperatively.
Chapter 27: Vascular Anomalies of Infancy and Childhood 363
Congenital Hemangiomas IH, KHE biasanya hadir saat lahir sebagai lesi mungkin di luar jangkauan laser pulsed-dye,
datar, kemerahan-ungu, edematous. Itu tidak kauterisasi, atau eksisi mencukur. Akibatnya,
Clinical Presentation menunjukkan pertumbuhan postnatal yang modalitas ini memiliki tingkat kekambuhan
Ada hemangioma langka yang muncul pada cepat; bagaimanapun, tumor dapat 43,5%. Eksisi kulit dengan ketebalan penuh
janin, tumbuh sepenuhnya saat lahir, dan berkembang dengan timbulnya KMP. MRI lebih pasti.
tidak memiliki pertumbuhan pascanatal. diindikasikan untuk konfirmasi diagnostik dan
Hangiangioma kongenital ini berwarna merah- menilai luasnya tumor. MRI menunjukkan
merah dengan telangiectasias kasar, pucat margin, kapal kecil, dan invasi jaringan yang VASCULAR MALFORMATIONS
sentral, dan halo pucat perifer. Lesi ini lebih berdekatan tidak jelas. Ada hiperintensitas T2
umum di ekstremitas, memiliki distribusi jenis dan peningkatan postg adolinium; kekosongan Capillary Malformation
kelamin yang sama, dan soliter dengan sinyal juga mungkin ada. Secara histologis,
diameter rata-rata 5 cm. Ada dua bentuk: Clinical Presentation
KHE memiliki lembaran atau nodul sel endotel CM sekarang istilah yang diterima untuk
RICH dan NICH. RICH mengalami
kemunduran dengan cepat setelah kelahiran;
yang menginfiltrasi kapiler. Ruang pewarnaan "port-wine". Pemeriksaan
50% telah menyelesaikan regresi pada usia 7 hemosiderin yang dipenuhi celah seperti histopatologis menunjukkan kapiler yang
bulan. KAYA mempengaruhi kepala atau leher pembuluh darah dengan fragmen sel darah melebar dan pembuluh vena di dermis
(42%), anggota badan (52%), atau batang (6%). merah, serta limfatik melebar, hadir. superfisial. CM paling sering menyendiri;
RICH tidak meninggalkan komponen adiposa dapat dilokalisasi atau luas. Seiring
waktu, noda akan menjadi gelap dan
yang signifikan, tidak seperti IH. NICH, Treatment menunjukkan pertumbuhan berlebih
sebaliknya, tidak mengalami involusi; ada Kebanyakan lesi luas, melibatkan banyak fibrovaskular. Ini dapat dikaitkan dengan
aliran cepat terus-menerus. Ini melibatkan jaringan, dan berada di luar batas bagian. Pasien hipertrofi jaringan lunak dan skeletal.
kepala atau leher (43%), anggota badan (38%), dengan KMP memerlukan perawatan sistemik Sturge-Weber syndrome ditandai oleh CM
atau batang (19%). untuk mencegah komplikasi yang mengancam pada dermatom trigeminal oftalmik (V1)
jiwa. Tumor besar tanpa gejala tanpa KMP juga yang berhubungan dengan anomali
Treatment dikelola dengan farmakoterapi untuk vaskuler okular dan leptomeningeal.
RICH biasanya tidak memerlukan reseksi pada Anomali leptomeningeal dapat
meminimalkan fibrosis dan nyeri jangka panjang menyebabkan kejang, hemiplegia
masa bayi karena mengalami regresi yang serta kekakuan. Vinkristin adalah terapi lini kontralateral, dan keterlambatan
dipercepat. Kadang-kadang, RICH diperumit pertama; tingkat responsnya adalah 90%. KHE perkembangan. Pasien berisiko
oleh gagal jantung kongestif, yang dikontrol juga tidak merespons terhadap obat lini kedua, mengalami ablasi retina dan glaukoma;
oleh kortikosteroid atau embolisasi ketika lesi interferon (50%), atau korosteroid (10%). mereka harus diikuti oleh dokter mata.
terjadi. Setelah regresi, RICH dapat Trombositopenia tidak akan membaik secara Lebih dari setengah pasien dengan
meninggalkan kulit atrofi dan jaringan signifikan dengan transfusi trombosit karena sindrom Sturge-Weber memiliki noda
subkutan. Rekonstruksi dengan cangkok trombosit terperangkap dalam tumor. Transfusi kapiler yang tidak merata pada batang
otonom (lemak, dermis) atau dermis aselular dan ekstremitas. Presentasi ini
juga memperburuk pembengkakan dan harus menyebabkan kebingungan dengan
dapat diindikasikan. NICH jarang bermasalah dihindari kecuali jika ada perdarahan aktif atau anomali vaskular kombinasi dan
saat masih bayi; diamati sampai diagnosis prosedur bedah direncanakan. Pada usia 2 menyumbang label yang keliru "Klippel –
jelas. Reseksi NICH dapat diindikasikan untuk tahun, tumor sering mengalami involusi parsial Weber– Trenaunay syndrome.”
meningkatkan penampilan daerah yang dan hitung plat normal. Ada bukti bahwa KHE
terkena, selama bekas luka bedah akan kurang tidak pernah mengalami kemunduran total. Treatment
terlihat dibandingkan lesi . Terapi laser pulsed-dye (585 nm) dapat
disebabkan oleh pertumbuhan berlebih dari dengan pemisahan ketebalan variabel. Ini adalah sclerotherapy berulang selama hidup mereka.
zygoma, rahang atas, atau mandibula dapat sensasi pada urutan T2-weighted dan tidak Jika LM berulang dan makrokista yang
ditingkatkan dengan pemberian kontur. menunjukkan peningkatan difus. Meskipun US bermasalah tidak lagi ada dalam lesi, maka
tidak seakurat MRI, itu dapat memberikan reseksi adalah alternatif berikutnya .
konfirmasi diagnostik atau pendarahan
Lymphatic Malformation dokumen intralesi. Temuan AS untuk LM Resection
Clinical Presentation makrosistik termasuk kista anechoic dengan Upaya pemusnahan LM dapat
LM disebabkan oleh kesalahan dalam septasi internal, seringkali dengan kadar puing- menyebabkan morbiditas yang signifikan:
pengembangan embrio sistem limfatik. LM puing atau cairan. LM mikrokistik muncul kehilangan darah utama, cedera genetik,
ditandai oleh ukuran saluran yang salah sebagai massa echogenik yang tidak terdefinisi dan kelainan bentuk. Misalnya, reseksi LM
bentuk: mikrokistik, makrokistik, atau dengan keterlibatan difus jaringan yang serviks dapat melukai saraf wajah (76%)
gabungan. Lesi makrokistik didefinisikan berdekatan. Konfirmasi histologis LM jarang atau saraf hipoglosus (24%). Eksisi
sebagai kista yang cukup besar untuk ditusuk diperlukan. LM menunjukkan ruang vaskular biasanya subtotal karena LM melibatkan
oleh jari dan dirawat dengan skleroterapi. berdinding abnormal dengan eosinofilik, cairan beberapa bidang jaringan dan struktur
Karena sistem limfatik dan vena berbagi asal kaya protein, dan koleksi limfosit. Imunostaining penting; rekurensi demikian umum (35%
embriologis yang sama, malformasi limfatik- dengan penanda limfatik D2-40 dan LYVE-1 hingga 64%). Reseksi dicadangkan untuk
vena (LVM) juga dapat terjadi. LM biasanya adalah positif. (a) LM mikrokistik simtomatik yang
dicatat saat lahir atau dalam 2 tahun pertama
menyebabkan perdarahan, infeksi, distorsi
kehidupan. LM paling sering berada di kepala
dan leher; situs sering lainnya termasuk
Treatment struktur vital, atau deformitas yang
ketiak, dada, dan perineum. Lesi lunak dan LM adalah lesi jinak; intervensi tidak wajib. signifikan; (B) gejala makrosistik /
kompresibel. Kulit yang berbaring mungkin Lesi kecil atau tanpa gejala dapat diamati. gabungan LM yang tidak lagi dapat dikelola
normal, memiliki warna kebiruan, atau LM yang terinfeksi sering tidak dapat dengan skleroterapi karena semua
bertatahkan vesikel merah muda-merah. dikontrol dengan antibiotik oral dan makrokista telah dirawat;
LM biasanya menyebabkan deformitas dan biasanya diperlukan terapi antimikroba (c) LM kecil dan terlokalisasi dengan baik
masalah psikososial, terutama ketika intravena. Intervensi untuk LM dicadangkan (mikrokistik atau makrokistik) yang dapat
melibatkan kepala dan leher. Dua komplikasi untuk lesi gejala yang menyebabkan rasa dieksisi sepenuhnya. Ketika
paling umum yang terkait dengan LM adalah sakit, kelainan bentuk yang signifikan, atau mempertimbangkan reseksi, bekas luka /
perdarahan dan infeksi. Perdarahan intralesi mengancam struktur vital. kelainan pasca operasi setelah pengaktifan
terjadi pada 35% lesi, menyebabkan LM harus ditimbang terhadap penampilan
perubahan warna ekimosis, nyeri, atau Sclerotherapy lesi sebelum operasi..
pembengkakan. Infeksi merumitkan sebanyak Skleroterapi adalah manajemen lini pertama Untuk malformasi difus, direkomendasikan
70% lesi dan dapat berkembang dengan cepat untuk LM makrosistik besar / bermasalah. penentuan area anatomi yang telah ditentukan.
menjadi sepsis. Vesikula kulit bisa berdarah Kista disedot diikuti dengan injeksi zat Eksisi subtotal dari area yang bermasalah, seperti
dan menyebabkan drainase yang tidak sedap. inflamasi, yang menyebabkan jaringan parut vesikel yang berdarah atau bibir yang mengalami
Lesi oral dapat menyebabkan macroglossia, kista saling berhadapan. Skleroterapi memiliki trofi, harus dilakukan alih-alih “menyelesaikan”
kebersihan mulut yang buruk, dan karies. efektivitas yang unggul dan tingkat komplikasi lesi jinak, yang akan menghasilkan deformitas
Pembengkakan karena pendarahan, infeksi yang lebih rendah daripada eksisi. Beberapa yang lebih buruk daripada malformasi itu sendiri.
lokal, atau penyakit sistemik dapat sclerosant digunakan untuk mengecilkan LM: Macroglossia mungkin memerlukan reduksi
menghambat struktur vital. Dua pertiga bayi doksisiklin, natrium tetradecyl sulfate (STS), untuk mengembalikan lidah ke rongga mulut
dengan LM serviksofasiial membutuhkan etanol, bleomycin, dan OK- atau untuk memperbaiki kelainan bentuk gigitan
trakeostomi. Pertumbuhan berlebih tulang 432. Kami lebih suka doksisiklin karena efektif terbuka. Pertumbuhan berlebih tulang
adalah komplikasi lain; mandibula paling (pengurangan ukuran 83%) dan aman (risiko ditingkatkan dengan pembentukan osseus dan
sering terlibat, menghasilkan gigitan terbuka ulserasi kulit kurang dari 5%). STS adalah maloklusi mungkin membutuhkan koreksi
dan prognatisme. LM Thoracic atau abdominal agen lini kedua kami. Etanol adalah sclerosant ortognatik, biasanya setelah maturitas kerangka..
dapat menyebabkan efusi chylus pleural, yang efektif tetapi memiliki tingkat komplikasi Vesikula kulit yang berdarah atau bocor
pericardial, atau peritoneal. LM periorbital tertinggi. Dapat digunakan untuk lesi kecil, dapat dikelola dengan reseksi jika dilokalisasi
menyebabkan penurunan penglihatan tetapi volume besar harus dihindari untuk dan luka dapat ditutup dengan perkiraan
permanen (40%), dan 7% pasien menjadi buta mengurangi risiko toksisitas lokal dan langsung jaringan. Vesikel sering berulang
pada mata yang terkena. LM yang umum sistemik. Etanol dapat melukai saraf dan melalui bekas luka. Area besar perdarahan
muncul dengan lesi tulang multifokal atau karenanya tidak boleh digunakan di dekat atau drainase vesikular paling baik dikelola
osteosit terkait dengan efusi pleura dan / atau struktur penting. Penggunaan OK-432 terbatas oleh skleroterapi atau karbon dioksida; sebagai
perikardial; apa yang disebut lymphangiectasia karena tidak tersedia secara luas. alternatif, reseksi luas dan cakupan cangkok
usus dengan enteropati yang kehilangan Komplikasi yang paling umum dari kulit diperlukan. Varietas mikrokistik yang
protein juga dapat terjadi . skleroterapi untuk LM adalah ulserasi kulit melibatkan rongga mulut merespon dengan
(<5%). Etanol dikaitkan dengan toksisitas baik terhadap ablasi frekuensi radio. Pasien
Diagnosis sistemik tambahan: depresi sistem saraf dan keluarga dinasihati bahwa LM dapat
Sembilan puluh persen dari LM didiagnosis pusat (SSP), hipertensi paru, hemolisis, memperluas mengikuti intervensi apa pun, dan
dengan riwayat dan pemeriksaan fisik. Lesi tromboemboli, dan aritmia. Ekstravasasi dengan demikian perawatan tambahan sering
kecil dan superfisial tidak memerlukan sklerosan ke dalam otot dapat menyebabkan diperlukan di masa depan.
evaluasi diagnosa lebih lanjut. Lesi besar atau atrofi dan kontraktur. LM sering
dalam dinilai oleh MRI untuk (a) berkembang kembali seiring waktu; 9% Venous Malformation
mengkonfirmasi diagnosis; berulang dalam 3 tahun setelah pengobatan
(B) menentukan sejauh mana malformasi; dan OK-432 dan sebagian besar akan Clinical Presentation
(c) merencanakan perawatan. LM muncul melakukan ekspansi ulang dengan tindak VM hasil dari kesalahan dalam morfogenesis
sebagai makroskopik, mikrokistik, atau lanjut yang lebih lama. Akibatnya, pasien vaskular; saluran anomali dilebarkan dengan
gabungan lesi sering membutuhkan re- dinding tipis dan otot polos abnormal. Akibatnya,
aliran mandek, lesi membesar,
Chapter 27: Vascular Anomalies of Infancy and Childhood 365
dan pembekuan terjadi. Lesi berwarna biru,
dan emboli paru. VM gastrointestinal dapat ketika ruang vaskular yang disuntikkan tidak
lunak, dan kompresibel; phlebolith yang
menyebabkan perdarahan dan anemia kronis. ada lagi. Meskipun sclerotherapy secara efektif
terkalsifikasi dapat diraba. VMS berkisar dari
Stagnasi dalam hasil VM besar dalam mengurangi ukuran lesi dan meningkatkan
lesi kulit kecil yang terlokalisasi hingga
koagulopati intravaskular lokal (LIC) dan gejala, malformasi tetap ada. Akibatnya, pasien
malformasi difus yang melibatkan beberapa
phlebothrombosis menyakitkan. memiliki massa atau kelainan bentuk setelah
bidang jaringan dan struktur vital. VM
perawatan yang dapat diperbaiki dengan
biasanya sporadis dan soliter pada 90%
Diagnosis reseksi. Selain itu, VM biasanya berkembang
pasien; Namun, 50% memiliki mutasi somatik
Setidaknya 90% dari VM didiagnosis oleh kembali setelah skleroterapi, dan dengan
pada reseptor endotelial TIE2. VM sporadis
anamnesis dan pemeriksaan fisik. Posisi demikian pasien sering memerlukan
biasanya lebih besar dari 5 cm (56%), tunggal
tergantung dari daerah yang terkena biasanya perawatan tambahan.
(99%), dan terletak di atas Scleroscents yang disukai untuk VM
kepala / leher (47%), ekstremitas (40%), atau mengkonfirmasi diagnosis. VM kecil dan dangkal
tidak memerlukan pemeriksaan diagnostik lebih adalah STS dan etanol; STS paling sering
batang (13%). Hampir semua lesi melibatkan digunakan. Meskipun etanol lebih efektif
lanjut. Lesi besar atau lebih dalam dievaluasi oleh
kulit, mukosa, atau jaringan subkutan; 50% MRI untuk (a) mengkonfirmasi diagnosis; (B) daripada STS, etanol memiliki tingkat
juga memengaruhi struktur yang lebih dalam menentukan sejauh mana malformasi; dan (c)
komplikasi yang lebih tinggi. Sebagian
(mis., Otot, tulang, sendi, visera). besar pasien, terutama anak-anak,
merencanakan perawatan. VM adalah dikelola dengan anestesi umum
Sekitar 10% pasien dengan VM memiliki hyperintense pada urutan T2-weighted. Tidak
lesi multifokal, familial. Malformasi glomerous menggunakan US atau pencitraan
seperti LM, VM meningkatkan kontras, sering fluoroskopi. Komplikasi lokal skleroterapi
(GVM) adalah tipe yang paling umum, menunjukkan phlebolith sebagai kekosongan untuk VM yang paling umum adalah
malformasi cutaneomucosal-venous (CMVM) sinyal, dan lebih cenderung melibatkan otot. USG ulserasi kulit (<5%). Ekstravasasi
jarang terjadi. GVM adalah kondisi dominan dapat digunakan untuk beberapa lesi scleroscent ke dalam otot dapat
otomatis dengan sel-sel glomus seperti otot terlokalisasi; Temuan-temuannya meliputi menyebabkan atrofi dan kontraktur.
polos yang abnormal di sepanjang vena saluran yang kompresibel, anechoic-hypoechoic Pembengkakan posttreatment mungkin
ectaktik. Ini disebabkan oleh mutasi yang dipisahkan oleh daerah yang lebih padat memerlukan pemantauan ketat. Sindrom
kehilangan fungsi pada gen glomulin. Lesi dari variabel echogenicity. Phlebolith adalah kombinasi merupakan konsekuensi serius
biasanya multipel (70%), kecil (dua pertiga <5 hyperechoic dengan bayangan akustik. skleroterapi untuk VM ekstremitas. Efek
cm), dan terletak di kulit dan jaringan Computed tomography (CT) kadang-kadang samping sistemik dari skleroterapi,
ditunjukkan untuk menilai VM tulang. Diagnosis termasuk hemolisis, hemoglobinuria, dan
subkutan; struktur yang lebih dalam tidak DIC, lebih sering terjadi jika lesi besar
terpengaruh. GVM melibatkan ekstremitas histologis VM jarang diperlukan, tetapi dapat diobati. Pasien dengan kadar fibrinogen
(76%), trunk (14%), atau kepala / leher (10%). diindikasikan untuk menyingkirkan keganasan rendah diberikan LMWH 14 hari sebelum
Lesi lebih menyakitkan daripada VM biasa. atau jika pencitraan samar-samar. dan sesudah prosedur. Antikoagulasi
CMVM adalah lesi mukokutomi multifokal dilakukan selama 24 jam secara
kecil yang disebabkan oleh mutasi fungsi pada Treatment perioperatif (12 jam sebelum dan sesudah
reseptor TIE2. Kondisi ini dominan autosomal Pasien dengan VM ekstremitas luas intervensi) untuk mencegah komplikasi
dan kurang umum daripada GVM. Lesi kecil (76% diresepkan pakaian kompresi khusus untuk perdarahan.
<5 cm), multipel (73%), dan terletak di kepala / mengurangi stagnasi darah dan dengan
leher (biasanya lidah atau mukosa bukal) (50%), demikian meminimalkan ekspansi, LIC, Resection
ekstremitas (37%), atau batang (13).%). formasi phlebolith, dan nyeri. Pasien dengan Pemusnahan VM dapat menyebabkan
Malformasi kavernosa serebral (CCM) nyeri berulang akibat phlebothrombosis morbiditas utama; kehilangan darah,
(bubuk gelfoam, PVA, embospheres) yang Capillary Malformation–Arteriovenous sindrom hemihipertrofi lainnya, pasien dengan
menjalani fagositosis digunakan. Zat cair Malformation KTS tidak berisiko tinggi untuk tumor Wilms
permanen yang mampu menyerap nidus (n- CM – AVM adalah gangguan keluarga; dan skrining US tidak diperlukan. Perluasan
BCA, Onyx) digunakan ketika embolisasi prevalensinya adalah 1 dalam 100.000 kaki mungkin membutuhkan sinar,
adalah pengobatan utama. Komplikasi Kaukasia. CM-AVM adalah kondisi dominan pertengahan, atau amputasi Syme untuk
embolisasi yang paling sering adalah ulserasi. autosom yang disebabkan oleh hilangnya memungkinkan penggunaan alas kaki.
fungsi mutasi pada gen RASA1. Pasien Manajemen komponen VM KTS konservatif
Resection memiliki CM atipikal yang kecil, multifokal, dengan stocking kompresif untuk insufisiensi
Reseksi AVM memiliki tingkat rekurensi dan aspirin untuk meminimalkan
bulat, merah muda, dan sering dikelilingi oleh
yang lebih rendah daripada embolisasi saja phlebothrombosis. Varises simtomatik dapat
halo pucat (50%). Tiga puluh persen orang
dan dipertimbangkan untuk lesi yang dihilangkan atau sclerosed. Sistem vena dalam
juga memiliki AVM: Parkes-Weber syndrome
terlokalisasi dengan baik atau untuk berfungsi, meskipun seringkali sulit untuk
(PWS) (12%), AVM extracerebral (11%), atau
mengoreksi deformitas fokal (mis., Daerah memvisualisasikan karena aliran di vena
AVM intrace-rebral (7%). PWS mengacu pada
yang mengalami perdarahan atau ulserasi, superfisial. Kadang-kadang, sclerotherapy dan
AVM difus dalam ekstremitas yang ditumbuhi
hipertrofi labial). Pemusnahan luas dan eksisi bedah diperlukan untuk komponen LM .
dengan CM atasnya. PWS melibatkan
rekonstruksi AVM besar dan difus harus
ekstremitas bawah sekitar dua kali lebih
dilakukan dengan hati-hati karena (a)
penyembuhan jarang terjadi dan tingkat
sering daripada ekstremitas atas; pasien BACAAN YANG DISARANKAN
mengalami microshunt pada otot. Seorang
kekambuhan tinggi; Bennett ML, Fleischer AB, Chamlin SL, et al. Oral
pasien dengan beberapa CM, terutama
(B) deformitas yang dihasilkan seringkali corticosteroid use is effective for cutaneous he-
dengan riwayat keluarga lesi yang serupa,
lebih buruk daripada penampilan mangiomas. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:1208–13.
harus dievaluasi untuk kemungkinan AVM
malformasi; Choi DJ, Alomari AI, Chaudry G, et al. Neuroint-
pada pemeriksaan fisik. Karena 7% pasien
(c) reseksi berhubungan dengan kehilangan erventional management of low-flow vascular
CM-AVM akan memiliki lesi aliran cepat
darah yang signifikan, cedera iatrogenik, malformations of the head and neck. Neuroim-
intrakranial, MRI otak harus
dan morbiditas. Ketika eksisi direncanakan, aging Clin N Am 2009;19:199–218.
dipertimbangkan. Imaging eksplorasi daerah
operasi pra operasi akan memfasilitasi Finn MC, Glowacki J, Mulliken JB. Congenital vas-
anatomi lainnya tidak diperlukan karena
prosedur dengan mengurangi ukuran AVM, cular lesions: clinical application of a new clas-
AVMs ekstrakranial belum ditemukan sification. J Pediatr Surg 1983;18:894–90.
meminimalkan kehilangan darah, dan
melibatkan visera. Meskipun CM jarang Limaye N, Boon LM, Vikkula M. From germline
membuat jaringan parut untuk membantu
bermasalah, AVM terkait dapat menyebabkan towards somatic mutations in the pathophysi-
diseksi. Beberapa embolisasi, berjarak 6
minggu terpisah, mungkin diperlukan morbiditas utama. ology of vascular anomalies. Hum Mol Genet
sebelum reseksi. Eksisi harus dilakukan 24 2009;18:65–75.
hingga 72 jam setelah embolisasi, sebelum Combined Vascular Malformations Liu AS, Mulliken JB, Zurakowski D, et al. Extracra-
recannalization mengembalikan aliran nial arteriovenous malformations: natural pro-
Klippel–Trenaunay Syndrome gression and recurrence after treatment. Plast
darah ke lesi. KTS adalah eponim yang menunjukkan
Margin reseksi paling baik ditentukan Reconstr Surg 2010;125(4):1185–94.
CLVM aliran lambat dalam hubungannya Mulliken JB, Glowacki J. Hemangiomas and vas-
secara klinis, dengan menilai jumlah dengan jaringan lunak dan / atau
perdarahan dari tepi luka. Sebagian besar cular malformations in infants and children: a
pertumbuhan berlebih kerangka. KTS classification based on endothelial characteris-
cacat dapat direkonstruksi dengan memajukan
EDITOR’S COMMENT knowledge is needed to ascertain what exactly there are others in which steroids should be used, one
is dealing with. That is important because and as we see subsequently there are some ad- the
disfigurement and destruction of various ditional therapeutic innovations lately such as
We are especially pleased to have Professor John organs, bones, and especially of face, ears, etc., propanolol and sirolimus (rapamycin). In addi-
Mulliken write the chapter because he is cred- which can be destroyed because of these lesions, tion, with some lesions, such as lymphatic VMs, ited
by numerous papers as writing a defini- requires an expert. It is quite rare that a general operations without knowing the implications can tive
paper in 1982 (Mulliken JB and Glowacki J. practitioner, a pediatrician, a general surgeon, or result in uncontrollable hemorrhage and death of
Hemangiomas and vascular malformations in somebody who is not part of the vascular malfor- the infant.
infants and children: a classification based on mation (VM) team can really make an accurate According to the authors, 90% of the lesions
endothelial characteristics. Plast Reconstr Surg diagnosis. This is important because there are can be diagnosed by history and physical exami-
1982;69:412–22). As the authors state, detailed certain lesions that one should operate on and nation. They usually fall within a binary system,
(continued)
368 Part III: The Head and Neck
in which there are vascular tumors and VMs. With VMs, the anomalous channels are di- treated as one disease that these patients suf-
Vascular tumors are characterized by endothelial lated with thin walls and abnormal smooth fered from in the manifestation; for example, the
cell proliferation, and VMs are comprised of cells muscle. What happens is that the flow stagnates, second patient was able to have the chest tube re-
that have dysmorphogenesis but have normal cell lesions expand, and clotting occurs. There may moved in 14 days and the bone and lesions were
turnover. Thus, it is not a tumor, but it consists of be pulmonary emboli. Lesions are generally blue; stabilized. The third patient no longer required
abnormal cells that do not grow rapidly. There is they are soft unless a clot occurs. They may be red cells and had decreased leg circumference and
a life history to many of these lesions, which sug- sporadic and solitary (90%); however, sporadic improvements in the lymphatic blebs; the fourth
gest that watchful waiting, injection of steroids, VMs are usually <5 cm (56%), single (99%), and patient had the chest tube removed in 8 days with
sclerotherapy, etc., will tide the infant or child located unfortunately on the head and neck the resolution of chylous pleural effusion, which
over until such a time that spontaneous regres- (47%), trunk only (13%), and extremities (40%). as you know, can be extremely difficult, and the
sion occurs. A person who is not knowledgeable However, approximately 10% of the patients with bony lesions were stabilized; the fifth patient re-
about the different forms of this disease will not VM have multifocal familial lesions. They may oc- sponded in 8 days with removal of the first chest
be able to make an educated diagnosis of this type. cur in various organs and need to be checked so tube, and in 9 days the second chest tube was
Many of these lesions involve syndromes that that if there are lesions in certain places that are removed, the bony lesions were stabilized; and
have eponymic names not known to the general potentially dangerous the physician or surgeon the sixth patient was extubated after 15 days, and
surgeon, and which involve lesions of the solid or knows that that is the case. after 5 weeks, the first chest tube was removed,
hollow viscera, such as the liver. Rapid flow arte- The authors come down on the side of scle- and after 6 weeks the second chest tube, and after
rial venous malformations may result in cardiac rotherapy as the principal means of therapy. 9 weeks the third chest tube. Consequently, bony
failure and are associated in many instances with However, Sidbury (Curr Opin Pediatr 22:432–37) lesions improved. In addition, they were near
intralesional thrombosis with depression of the believes that propanolol, which has come to light complete resolution of the abdominal lesions,
platelet count. in the past 2 years, may be the first line. There are normalization of coagulation, and improvement
Just a general cosmetic statement: when the some excellent pictures especially and an impres- of gross motor skills. This seems to be rather a
lesions, especially those of the face, have regressed sive set (Figure 2) that reveal complete resolution breakthrough and probably will get a randomized
to the point where there is a relatively small le- of such a lesion in infantile hemangioma of an prospective trial.
sion, the authors advocate a circular incision, ear. One does not know whether this applies to a An interesting article originates largely from
which leaves almost no scar. While some of you malformation, but chances are since Sidbury re- the Children’s Hospital in Boston and is entitled
may be horrified at this, let me tell you, when I fers to tumors, it applies to tumors but not to he- “Vascular Anomalies of the Male Genitalia”
was a surgical resident, I had a lentigo on my right mangiomas, and therefore sclerotherapy should (Kulungowski AM et al.—Professor Mulliken is one
cheek and I was excised by Dr. Bradford Cannon, be the mainstay of therapy. of the authors—J Pediatr Surg 2011;46:1214–21).
the noted Boston plastic surgeon in a dentist Of greater interest is the occasional patient They reviewed 3,889 male patients referred to the
chair in his office, and my incision was closed in whom interventional radiologic therapy in VM Children’s Hospital for various vascular tumors,
with 2-0 chromic double needle and a surgical such as hemangiomas by Legiehn GM and Heran and selected 117 with a vascular anomaly of the
closure. Needless to say, I was horrified, but I had MKS, writing from the Division of Neuroradiol- genitalia. There were 12 tumors and 105 malfor-
no scar and I just have a minor discoloration. ogy at the Vancouver General Hospital in British mations. The referring diagnosis was accurate in
Some of the most dangerous lesions, accord- Columbia, showing that sclerotherapy at times 72% of the patients with a tumor; however, 46%
ing to the authors, are lymphatic malformations is very complicated to treat VMs. An MRI some- of the malformations were misdiagnosed. Com-
(LMs), which are theoretically benign. LMs are times is useful and when dealing with an arterial mon VMs were lymphatic, venous, and capillary-
characterized by the size of the malformed chan- venous malformation of some size, superselective lymphatic venous. The presenting symptoms of
nels, microcystic, macrocystic, or combined. Mac- transarterial and transvenous access with flow tumors were ulceration, ambiguous genitalia,
rocystic lesions are defined as cysts large enough reduction techniques may be required. Figure 12 swelling, and fluid leakage. Further, 79% of the to
be punctured by a needle and treated with shows a good illustration of the technique that patients required therapy, and the others were
sclerotherapy. Because the lymphatic and venous they used, in which tourniquets are used to slow observed. Management included pharmaco-
systems share a common embryological origin, flow out of a lesion and the delivery of sclerosant therapy and excision, and malformations were
lymphatic-venous malformations can also occur. is carried out under radiographic guidance to largely treated with sclerotherapy and surgical
Attempts at excision of an LM may cause major control reflux from the lesion, local compression, procedures. Results do show that the expertise
blood loss, deformity, and a cosmetic injury, as and tourniquets and intraluminal outflow occlu- in such therapies in referring to therapy actually
well as neurologic injury. Dissection of the surgi- sive techniques may be required. was lacking and the diagnosis was inappropriate
cal facial LM, according to the authors, injures a A seemingly important progress is the use in a large number of cases.
facial nerve in 76% or a hypoglossal nerve in 24%. of sirolimus (rapamycin) for the treatment of Finally, in some rarer lesions, such as Klippel- In
addition, excision ends up usually being subto- complicated vascular anomalies as reported by Trénaunay syndrome (KTS), there is a tendency tal
because there are multiple tissue planes and Hammill et al., from the Cincinnati Children’s to undergo pulmonary embolism and clotting.
important structures and recurrence is between Hospital, in five cases, and the Minnesota Three adult patients with KTS, comprising two
34% and 64%. Thus, resection is dangerous, prob- Children’s Hospital in one case. The hypothesis women (aged 19 and 46 years) and one male (aged
ably injurious in most situations and reserved for here is that of the many genetic abnormalities 26 years), underwent pulmonary thromboendar-
asymptomatic microcystic LM, which that occur is the PI3K/mTOR pathway that has terectomy (PTE) in KTS. An impressive resection
been implicated in the generation and prolifera- of a fully resected organized thrombus was taken
1. Causes infection, distortion of vital struc- tion of vascular anomalies. In addition, and not from the right pulmonary artery in patient 1, and
tures, deformity, or bleeding surprisingly, vascular endothelial growth factors is shown in Figure 1. This technique, which was
2. Symptomatic macrocystic combined LM that (VEGFs) are key regulators in lymphangiogenesis developed by Jamieson and colleagues (Jamieson
no longer can be managed with sclerothera- and angiogenesis and may be abnormal and act et al. J Thorac Surg 2003;76:1457–64), describing py
because all of the macrocysts have been as an upstream stimulator(s) and a downstream 1,500 cases of pulmonary thromboenderectomy,
treated effector(s) in the mTOR signaling pathway. indicates that even in thrombotic situations, this
3. Small, well-localized microcystic or macro- Of the six patients, the most impressive is the can be carried out by someone knowledgeable.
cystic LM that may be completely excised. patient with KHE, in which there is an enormous Patients received inferior caval filters, the average One
should always remember that a total ex- leg, and the response started in 4 days with nor- follow-up was 2.6 years, and no deep vein throm- cision
may not be necessary, that there may malization of fibrinogen and a rise in the platelet bosis or pulmonary embolism was seen. The be
lesions which have problematic areas, for count. In addition, there was resolution of a high second patient was symptomatically improved,
example, a lesion of the face which is close output cardiac failure and improvement in the but had no changes in pulmonary pressures post- to
the lip and leads to an enlargement of the size and improvement in the lesions and the leg, operatively, whereas the others did. All patients lip;
excision of that portion of the LM that although not normal. The platelet count, which reported marked symptomatic relief postopera- involves
the lip may give enough relief as far was near zero, is now normal and the leg is shown tively despite the absence in one with no relief of as the
cosmetic appearance that the entire le- 21 months on sirolimus. A series of lymphatic pulmonary hypertension.
sion need to be resected. and lymphatic venous malformations were also J.E.F.
Chapter 28: Surgical Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer 369
Manajemen pembedahan yang berhasil untuk ini di mana pengobatan kuratif rutin dengan Setelah berhasil melihat introitus laring
kanker laring mengharuskan dokter untuk jalan nafas dan fungsi menelan yang secara langsung, ia mengamati polip fibroepitel
mengintegrasikan algoritma kompleks dari bermanfaat sementara hasil vokal yang bola-valving yang menghalangi aperture glottal.
host inang dan masalah tumor. Pasien dan ahli optimal tetap menjadi pengejaran. Dia melanjutkan menggunakan tang
bedah harus saling mempertimbangkan melengkung untuk menghilangkan massa. Ini
modalitas pengobatan yang optimal. Ini menjadi reseksi endoskopik pertama yang
didasarkan pada kemanjuran penyembuhan HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF dikontrol secara visual dari laring, yang
bersama dengan efek merugikan yang GLOTTIC CANCER TREATMENT: mendahului penggunaan rutin laringoskopi
berpotensi dari intervensi tersebut pada cermin dan bedah endolaring yang dipandu
patensi jalan nafas, suara, dan penelanan.
THE 19TH CENTURY cermin.
Hasil fungsional harus berasimilasi dengan
usia pasien, kebutuhan vokal, dan cadangan Horace Green: The First Direct
paru, serta keterampilan dari ahli bedah, Laryngoscopic Resection of a THE EARLY CURES FOR
ketersediaan teknologi, dan riwayat onkologis Laryngeal Neoplasm
pasien sebelumnya. Konsep-konsep ini dimulai LARYNGEAL CANCER
pada abad ke-19 dan secara progresif didirikan Reseksi endolaring pertama dari neoplasma Hebatnya, beberapa tahun setelah
hingga abad ke-20 karena meningkatnya laring dapat ditelusuri ke pencapaian kemenangan Green, Garcia
frekuensi kanker laring setelah pengenalan monumental dari Horace Greene (Gbr. 1A, B) mempresentasikan mirror laryngos-
rokok yang diproduksi secara massal. pada tahun 1840-an. copy, yang mengkatalisasi
Perawatan bedah canary laryngeal cer Setelah menjadi orang pertama yang secara perkembangan formal laryngology oleh
selama dua abad terakhir terdiri dari sejarah trakea merawat trakea secara rutin, keterampilan Czermak dan Turck. Laryngologi
yang kaya mencatat perkembangan bedah dan kepercayaan diri Green meningkat sehingga menjadi sangat berkembang sebagai
pencapaian berikutnya menjadi salah satu yang
laring endoskopi invasif minimal, manajemen paling penting dalam manajemen jalan napas
hasil dari diagnosis dan prosedur
jalan napas atas, rehabilitasi swal-lowing, dan manusia. Dia dihadapkan dengan seorang anak
endolaring tidak langsung berbasis
pelestarian suara yang menderita apnea obstruktif dengan disertai kantor.
stridor. Menggunakan spatula lidah bengkok, Selama periode ini, Solis Cohen (Gbr.
bersama dengan sinar matahari 2) kemungkinan mencapai penyembuhan
pertama kanker laring dengan melakukan
laryngofissure dan cordectomy untuk
kanker glotis awal (1869). Untuk yang
A
B
Fig. 1. A: Horace Green (1802–1866) was the “Father of American Laryngology.” B. Green demonstrating blind intubation of
the tracheobronchial tree. (From Harper’s Weekly: Dr. Horace Green and His Method. 1859, February 5:88–90.)
370 Part III: The Head and Neck
University, Archives & Special Collections, Scott ing room, where most complex endolaryn-
Memorial Library, Philadelphia.) geal surgery was done in the 20th century.
(Fig. 4) performed the first successful tran- Killian (Fig. 6) acknowledged Kirstein’s
soral endoscopic resection of glottic cancer achievements and based on this work intro-
ahli bedah pertama yang mengkhususkan diri menggunakan panduan cermin. Ada bronkoskopi kaku dan suspensi
dalam bidang laringologi telah dilatih oleh kemungkinan bahwa ini juga merupakan laringoskopi. Setelah memodifikasi
Samuel Gross dan melayani Uni sebagai ahli penyembuhan kanker endoskopi invasif laringoskop suspensi Killian, Lynch (Gbr.
bedah umum selama 4 tahun Perang Saudara. minimal invasif pertama. Ada lebih banyak 7) menerbitkan serangkaian 39 pasien
Meskipun ada penggunaan laryngofissure dan laporan terisolasi serupa selama 30 tahun ke yang kanker glotis awalnya dieksisi en
cordectomy yang intermiten dengan keberhasilan depan. Pencapaian perawatan kanker blok dengan susulan laringoskopi. Ini
yang bervariasi pada akhir abad ke-19, prosedur endoskopi awal ini tidak secara signifikan menjadi seri substansial pertama dari
ini ditetapkan oleh Semon, Butlin, dan Jackson. mengubah strategi manajemen untuk kanker reseksi kanopi glotis endoskopi. Dia
Billroth (Gbr. 3) melakukan laryngectomy total glotis, yang terutama terdiri dari prosedur dengan hati-hati memilih lesi yang
pertama untuk kanker laring (1874). Meskipun laringektomi terbuka transkriptikal. terpapar dengan cukup, volume kecil,
Billroth berhasil melakukan reseksi, Solis Cohen terbatas pada pita suara tunggal, dan
dan Gluck menyempurnakan prosedur dengan
menjahit trakea ke kulit dan memisahkan jalan
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF tidak meluas ke komisura anterior atau
proses vokal. Karena kesulitan teknis
napas dari pharyngo-esophagus. GLOTTIC CANCER TREATMENT: laringoskopi suspensi tanpa anestesi
Pada tahun 1884, Koller dan Jelinek THE 20TH CENTURY endotrakeal umum, pendekatan ini tetap
memperkenalkan kokain topikal untuk anestesi tidak jelas..
mukosa, yang menjadi teknologi platform kimia Formal Direct Laryngoscopic Jako memulai percobaan dengan teknologi
utama yang sangat maju dalam operasi laring Treatment of Glottic Cancer laser untuk menghilangkan jaringan manusia
berbasis kantor. Segera sesudahnya, Fraenkel pada pertengahan 1960-an. Pada awal 1970-an,
Pada tahun 1895, Kirstein (Gbr. 5) Jako, Strong, dan Vaughan mungkin yang bedah
memperkenalkan kembali laringoskopi pertama
langsung, menggambarkan trakeoskopi, and
Chapter 28: Surgical Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer 371
laring: (a) kaliber jalan nafas yang memadai, (b) unlike XRT, endoscopic treatment preserves
katup yang kompeten untuk menghalangi all treatment modalities including further
aspirasi selama deglutisi, dan (c) fonasi dan endoscopic management.
suara. Pengobatan radioterapi kanker glotis dini
Karsinoma glotis adalah unik sebagai berhasil mengendalikan penyakit lokal pada
tempat kanker organ karena lesi yang sebagian besar kasus; Namun, keuntungan
sangat kecil (2 mm) atau bahkan displasia ini dikurangi dengan fakta bahwa XRT adalah
prakanker dapat menyebabkan defisit pengobatan sekali pakai dan pasien dengan
fungsional, suara serak yang jelas. Selain kanker laring sering mengalami neoplastik
itu, pada sebagian besar pasien, kehilangan metachronous. Namun, meskipun satu abad
suara adalah satu-satunya gejala dominan, sukses dengan angka kesembuhan yang lebih
yang mudah dikenali oleh teman dan tinggi menggunakan prosedur bedah fungsi
keluarga. Karena kontrol lokal adalah rutin transoral dan transcervical, karsinoma glotis
dan aspirasi biasanya dapat dihindari, biasanya diobati dengan terapi sinar eksternal
metrik utama untuk sukses dalam (XRT) di sebagian besar negara barat. Penyakit
manajemen adalah patensi jalan napas dan T1 dan T2 diobati dengan radioterapi saja
pemulihan / pelestarian suara.. sementara lesi T3 dan T4 biasanya diobati
Karena kekurangan relatif limfatik pada dengan XRT dan kemoterapi. Keuntungan
lipatan vokal yang sebenarnya, tidak umum utama dari pendekatan ini adalah
bagi pasien untuk datang dengan metastasis keseragaman manajemen yang tidak
regional dengan penyakit T1 dan T2. Oleh memerlukan keterampilan yang sangat
karena itu, kanker glotis berukuran kecil individual, syarat utama intervensi bedah
hingga menengah sangat ideal untuk yang optimal.
modalitas tunggal endoskopi in-
Fig. 7. Robert Clyde Lynch (1880–1931).
vasive treatment. Remarkably, even those For early disease, the disadvantages of
with T3 and T4 lesions often do not have as- XRT include damage to noncancerous glot-
sociated adenopathy. However, the surgical tal tissue including (e.g., contralateral vocal
untuk menghilangkan jaringan manusia mayoritas pengobatan T3 dan T4 glotis car- lipatan), yang merupakan sumber suara
dengan laser dan segera setelah itu memerlukan reseksi terbuka (transcervical) utama serta ablasi kelenjar sakular, yang
menggunakan teknologi inovatif ini untuk dengan menghilangkan beberapa atau semua sangat penting untuk melumasi glotis untuk
mereseksi kanula glotis. Tiga puluh tahun kerangka kerja cartiage (total laryngectomy). memfasilitasi getaran lipatan-vokal. Untuk
kemudian, Zeitels et al. Memperkenalkan Kanker laring dipentaskan menggunakan penyakit lanjut, biasanya radiasi dan
perawatan laser angiolitik kanker glotis sistem klasifikasi TNM standar (Tabel 1) kemoterapi menyebabkan pembengkakan
berdasarkan prinsip Folkman tentang berdasarkan subsite yang terkena dampak jalan nafas dan / atau stenosis yang
neoplastik angiogenesis. (supraglottis, glottis, atau subglottis). Seperti membutuhkan trakeomi serta disfagia berat
kanker lainnya, stadium TNM memiliki nilai dan / atau stenosis faringgo-esofagus,
prognostik untuk bertahan. Karena keputusan keduanya biasanya tidak hadir sebelum
GLOTTIC CANCER perawatan sering dibuat berdasarkan stadium perawatan dan sangat sulit untuk
kanker, maka sangat berharga untuk diselesaikan.
Disease Presentation and
4 3
Epithelium
2
5 1 Superficial lamina propria
6 Vocal ligament
V
I
II
III
Vocalis muscle
IV
Fig. 8. Coronal section of the mid-vocal fold displaying. A: different potential depths of tumor invasion. B: Classifica-
tion of different resection depths.
perimeter lesi akan buncit menciptakan ing jutaan suara termasuk ratusan ribu pasien tanpa peningkatan bahan kimia (mis., agen
depresi kontur di wilayah kanker. Infus kanker laring yang serak. Ini bahkan mungkin pemekaan terhadap) untuk melibatkan dan
subepitel membantu dengan pelaksanaan akan memfasilitasi peningkatan suara pada mengobati kanker tanpa reseksi atau ablasi
teknis bedah pada sejumlah cara lain: (a) Infus pasien yang telah menjalani laryngectomy kotor. Pendekatan ini menggabungkan elemen
memfasilitasi sayatan mukosa dengan parsial atau total. Pada yang terakhir, getaran bedah dan radiasi untuk menciptakan
meningkatkan visualisasi dari batas lateral lesi mukosa yang berhubungan dengan bicara pendekatan hibrida yang unik. Hasil suara
dan dengan menjauhkan SLP sehingga epitel esofageal dan fonasi dengan pidato katup yang telah kami capai dalam kelompok pasien
diatasnya di bawah tekanan. trakeomofagus akan menjadi lebih efektif. di sini biasanya lebih unggul dari apa yang
(b)Infus ini juga meningkatkan kedalaman lamina telah kami capai di masa lalu. Ini khususnya
A B
D
C
Fig. 9. A. Vascular pattern of normal arborizing microcirculation seen through the transparent epithelium and within the
superficial lamina propria of the phonatory mucosa. B: Precancerous dysplasia of the epithelium obscures visualization of the
subepithelial microcirculation. C and D: Invasive carcinoma is comprised of aberrant disordered and dense microvasculature.
(Redrawn after Jako GJ, Kleinsasser O. Endolaryngeal Micro-diagnosis and Microsurgery. Reprint from the Annual Meeting of
the American Medical Association, 1966.)
sirkulasi mikro. Hal ini meminimalkan trauma angiolytic pengobatan laser pulsed-kanker Keterlibatan kanker tendon anterior-
termal dan fibrosis jaringan lunak glotis glotis awal memiliki kemampuan komisura dan / atau tulang rawan arytenoid
normal ekstralesi yang tidak melekat, sehingga mempertahankan jaringan lunak paraglottic- bukan merupakan kontraindikasi untuk
secara optimal mempertahankan jaringan space dalam neoplasma yang lebih dalam serta teknik ini jika paparan laringoskopi yang
lunak lipat vokal yang diperlukan untuk SLP mukosa pada tumor yang lebih dangkal memadai dapat diperoleh. Invasi kartilago
getaran fonatori. Photo- (Fig. 12). tiroid merupakan kontraindikasi untuk
pendekatan ini dan membutuhkan
pengangkatan lamina tiroid secara
transcervical. Untuk melestarikan arsitektur
commissure anterior, adalah umum untuk
mengangkat tumor dengan penyakit bilateral
dalam dua tahap.
Perawatan laser photoangiolytic berdenyut
dua tahap oleh ahli bedah yang menggunakan
radiasi nonionisasi mempertahankan elemen
phono-microsurgery dan model radioterapi
saat ini yang mensinkronisasi aset utama
keduanya dan terdiri dari revisi signifikan dari
paradigma bedah khas, yang menyiratkan
manajemen yang efektif sebagai intervensi
soliter. Ini bertentangan dengan radioterapi
dan terapi ibu, yang bersifat inkremental.
Untuk janji fungsi yang ditingkatkan,
perawatan kanker non-bedah ini telah
mencapai penerimaan meskipun fakta bahwa
pasien memiliki penyakit kambuhan selama
berbulan-bulan perawatan. Selain itu, telah
Fig. 11. Histology of a T1 vocal-fold cancer. Note menjadi hal yang umum selama beberapa
the vascular channels at the base of the nests of dekade bagi pasien dengan penyakit primer
Fig. 10. Early vocal-fold cancer demonstrating malignant epithelial cells and the ingrowth of ves- lanjut dan metastasis regional ke
complex looping angiogenic microcirculation. sels within the neoplasm.
Chapter 28: Surgical Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer 375
A B
C D
Fig. 12. A: Microlaryngoscopic examination of a right vocal-fold cancer with a 0.4-mm KTP laser fiber directed at the tumor.
B: A 15-ms pulse of green light is absorbed at the intralesional microcirculation. C: Toward the end of the cancer treatment.
D: Office laryngoscopic examination after healing—the patient is over 4 years without recurrence.
Endoscopic Vertical
Partial Laryngectomy
Laser laringektomi parsial vertikal endoskopi
secara teknis dapat dilakukan untuk sebagian
besar lesi T2 glotis; Namun, itu memang
membutuhkan pengalaman yang substansial.
Steiner memperjuangkan teknik-teknik ini
setelah mengunjungi kelompok Universitas
Boston (Jako, Strong, dan Vaughan) pada
akhir 1970-an. Tumor ini sering melanggar
atau menyerang otot glotis intrinsik di
kompartemen paraglottic. Penentuan tumor
secara tiga dimensi dilakukan dengan cara
endoskopi dan studi pencitraan (CT scan atau
MRI). Reseksi ini dapat dilakukan
Fig. 13. Different types of vertical partial laryngectomy procedures based on the size of the lesion to
treat glottic carcinoma.
with a CO2 laser, with or without a fiber, as
well as the thulium and KTP lasers, which
are both delivered with a fiber. The primary
difference between endoscopic and open pembaca didorong untuk meninjau sumber ing through the ventricle to the lower false
transcervical partial laryngectomy proce- khusus yang komprehensif untuk detailnya . tali tetapi tidak ke daerah epilaring.
dures is that the cartilage framework is re- Prosedur awal ini mirip dengan lary-ofissure
sected in open procedures. Although laryn- dan cordectomy termasuk traotomi. Namun,
goscopic procedures can usually be done
Transcervical Laryngofissure lamina tiroid anterior serta tali pusat, tali
without a tracheotomy, transoral proce- and Cordectomy pusat benar, dan subglotis disambung
dures preclude immediate vocal reconstruc- tion. ulang. Laryngectomy parsial klasik vertikal
Kordektomi terbuka dapat digunakan untuk dapat diperluas untuk memasukkan
After healing has taken place, various pasien dengan lesi T1 dan T2 yang dipilih
reconstructive procedures (previously men- arytenoid, kartilago krikoid atas, dan bagian
dari lipatan vokal yang sebenarnya dan dari tiroid kontalateral. Rekonstruksi
tioned) can be utilized (injection laryngo- subglotis yang bukan kandidat untuk
plasty with or without medialization thyro- dicapai dengan memutar jaringan lokal
reseksi laser endoskopi karena paparan seperti mukosa hipofaring, epiglotis, lamina
plasty) to restore a laryngeal phonation laringoskopi terbatas. Dalam prosedur ini
source. Because of the delayed reconstruc- tion, tiroid post-rior, dan otot-otot tali ekstrinsik.
tulang rawan tiroid dipertahankan. Setelah Ada variasi luas dalam penggunaan jaringan
some surgeons still opt to employ clas- sic open mengekspos kerangka tulang rawan laring,
partial laryngectomy techniques. lokal ini, yang berada di luar cakupan bab
trakeotomi dilakukan sebelum memasuki ini dan dirinci dalam teks khusus untuk
laring. Kemudian tulang rawan tiroid operasi kanker laring. Tujuan utama adalah
dipisahkan secara anterior tanpa memasuki
Open (Transcervical) Cancer jalan napas. Selanjutnya, membran
untuk mempertahankan deglutition dan jika
mungkin, untuk membuat kaliber jalan
Surgery: General Considerations krikotiroid dimasukkan untuk melihat nafas yang memungkinkan pengangkatan
tumor glotis dari bawah untuk secara tabung trakeotomi. Sampai baru-baru ini,
Seperti ditinjau sebelumnya, ada sejarah memadai menyambungkannya. Perawatan
yang kaya dalam inovasi bedah untuk dekannulasi trakeotomi tidak mungkin
diambil untuk menjaga setiap sisi insersi terjadi ketika segmen ketebalan penuh dari
pengangkatan kanker laring secara tendon anterior-commissure. Ketika
transcervial. Banyak desain awal untuk kartilago krikoid memerlukan reseksi dan /
laryngofissure dibuka, visualisasi yang atau satu sendi krikoarytenoid. Meskipun
prosedur reseksi kanker didasarkan pada memadai dari neoplasma tercapai;
pengalaman ahli bedah dalam manajemen sumber suara laring bertenaga paru-paru
memperbesar loupes bisa membantu. dicapai secara rutin, suara biasanya
trauma tembus dari pertarungan tangan ke Setelah tumor telah direseksi, korda palsu
tangan serta pembunuhan dan bunuh diri. memiliki rentang nada terbatas dan sering
dapat dibuka untuk merekonstruksi tegang dan bernafas.
Selain itu, teknik untuk pengangkatan dan jaringan lunak glotis yang dipantulkan.
rekonstruksi tumor tidak banyak berubah Lamina tiroid di aproksimasi kembali
dalam beberapa dekade. Lebih jauh, nuansa dengan dua pilihan 2-0 prolene di atas dan
variasi rincian metode-metode ini sangat di bawah glotis. Otot-otot pengikat Supracricoid Laryngectomy
luas dengan buku-buku teks yang diaproksimasi kembali dan drainase with Cricohyoidopexy
dikhususkan untuk subjek ini dan karena penrose subplatma ditempatkan, yang
itu jauh di luar ruang lingkup bab ini. Pasien yang dipilih dengan lesi T2 glotis atau lesi
membantu mencegah emfisema subkutan.
Akhirnya, laryngectomy parsial terbuka infrahyoid T2 dan T3 supra-glotis yang memiliki
dilakukan dengan penurunan frekuensi fungsi paru yang memadai (mirip dengan parsial
kecuali untuk pusat-pusat keunggulan Transcervical Partial horizontal
tertentu. Oleh karena itu, highlight dari
teknik reseksi transcervical (Gbr. 13) akan Vertical Laryngectomy
diberikan Laryngectomy parsial vertikal biasanya
digunakan untuk memperluas neoplasma
transglottic T2
Chapter 28: Surgical Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer 377
A B
C D
Fig. 14. A Pemeriksaan klinis dari kekambuhan sedang-besar dari karsinoma glotis kiri dengan ekstensi substansial ke subglotis
dan lipatan vokal kanan kontralateral. B: Spesimen ditampilkan termasuk glotis dan subglotis. Permukaan bawah tali palsu terlihat
tersisa di pasien. C: Lengkungan homograft aorta akan digunakan untuk rekonstruksi. D: Homograft aorta dijahit dalam posisi
untuk menggantikan area reseksi dari kerangka tulang rawan.
pasien laryngectomy) adalah kandidat reseksi dengan mempertahankan scaffolding Dengan rekonstruksi homograft aorta, tidak
untuk laryngectomy supracricoid. Biasanya, cartilaginous struktural yang cukup dan ada fistula atau komplikasi yang signifikan,
jaringan glotis dari arytenoid ke depan jaringan lunak internal untuk mencapai semua pasien melanjutkan diet per-oral
bersama dengan tali palsu dan lamina tiroid deklarasi trakeotomi. Jaringan lunak lokal penuh, dan semua kasus telah didiagnosis.
yang mendasarinya dihilangkan. Aspirasi dan / atau flap regional biasanya menutup Sungguh luar biasa bahwa telah ada
awal pasca operasi adalah umum seperti defek secara adekuat, tetapi juga kolaps dan pekerjaan bangku sebelumnya
pada pasien laringektomi parsial horizontal. mempersempit lumen jalan napas menggunakan aorta hoogmog untuk
Pelestarian kedua sendi cricoarytenoid intralaring, sering membatasi kemampuan rekonstruksi trakea lebih dari 50 tahun
memfasilitasi dekonulasi traototomi untuk mendekannulasi pasien. yang lalu dan minat baru dalam beberapa
akhirnya dan memulihkan fungsi menelan. tahun terakhir.
Pada tahun 2009, kami memulai
Sumber suara fonatory bernada rendah dan
rekonstruksi bidang luas dari defek
monoton; Namun, sering kali cukup kuat Menggantikan volume kerangka tulang rawan
laringektomi parsial yang diperluas dengan
dan muncul dari osilasi mukosa arytenoid laring yang disebutkan sebelumnya dengan
aorta homograft cryopreserved (Gambar 14).
peri-corniculate dan lipatan aryepiglottic. restorasi jalan nafas dan fungsi menelan yang
Hasil awal sejauh ini sangat menjanjikan, konsisten belum tercapai sebelumnya. Homograft
menunjukkan bahwa pendekatan ini akan aorta cryopreserved unik dalam beberapa aspek.
Extended Laryngectomy memberikan peluang baru untuk pelestarian Ini pada dasarnya adalah perancah aseluler
Partial Terbuka dengan organ dan fungsi untuk pasien dengan sehingga terapi imun kimia tidak diperlukan.
Homograft aorta lentur dan mempertahankan
Rekonstruksi Homograft kanker laring yang besar. Pada kelompok uji
coba awal dari tujuh pasien, semua pasien reologi dalam bentuk tubular, yang
Aortic memiliki> 40% kartilago krikoid diangkat mempertahankan lumen saluran napas. Graft
secara tekstur kuat sehingga mudah untuk
Metode laryngectomy parsial diperpanjang bersama dengan> 50% kartilago tiroid laring. dijahit menjadi tambalan dan penggunaannya
klasik sering dibatasi oleh keseimbangan Empat dari tujuh pasien sebelumnya gagal membutuhkan keterampilan onkologis bedah
mencapai onkologis yang memadai radioterapi dan lima dari tujuh berusia di rutin.
atas 65 tahun.
378 Part III: The Head and Neck
The aortic homograft appears to be ex- cases per annum in the United States. Dis- Endoscopic Resection
tremely tolerant of exposure to upper comfort and a neck mass are of the most of Supraglottic Cancer
aerodigestive tract reflux, barotrauma from common presenting symptoms, however,
coughing, and microbial flora. It maintains with larger neoplasms, patients may also Jackson described piecemeal endoscopic
its structural integrity following implanta- report voice changes, airway restriction, removal of supraglottic cancer over 70 years
tion for prolonged periods of time. Based dysphagia, odynophagia, hemoptysis, and ago this philosophy is conformed to and
on our observations, there is ingrowth of referred ear pain (otalgia). Unlike glottic deemed acceptable to the present. Vaughan
microcirculation from the soft tissues of cancer, supraglottic cancer frequents championed this approach and performed
the neck, which maintains the viability of presents with regional metastasis, which the first endoscopic supraglottic laryngec-
the graft. However, there is a prolonged pe- is the primary determinant of survival. tomies in the 1970s when the Boston Uni-
riod of intraluminal granulation in the air- Similar to glottic cancer, controlling the versity Otolaryngology group introduced
way (2 to 4 months) prior to epithelializa- disease at the primary site is typical with laser technology to facilitate soft-tissue dis-
tion that is similar to wide-field endoscopic careful treatment selection and vigilant section and surgical oncology. Cutting the
resections. This is more substantial in pre- surveillance. However, achieving local tumor into segments was done because the
viously irradiated patients but does not control with preservation of optimal air- field of resection was substantially larger
preclude decannulation during this period. way, swallowing, and vocal function re- than the laryngoscope speculae. Steiner,
In the future, it is likely that these grafts will mains as a challenge. who has been the primary proponent of this
be seeded with patients’ mucosal epithe- The general success of controlling supra- philosophy over the past 2 decades, visited
lium retrieved in a clinic biopsy, prior to the glottic cancer locally is similar to glottic Boston in the late 1970s and subsequently
cancer resection, to hasten epithelializa- cancer. It is due to the fact that the anatomy advanced this approach technically. Through
tion of the reconstruction, which we have of the larynx is comprised of a thick carti- steadfast perseverance as well as relentless
observed to eventually occur. laginous frame and dense connective tissue lecturing and teaching, he has secured
that are resistant to local invasion outside worldwide recognition of the effectiveness of
Total Laryngectomy the larynx thereby creating a series of self- endoscopic treatment of laryngeal cancer.
contained compartments. Like glottic can- Endoscopic resection of supraglottic
Complete extirpation of the larynx has cer, this structural composition facilitates a cancer provides several advantages over
not changed dramatically over the past variety of transoral (endoscopic) and tran- open supraglottic laryngectomy (Fig. 15). In
125 years apart from diminishing the perim- scervical (open neck) partial laryngectomy most circumstances, a perioperative tra-
eter margins to preserve uninvolved phar- procedures. cheotomy is not necessary. In addition, the
yngo-esophageal soft tissue and developing Unlike the glottis, supraglottic carci- superior laryngeal nerves are not cut so
innovative methods of pharyngo-esophageal noma typically presents with advanced critically important sensory function of the
reconstruction. Fortunately, this procedure disease. Initial presentation of precancer- neosupraglottic valve is retained. This is a
with its attendant morbidity of a permanent ous mucosa and early cancer are relatively key determinant of posttreatment swallow-
tracheostomy and the loss of a lung-pow- rare since these lesions are unaccompa- ing function in preventing aspiration. With
ered laryngeal phonation has become rela- nied by symptoms. They are typically iden- endolaryngeal treatment, wound break-
tively infrequent in recent decades. The rea- tified because a patient is under surveil- down leading to fistula formation does not
son for this decline is multifactorial and lance for previous aerodigestive tract occur. Finally, supraglottic cancer, even in
includes extensive experience with endo- cancer. Pathologic assessment of tumors the deep compartments is typically encased
scopic and transcervical partial laryngec- initially staged as T1 and T2 reveal that the by a capsule, which enhances endoscopic
tomy techniques along with enhanced re- largest majority are T3 and T4. Because of feasibility and efficacy.
sults with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. the rich lymphatics of the supraglottis, it The piecemeal resection philosophy
Despite these advancements, total larynge- commonplace for patients with supraglot- has always remained problematic for a
ctomy remains a valuable treatment option tic cancer to present with clinical evidence majority of surgeons trained in classical
that is often life-preserving in patients who of regional lymph-node metastasis or oc- techniques requiring en bloc removal of
have extremely large neoplasms or have cult adenopathy discovered on elective the tumor. To address this, over 20 years
failed prior treatments. A clear concern of neck dissection. ago, Zeitels designed a wide bivalve ad-
surgeons who must perform total laryngec- Preservation of laryngeal function can justable supraglottiscope that would allow
tomy in those who have failed prior radio- be a substantial challenge with advanced for en bloc supraglottic cancer resection.
therapy and chemotherapy is the high inci- supraglottic primaries regardless of treat- Despite the success in simulating en bloc
dence of severe pharyngo-cutaneous fistula ment modality. Smaller volume neoplsms open surgery through an endoscopic ap-
formation. Vascularized nonirradiated flaps are typically controlled locally with endo- proach, the technique remained time-con-
have only provided limited mitigation of this scopic removal, open supraglottic larynge- suming and difficult. Remarkably, en bloc
morbid routine outcome. ctomy, or radiotherapy. Larger supraglottic resection is being resurrected today with
tumors often require surgery and radio- the technical advantages of transoral ro-
therapy often including chemotherapy as botic surgery.
SUPRAGLOTTIC CARCINOMA well. Preservation of normal laryngeal There have been two general approaches
function can be extremely difficult with to endoscopic treatment of supraglottic
Disease Presentation and large supraglottic cancers. Regardless of cancer. This is comprised of single-modal-
Philosophy of Management treatment selection of the primary site, ity transoral resection and the use of endo-
neck lymphatics should always be consid- scopic resection combined with postoper-
Supraglottic cancer comprises approxi- ered carefully when designing a treatment ative radiotherapy. The logic of the latter
mate-ly one-third of new laryngeal cancer regimen. approach is that treating most supraglottic
Chapter 28: Surgical Treatment of Laryngeal Cancer 379
suspension and dissection. Trans Am Laryngol of phonomicrosurgical management. Laryngo- Zeitels SM, Hillman RE, Franco RA, et al. Voice
Assoc 1920;40:119–26. scope 1995;105(Suppl 67):1–51. and treatment outcome from phonosurgical
Martinod E, Seguin A, Pfeuty K, et al. Long-term Zeitels SM. Phonomicrosurgical treatment of early management of early glottic cancer. Ann Otol
evaluation of the replacement of the trachea glottic cancer and carcinoma in situ. Am J Surg Rhinol Laryngol 2002;111(Suppl 190):1–20.
with an autologous aortic graft. Ann Thorac 1996;172:704–9. Zeitels SM, Burns JA, Dailey SH. Suspension lar-
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experimental repair of the trachea using au- 342–6. Zeitels SM, Franco RA Jr, Dailey SH, et al. Office-
togenous aorta and polyethylene tubes. Surg Zeitels SM. A universal modular glottiscope based treatment of glottal dysplasia and pap-
Gynecol Obstet 1958;106(1):56–62. system: the evolution of a century of design illomatosis with the 585-nm pulsed dye laser
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tions of the larynx. Med Rec 1869;4:244–7. er Endolaryngeal Procedures for Benign and 532 nm pulsed-KTP laser treatment of glottal
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EDITOR’S COMMENT The inability to speak or to speak with esopha- that a transcervical approach should be reserved geal
speech is one of the more flagrant, and I use for selected cases where the individual “anatomic this
word not in an accusatory fashion, disabilities factors do not permit complete tumor exposure
As with both this chapter and the following chap- that patients ever have to suffer. Their interplay during diagnostic microlaryngoscopy.” How well
ter the surgeons and therapists who deal with and integration into society is distinctly prohib- did these people do as far as long-term survival? the
larynx and the pharynx bear a heavy burden. ited. There are some individuals who really cannot Quite well. Five-year disease-specific survival was The
patients who present certainly with laryngeal tolerate esophageal speech in somebody that they 96.5% for T1a and 94.3% for T1b cases. The differ- and
hypopharyngeal cancers are habituated to are talking with. The ability to make speech less of ence between these two categories was statisti- tobacco
and perhaps alcohol, they are not well- a difficult event and also not to be as labored will cally significant largely because of the large num- to-do, and
they are often neglected medically. enable these patients to return to society. ber of patients. Local disease control was 93.6%
They have significant comorbidities and present The theme certainly since the last edition is for T1a and 90.6% for T1b cases, but this was not with
an advanced stage of disease. The surgeon’s the continuation of otorhinolaryngology in par- significant. No significant differences were noted purpose
here is to preserve whatever one can: a ticular laryngologists who continually try and use between the different types of procedures.
voice, swallowing, nutrition, and respiration, a surgical approaches, which are less destructive in Takes et al. (Head and Neck DOI 10.1002/
large number of complex functions that take place the early stages of glottic cancer (T1s) and they hed;2010:1–15) reviewed the initial management
in a very small area. The senior author gets credit utilize the oncological results of transoral surgi- of hypopharyngeal cancer. As with many other
for some of the early and continuing transoral la- cal techniques in glottic cancers as well as in oth- papers in this particular area the subhead, the
ser therapies for carcinoma of the larynx and hy- ers intraoral and intralaryngeal diseases. Karat- declining use of open surgery, is another theme,
popharynx. The purpose of this therapy, research zanis et al. (The Laryngoscope 2009;119:1704–8) which abounds throughout this area. This group
into which continues, is to preserve as much func- reviewed 438 T1a and T1b glottic cancers man- is the International Head and Neck Scientific
tion as possible in as many different areas. aged with primary surgery. Transoral laser sur- Group and while it consists mostly of European
One of the absolutely brilliant innovations gery (TOLS) and open surgical procedures were and U.S.members the flavor is distinctly European.
that is mentioned casually as almost in pass- used to treat these cases, which include resec- Why do I say that? Because it seems to me that
ing is an almost casual mention “after a decade tion of the cord, vertical partial laryngectomy, regardless of whether one talks of Wilms tumor,
of research we have designed a promising vocal and frontolateral partial laryngectomy, and all Chapter 187, or in this particular tumor the re-
biogel and expect to commence human trials in of these were compared for disease-specific sur- liance on radiation and chemotherapy seems to
2011. This vocal biogel retains the possibility of vival and local control rates. Major complications be fixture in the European approach. However
restoring millions of voices including hundreds and tracheostomies were one of the criteria by the outcome is not terrific. “While most patients
of thousands of hoarse laryngeal cancer patients. which results were evaluated. No statistically present with significant comorbidities and ad-
It will likely even facilitate voice enhancement significant differences between laser surgery vance stage disease, the over all survival is rela-
in patients who have undergone partial or total and open procedures were obvious with regard tively poor because of high rate of regional and
laryngectomy. In the latter, mucosa vibration to disease-specific survival and local control of distal metastasis at presentation or early in the
associated with esophageal speech inphonation both T1a and T1b cases. Laser surgery, interest- course of the disease.” There is the usual appeal for
with tracheal esophageal valve speech will likely ing enough, showed a significantly lower inci- multidisciplinary management but there is a dis-
be made more effective.” dence of tracheostomies. The authors conclude tinct bias in this paper away from laryngectomy
Chapter 29: Surgical Treatment of Pharyngeal Cancer 381
and/or partial or circumferential pharyngectomy classified as T1, had TOLS only and 23 receiving The senior author of the chapter, Professor
followed by reconstruction and postoperative more extensive therapy because of more extensive Zeitels, continues with his microlaryngoscopic
radiotherapy in most cases. The authors readily tumors. All patients were N0. They received addi- and office-based attack of glottal papillomatosis
admit that squamous cell carcinoma of the hypo- tional radiotherapy locally and to the neck. Unfor- (Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology 2009;
pharynx is less prevalent than at most major sites tunately, 7 of the 23 cases had positive margins and Suppl 201:1–24). This is again somewhat a leap
of the head and neck, such as the oral cavity. The 5 or 26% of the total group failed locoregionally. of faith in trying to minimize the destructive ef-
traditional operation of laryngopharyngectomy However, the recorded 5-year recurrence-free sur- fects of laryngeal cancer or its precursor, in this
with reconstruction of the pharynx has been the vival rate for stage I and II was 95% as compared case glottal papillomatosis. Apparently, photo-
preferred initial treatment modality for hypopha- with a stage III and IV disease at 69%, respectively. angiolytic laser treatments while they effectively
ryngeal cancer. That is pretty respectable salvage as far as I am treat this condition do not reliably treat reoccur-
Whatever therapy one uses, this is a bad dis- concerned. In summary, the oncological result rence and I assume, if they do reoccur, ultimately
ease in a very bad place. Nonsurgical treatments of TOLS appears comparable with open results they turn malignant. Therefore, the authors have
appeared to have gain popularity, at least in with an overall survival rate of between 50% and attempted to inject sublesional injections of the
Europe and treatment with radiotherapy alone, 70% for stage I and II disease and 40% or 50% with antiangiogenic agent bevacizumab (Avastin) in-
however, has a worse prognosis as compared stage II and IV disease. There is a high incidence jected sub-epithelially. This was a pilot group of
with the combined treatment of surgery and of larynx preservation in these selective cases but 10 adult patients with bilateral glottal papilloma-
radiotherapy particularly of Stage 4 disease. In most patients continue to require postoperative tosis who had undergone angiolitic laser treat-
addition, adding chemotherapy to a primary radiotherapy. Here, of course, the emphasis is on ment but recurred as one would expect. They
radiotherapy protocol apparently does result in nonsurgical management by which I assume the underwent five injections of 5 to 10 mg into the
improved outcome, which is comparable to sur- authors mean open resectional management. To diseased vocal folds along with 532-nm pulsed-
gery and postoperative radiotherapy but with the me, TOLS is surgical treatment. KTP laser photoangiolysis 4 to 6 weeks apart.
advantage of larynx preservation in a large num- Another article which begins “nonsurgical They were compared with prior treatments alone
ber of cases. (Lefebvre JL, et al. Journal of National management of oropharyngeal cancer and hy- and a voice-related quality of life survey. Accord-
Cancer Institute 1996;88:890–9). popharyngeal cancer” is brought forth by Gen- ing to the results all 10 patients had a “greater
There are a number of ways of reconstruct- evieve Andrews et al., largely from the Fox Chase than 90% reduction in recurrence.” I am not sure
ing this area with, for example, a pectoralis myo- Cancer Center (Head and Neck DOI 10.1002/ what does this mean since only 4 of the 10 had
cutaneous flap, which may be useful for lesions hed;2010:1–9). They reviewed 180 patient records resolution, 4 of the 10 had limited recurrence or
with minimal extension into the esophagus and form 1993 to 2004 and found that the number of persistent disease and received injections of Avas-
“has proved useful in severely depleted or elderly patients with oropharyngeal cancer treated nearly tin at 8- to 12-week periods and have not had la-
patients.” Similarly, gastric “pull-up” or transposi- doubled, whereas the number of patients with ser treatment. Two of the 10 required office-based
tion is utilized for patients for whom the tumor laryngeal and hypopharyngeal cancers declined KTP laser treatment along with the injections. No has
extended as far down as the middle third of (P = 0.006). Chemotherapeutic regimens delivered patient has required microlaryngeal surgery with the
esophagus. These patients apparently can concurrently rather than radiation alone appears general anesthesia and all 10 have had “substan-
present rather late indeed. Microvascular flaps to be the dominant approach with associated tial improvement in vocal function.”
have increased the surgeons’ armamentarium in improvements in recurrence-free and overall sur- This is another extension of minimally in-
range with microvascular transplants of jejunum, vival, which is statistically significant. The survival vasive transoral surgery in an attempt to make
the workhorse radial forearm free flap, or antero- of patients with oropharyngeal cancer improved treatment of this disease effective and less de-
lateral thigh flap. Nonetheless, the morbidity after markedly, whereas the survival rate of patients structive. This is indeed a noble goal because we
flap construction is considerable, as one might with laryngeal cancer did not change. The recur- have all seen, regardless of how well the patient
expect. Fistulas and wound complications were rence-free survival of nonsmokers was statistically does as far as survival, the inability to phonate
seen especially after radiation therapy in 33% different from that of former or current smokers. effectively and to communicate with one’s fellow
and 25%, respectively. Not surprisingly stricture The initial site of failure remained the primary site man is a severe limitation, which has all sorts of
The complexity of anatomical and physio- Cancer estimated the age-standardized rate
logical structure makes pharyngeal can- NASOPHARYNX (ASR) for NPC, worldwide, to be 1.7 per
cer surgery one of the most challenging 100,000 males per year. Higher rates have
tasks for head and neck surgeons. Cancer INTRODUCTION been observed in South East Asia, particu-
originating in each of the pharyngeal larly Southern China, and in certain other
subsites—nasopharynx, oropharynx, and Nasopharyngeal carcinomas (NPC) are rare ethnic populations like Alaskans and Green-
hypopharynx—is unique in its biology, head and neck neoplasms characterized by land Eskimos. A genetic susceptibility con-
epidemiology, and response to treatment marked geographical, environmental, and ferred by alterations in human leukocyte
and merits a site-specific discussion of ethnic variations. The most recent report of antigen typing or chromosomal patterns
the appropriate surgical approach. the International Agency of Research on and environmental risk factors including
382 Part III: The Head and Neck
consumption of nitrosamine-rich salted the mucosa, pharyngobasilar fascia, pharyn- phatic disease spreads to the upper deep
fish have been postulated to play an impor- geal muscles, and bucco-pharyngeal fascia. jugular nodes (level II) or the spinal acces-
tant role in the etiology of NPC. Epstein–Barr The lateral walls of the nasopharynx contain sory chain of nodes (level V). Lymphatics can
virus (EBV) infection has also been docu- the opening of the eustachian tubes (ET). also cross the midline to drain in the contral-
mented as a strong oncogenic precursor. Posterior and medial to the mucosal eleva- ateral neck nodes.
tion formed by the ET opening (torus tubar-
ius) is a deep recess, “fossa of Rosenmüller,”
ANATOMY considered to be the commonest site for har-
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
The nasopharynx (Fig. 1) is approximately a 4 boring NPC. The tumor may spread anteriorly Patients with NPC commonly present with
× 4 × 2 cm space behind the posterior aper- from the fossa to block the ET opening. The painless metastatic neck mass(es), otologic
tures of the nasal cavities (opposite C1 to C2) proximity of this fossa to skull base structures symptoms such as conductive deafness, au-
bound superiorly by the body of sphenoid, and parapharyngeal space accounts for di- ral fullness, otalgia or tinnitus, and nasal
petrous apices, and basiocciput and inferiorly rect spread of disease across and through the symptoms including epistaxis or obstruc-
by the upper surface of the soft palate. The skull base via invasion of the pharyngobasilar tion. Cranial nerve involvement can result
mucoperiosteum of the roof merges with the fascia. The nasopharyngeal mucosa is rich in in diplopia (VI, III, IV), facial pain or dyses-
posterior soft tissue wall. The posterior wall lymphatics, with the lateral retropharyngeal thesias (V), palatal and vocal cord paralysis
consists of four layers that run across the en- group being the first echelon of nodes (upper- (IX, X), or Horner’s syndrome (sympathetic
tire length of the pharynx—from inside out, most known as node of Rouvière). The lym- trunk). The characteristic symptoms of lo-
cal tumor spread in NPC—conductive deaf-
ness, facial pain and palatal paralysis—are
Basiocciput collectively referred to as Trotter’s triad.
STAGING AND
PREOPERATIVE PLANNING
A complete head and neck evaluation in-
Nasopharyngeal wall cluding rigid or flexible endoscopy with
Nasal turbinate Nasopharynx careful assessment of the posterior nasal
Opening of space along with the examination of the
eustachian tube cranial nerves should be performed. Radio-
logical investigations including computed
Soft palate tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance
Uvula imaging (MRI) are important to determine
the extent and stage (Table 1) of tumor and
Palatine tonsil Oropharynx also the appropriate surgical approach.
Base of tongue
Epiglottis
TREATMENT
The radiosensitivity of NPC and restricted
Aryepiglottic fold surgical access owing to the proximity of vital
structures has made nonsurgical therapy the
primary modality of treatment. The role of
Piriform sinus surgery is limited to salvage of recurrent or
persistent cancer at the primary site without
Post cricoid region
Hypopharynx any intracranial spread or neck dissection.
The size, location, and extent of tumor as well
as involvement of the adjacent soft tissue de-
Hypopharyngeal wall
termine the appropriate surgical approach.
Transpalatal
Retraction or division of the soft palate can
provide access to the nasopharynx. Wider
Fig. 1. Posterior view depicting subdivisions of pharynx. exposure is achieved by detaching the soft
Chapter 29: Surgical Treatment of Pharyngeal Cancer 383
A B
Fig. 2. Maxillary swing approach: (A) elevation of left cheek flap, (B) lateral swing of left maxilla with attached skin flap to
expose nasopharynx.
OROPHARYNX ANATOMY AND SURGICAL tonsils, palatine tonsils, and inferior part of
PATHOLOGY adenoids, may give rise to primary tumors
that metastasize at an early stage and often
INTRODUCTION The oropharynx is anatomically subdivided present as unknown primaries. A rich lym-
Cancer of the oropharynx constitutes about into (a) base of tongue, (b) tonsils and faucial phatic network is responsible for the high
10% to 12% of all head and neck cancers and pillars, (c) soft palate, and (d) pharyngeal probability of cervical metastasis from the
annually accounts for about 10,000 cases in wall (Fig. 1). Anteriorly, the oropharynx is oropharyngeal tumors. The primary echelon
the United States. The growing recognition demarcated by circumvallate papillae, junc- of drainage is the jugulodigastric nodes in
of a disparate shift in its epidemiology, par- tion of hard and soft palate, and the anterior the upper jugular chain (level II) and the ret-
ticularly in the Western world, has made faucial pillars. The bucco-pharyngeal fascia ropharyngeal and parapharyngeal nodes.
oropharyngeal malignancy an intriguing in the posterior pharyngeal wall (PPW) acts Lymphatic spread may advance from level II
clinical entity amongst all head and neck as a natural barrier to prevent the posterior to middle jugular (level III) and lower jugu-
sites. The numbers of newly diagnosed extension of carcinoma. Lateral pharyngeal lar nodes (level IV). The medial base of
oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas wall, palatine tonsils, and the faucial pillars tongue and other midline structures often
(OPSCC), mainly tonsillar and tongue base, delineate the lateral limits of the orophar- drain bilaterally.
are reported to be increasing in certain pop- ynx. Inferiorly the oropharynx extends to the
ulations at an approximate rate of 4% and vallecula and includes the glossopharyngeal
2% each year, respectively. The rise is attrib- and pharyngoepiglottic folds. Absence of
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
uted to a strong etiological association with anatomic barriers between the subsites al- Oropharyngeal cancer tends to present at
oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) lows oropharyngeal tumors to spread locally an advanced stage. Patients often present
exposures. HPV-related OPSCC classically in contiguity without restriction. Tumor ex- with a mass in the neck detected by direct
presents at younger ages and in persons tending through the lateral wall can involve observation or with symptoms of fullness in
with none or minimal tobacco exposure. the parapharyngeal space, including the the primary site such as sore throat, otalgia,
The mode of HPV transmission is yet to be pterygoid muscles and the carotid sheath dysphagia, or trismus by which time the tu-
fully elucidated but high-risk sexual behav- structures. Waldeyer’s ring, a circumferen- mor has usually progressed to a significant
iors like orogenital contact and multiple tial, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue size (Fig. 3). A frequent presentation of
lifetime partners are likely contributors. ring in oropharynx comprising the lingual OPSCC, particularly submucosal tongue
A B
Fig. 3. (A) Exophytic tumor of left tongue base, (B) endophytic tumor of right tonsil.
Chapter 29: Surgical Treatment of Pharyngeal Cancer 385
base tumors, is in the form of an unknown potential sites of occult primaries or other optimal therapeutic modality is often taken
primary, in which patients present with en- suspicious mucosal lesions are biopsied, fol- by a multidisciplinary team based on tu-
larged metastatic neck nodes but no clini- lowed by frozen section and finally by pala- mor site and stage, patient preference, co-
cally detectable or symptomatic primary tine and lingual tonsillectomies if no pri- morbidity, performance status, and avail-
tumor. OPSCC is also associated with a high mary site is identified. The tumor is staged able technical expertise.
incidence of distant metastases and syn- according to the American Joint Commis-
chronous primaries at the time of presenta- sion Cancer staging system based on all in-
tion. formation gleaned from clinical, radiologi- SURGICAL APPROACH
cal, and endoscopic evaluations (Table 1).
An evaluation of the patient’s dentition and Transoral Laser Microsurgery
STAGING AND
necessary restorative dental procedures are Transoral carbon dioxide (CO2) laser mi-
PREOPERATIVE PLANNING also recommended prior to initiation of crosurgery can be used for resection of
A complete workup to assess the site and treatment. both early and advanced stage tumor at all
stage of primary tumor and presence of cer- oropharyngeal subsites depending on the
vical lymphadenopathy is indicated. This individual’s surgical skills and training.
includes history, physical examination, and
TREATMENT The basic requirements for TLM include a
a thorough head and neck evaluation in- Definitive surgery with adjuvant radiother- competent surgical training, knowledge
cluding mirror examination, palpation, and apy has been the cornerstone of curative of pharyngeal and neck anatomy “from
office flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy for treatment for OPSCC. Issues of organ pres- the inside out,” good anatomic access,
direct visualization. Radiological evaluation ervation and functional morbidity subse- and strict enforcement of laser-specific
with a CT/MRI is performed to determine quent to conventional open en bloc surgery precautions in the operating room. The
the extent of primary with greater accuracy have instigated advocation of nonsurgical core principles of TLM for oropharynx
as well as to assess the retropharyngeal me- management of OPSCC with chemoradio- cancer, as first enunciated by Steiner, are
tastasis. The cervical lymphadenopathy can therapy (CRT), a modality associated with summarized below:
be reliably assessed by Gray scale ultra- modest survival outcomes and a higher 1. Utilization of microscope for adequate
sonography, supplemented by ultrasound- acute and long-term toxicity profile. Rapid illumination, magnification of the oper-
guided fine needle aspiration, if indicated. advances in technology have shifted the ative field, and clear distinction between
The latter is particularly useful in decision paradigm of surgical management of healthy and tumor tissue.
making for or against treating the contral- OPSCC toward minimally invasive endo- 2. Expeditious coring of large bulky tumors
ateral neck. Chest radiography, CT, or posi- scopic transoral approaches (Fig. 4). These (with cautery or laser) to leave a thin rim
tron emission tomography (PET) is used approaches allow primary tumor-targeted of tumor.
to evaluate distant metastasis or second treatment, minimal blood loss, rapid wound 3. Multiple transtumoral cuts to assess the
primary tumors. healing, avoidance of tracheostomy except deepest extent.
A systematic rigid pharyngolaryngos- for extensive oropharyngeal resections with 4. Mutibloc resection with meticulous
copy examination under anesthesia (EUA) flap reconstruction, better functional pres- inking and labeling for orientation.
of the upper aerodigestive tract (UADT) ervation, shorter hospital stay, faster reha-
Hemostasis
It is important to achieve meticulous he-
mostasis at the completion of all proce-
dures for oropharyngeal tumors, particu-
larly tonsillar and tongue base lesions,
Fig. 5. Limited partial pharyngectomy for tonsil primary—TLM approach. because of proximity or transection of large
OPEN PROCEDURES cavity, it is extended laterally in the gingi- and prevention of aspiration. Free fasciocu-
vobuccal sulcus, leaving a cuff of approxi- taneous have become the standard tech-
Transhyoid Pharyngotomy mately 5-mm mucosa for closure at the nique of reconstruction for tongue base
completion of procedure. As an alternative defects, with radial free forearm flap (RFFF)
Small base of tongue tumors can be ac- to the lip-splitting incision, a visor flap can being the most commonly used followed by
cessed through a transverse incision made be raised with a horizontal incision in the anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap. For RFFF, ad-
at the level of hyoid. The suprahyoid mus- submandibular skin crease carried across equacy of radioulnar collaterals should be
cles are divided from the hyoid bone and to the angle of the mandible on either side. ascertained preoperatively with Allen’s test.
the oropharynx can be entered through in- The soft tissues and periosteum are incised Free musculocutaneous flaps like inner-
cision of the vallecular mucosa. Care should and elevated from the bone in the region of vated latissimus dorsi can provide adequate
be taken to avoid injury to the superior la- the mandibular split. At the site of intended reconstruction for total glossectomy defect.
ryngeal nerve, the hypoglossal nerve, and osteotomy, fixation plates are placed and Regional myocutaneous flaps are used for
the lingual artery. screw holes are drilled and sized to facili- patients who are poor candidates for free
tate accurate alignment of bone during re- tissue transfer.
Lateral Pharyngotomy construction. A stepped midline or para-
median mandibulotomy is performed using Soft Palate
A temporary tracheostomy is usually rec- an electric saw, anterior to the mental fora-
ommended in patients undergoing lateral men and through the middle of a tooth Large, full-thickness soft palate defects (50%
pharyngotomy to prevent the potential air- socket or between teeth. The floor of mouth or more) result in velopharyngeal incompe-
way obstruction secondary to postoperative mucosa, mylohyoid muscle, and other soft tence, in turn resulting in nasal regurgita-
pharyngeal edema. The skin incision is tissues are divided, preserving the lingual tion and unintelligible speech. The aim of
made at the level of the superior border of nerve medially, and the mandible is re- palatal reconstruction is to fabricate a func-
the thyroid cartilage extending from the tracted laterally to expose the oropharyn- tional velum and minimize unwanted com-
midline to the posterior border of sterno- geal tumor. Proper stabilization of the man- munication between the nasopharynx and
cleidomastoid. The suprahyoid muscles are dibular segments and a close approximation the oropharynx. Local flaps like uvulopala-
detached from the hyoid above its lateral of mucosa and soft tissue at the end of pro- tal rotation flap, superior or inferior pharyn-
end, the mucosa is divided, and the pharynx cedure are imperative to minimize compli- geal flap, and palatal island flap can provide
is entered through the vallecula. A pharyn- cations with healing. adequate reconstruction for limited lateral
gocutaneous fistula may develop as a com- palatal defects but for through and through
plication in cases with significant mucosal Oropharyngeal Reconstruction defects, RFFF is the technique of choice.
resection, warranting a careful pharyngeal The oropharynx subserves the fundamental
closure with inverting mucosal sutures. functions of swallowing, speech, and respi-
ration and any reconstruction technique
Tonsil and Pharyngeal Wall
for oropharyngeal defects should be in ut- Tonsillar and pharyngeal wall defects of
Mandibular Swing most consonance with the physiological less than 4 cm can be left to heal by second-
Advanced oropharyngeal tumors in pa- mechanisms underlying these functions. ary intention. Split skin grafting may be
Postoperative Care
A vigilant monitoring of vital signs, flap via-
bility, nutritional status, and wound care is
performed. A nasogastric tube is inserted for
feeding in the immediate postoperative pe-
riod. Swallowing recovers faster in patients
undergoing TLM; however, a gastrostomy
tube may be required in patients with exten-
sive resection, slower recovery of swallowing
or in those planned for adjuvant therapy.
Fig. 7. Mandibular swing access following en bloc resection of advanced oropharynx cancer. Prophylactic antibiotics and mouthwashes
388 Part III: The Head and Neck
are administered to maintain oral hygiene border of cricoid. The lateral and medial wall determine access for transoral approaches,
and prevent infections subsequent to sali- of the PFS is continuous with the PPW and criteria for partial operations versus total
vary pooling or food retention in tongue postcricoid area, respectively. The PFS is laryngopharyngectomies, and type of recon-
base or vallecular wound defects. richly supplied by lymphatics that drain into struction of the pharyngeal defect following
the lower deep jugular chain (level IV); the tumor resection. In patients possibly requir-
Complications inferior part along with the postcricoid area ing a flap reconstruction, the adequacy of
Injury to blood vessels and cranial nerves V, can also drain into paratracheal chain (level potential donor sites should be ascertained.
VII, IX to XII; trismus; wound breakdown; VI) nodes. The lymphatics from the PPW Routine blood tests along with a preopera-
dysphagia; and dysarthria may occur with drain into the deep cervical lymph nodes bi- tive baseline level for calcium and thyroid
the open approach. Mandibular nonunion laterally through the lateral pharyngeal or function is performed. The pulmonary func-
can result due to incomplete stabilization retropharyngeal nodes. tion status should be assessed during preop-
of the mandibulotomy site. The complica- Extension of hypopharyngeal tumors erative planning of a conservation surgery
tions rates are significantly reduced with beyond their subsite of origin is critical for since patients with inadequate pulmonary
TLM and skilled reconstruction techniques. surgical planning. PFS tumors tend to reserve are at a greater risk of aspiration.
Pain, bleeding, aspiration, dysphagia, or spread medially around on to the postcri-
velopharyngeal insufficiency may occur fol- coid area and invade the posterior cri-
lowing TLM resection, with a varying inci- coarytenoid muscle. Laterally they extend
TREATMENT
dence for different oropharyngeal subsites. around or invade the posterior border of A combined therapy comprising surgical re-
the thyroid cartilage, to reach the neck and section followed by adjuvant radiotherapy is
carotid sheath area. Postcricoid tumors the standard treatment for all stages of hy-
HYPOPHARYNX tend to spread inferiorly and submucosally popharyngeal cancers as recommended by
toward the esophagus, and likewise poste- the United States National Cancer Institute.
rior wall tumors. The latter may also invade Conventionally, open neck procedures have
INTRODUCTION posteriorly outside the bucco-pharyngeal been used to resect hypopharyngeal cancers
Hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma fascia into the prevertebral space. but in recent years, as an organ preserving
accounts for about 4% of all tumors in head minimally invasive strategy, the application
and neck, with about 2,850 cases diagnosed of transoral approaches is increasing for
each year in the United States, according to
CLINICAL PRESENTATION specific subsites. TLM is an established
the most recent estimates of the American The chief presenting symptoms of patients technique for early and selected advanced
Cancer Society. It has been considered to with hypopharyngeal cancer include dys- tumors whereas transoral robotic hypopha-
portend a poor prognosis mostly due to the phagia, referred otalgia, neck mass, and sen- ryngectomy is at this stage an evolving ap-
advanced stage of disease at presentation. sation of lump in throat. Approximately two- proach, currently being evaluated for T1/T2
The incidence varies depending on the geo- thirds of patients have nodal metastases at PFS and PPW tumors.
graphical location, with an ASR of more than presentation and most patients complain of
10 per 100,000 males in certain regions of weight loss consequent to impairment of
swallowing. Other symptoms of hoarseness,
SURGICAL APPROACH
France, India, the Slovak Republic, and Croa-
tia. The variation in incidence is less pro- aspiration, and hemoptysis may occur de-
pending on the extension of the tumor.
Transoral Laser Microsurgery
nounced in females, and has been observed
mainly for postcricoid tumors. Heavy alco- Early stage hypopharyngeal tumors with
hol and tobacco consumption are the two STAGING AND minimal or no extension to the apex of the
well-established risk factors. A dietary factor PFS or cricoid cartilage invasion can be ad-
in the form of iron deficiency has been impli-
PREOPERATIVE PLANNING equately resected through transoral ap-
cated in causation of postcricoid carcinoma A complete head and neck examination with proach using CO2 laser microsurgery as first
in females with Plummer–Vinson syndrome, office fiberoptic laryngoscopy should be per- described by Steiner (Fig. 8). The indica-
mainly in Scandinavian regions like Sweden. formed to evaluate the primary tumor and tions have expanded to include advanced
mobility of vocal cords and arytenoids. CT/ PFS tumors in the hands of experienced
ANATOMY AND SURGICAL MRI is required for assessment of tumor surgeons depending on the extension of tu-
PATHOLOGY stage (Table 1) and extent in hypopharyngeal mor, with some resections being possible
cancers, particularly inferior, extralaryngeal, down to the esophageal inlet. In compari-
The hypopharynx extends from the level of and cartilage involvement. Ultrasound ex- son with open surgery, the TLM approach
hyoid to the lower border of the cricoid carti- amination of neck is the preferred method leads to avoidance of extensive reconstruc-
lage (opposite C3 to C6 vertebrae) and is sub- for evaluating nodal metastases. Hypopha- tion due to minimal resection of healthy tis-
divided into three regions—the pyriform si- ryngeal tumors are associated with high sues and also a diminished need of trache-
nus (PFS), the postcricoid area, and the PPW rates of distant metastasis ranging from 10% otomy or dependency on feeding tubes.
(Fig. 1). The PFS lies on either side of the lar- to 27% and need adequate investigation with The surgical principles for TLM of hypo-
ynx and extends from the pharyngoepiglot- chest X-ray, PET, and relevant laboratory pharyngeal tumors are similar to those for
tic fold superiorly down to the upper end of tests. A direct endoscopic examination of the resection of oropharyngeal cancer. The PFS
esophagus. It is bound by the thyroid carti- pharynx, larynx, and upper esophagus under tumors are transected to estimate the depth
lage laterally and the aryepiglottic fold and general anesthesia is important for accurate of tumor and resections are “multibloc,” un-
arytenoids medially. The postcricoid area ex- evaluation of the tumor spread, for detection til healthy tissue is identified and a negative
tends from the level of arytenoids to the infe- of synchronous primaries, and for obtaining margin achieved. For PFS tumors, resection
rior border of cricoid. The PPW extends from both diagnostic and mapping biopsies. A is commenced laterally, from proximal to
the plane of floor of vallecula to the inferior careful endoscopic evaluation also serves to distal, and followed around the anterior
Chapter 29: Surgical Treatment of Pharyngeal Cancer 389
Management of Neck
A high incidence of occult metastases (30%
to 40%) in hypopharyngeal cancer warrants
addressing the N0 necks with selective neck
dissection (level II, III, and IV). In clinically
positive necks, a functional neck dissection
clearing levels II, III, IV, and VI should be part
of the neck management for PFS and postcri-
coid tumors, with inclusion of retropharyn-
geal nodes in the PPW. A contralateral selective
neck dissection is recommended for circum-
ferential tumors and tumors extending to or
across the midline.
Postoperative Care
Patients are kept on negative pressure
Fig. 11. Hypopharyngeal reconstruction with a fasciocutaneous flap. Inset shows a tubed flap with an drains with perioperative antibiotics. Naso-
attached skin paddle that may be used for resurfacing any deficient neck skin along with pharyngeal gastric alimentation is continued for 7 to
reconstruction.
Fig. 12. Hypopharyngeal reconstruction with an ALT flap: (A) surgical defect
after total laryngopharyngectomy, (B) fabrication of a tubed ALT flap with
C vascular pedicle, (C) reconstructed hypopharynx after microvascular anas-
tomosis.
392 Part III: The Head and Neck
10 days in primary and 12 to 14 days in ir- the infrastomal trachea, prior to anastomo- Haughey BH, Taylor SM, Fuller D. Fasciocutane-
radiated patients. Adequate fluid balance, sing the lower end of the flap to the esopha- ous flap reconstruction of the tongue and floor
nutritional intake, and wound and tracheo- gus. This eliminates any leakage around the of mouth: outcomes and techniques. Arch Oto-
stomy tube care are taken care of. Patients prosthesis and leads to better voice out- laryngol Head Neck Surg 2002;128:1388–95.
with flap reconstruction should undergo a comes. Other methods of voice rehabilita- Haughey BH, Hinni LM, Salassa JR, et al. Transoral
laser microsurgery as primary treatment of
vigilant monitoring of the flap viability tion include electromechanical devices and advanced stage oropharynx cancer: a United
along with care of the donor site. Calcium esophageal speech. States Multicenter Study. Head Neck 2011; doi:
and thyroid levels should be assessed. 10.1002/hed.21669. [Epub ahead of print].
Licitra L, Perrone F, Bossi P, et al. High-risk human
Complications SUGGESTED READINGS papillomavirus affects prognosis in patients
with surgically treated oropharyngeal squamous
The early complications include hemor- Denis F, Garaud P, Bardet E, et al. Final results of cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:5630–6.
rhage, postoperative wound infection/de- the 94-01 French Head and Neck Oncology and Martin A, Jäckel MC, Christiansen H, et al. Or-
hiscence, pharyngocutaneous fistula, and Radiotherapy Group randomized trial compar- gan preserving transoral laser microsurgery
ing radiotherapy alone with concomitant ra- for cancer of the hypopharynx. Laryngoscope
complications related to neck dissection diochemotherapy in advanced stage orophar-
and flap necrosis if performed. Gastric 2008;118:398–402.
ynx carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:69–76. Moore EJ, Olsen KD, Kasperbauer JL. Transoral
pull-up procedures are associated with sig- Fischer CA, Zlobec I, Green E, et al. Is the im- robotic surgery for oropharyngeal squamous
nificant pulmonary complications. Late proved prognosis of p16 positive oropharyngeal cell carcinoma: a prospective study of feasi-
complications include stomal stenosis and squamous cell carcinoma dependent of the treat- bility and functional outcomes. Laryngoscope
dysphagia, structural due to stricture for- ment modality? Int J Cancer 2010;126:1256–62. 2009;119:2156–64.
mation at the inferior end of pharyngeal Flint PW, Haughey BH, Lund VJ, et al., eds. Cum- Rich JT, Milov S, Lewis JS Jr, et al. Transoral laser
mings otolaryngology head and neck surgery, Vol. microsurgery (TLM) ± adjuvant therapy for
reconstruction or functional due to recon- 2. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. advanced stage oropharyngeal cancer: out-
struction-related dysmotility. Haughey BH. Tongue reconstruction: concepts comes and prognostic factors. Laryngoscope
and practice. Laryngoscope 1993;103:1132–41. 2009;119:1709–19.
Haughey BH, Colin WB. Pharyngoesophageal re- Steiner W, Ambrosch P. Endoscopic laser surgery
Rehabilitation construction. In: Gates GA, ed. Current therapy of the upper aerodigestive tract: with special
Swallowing and voice rehabilitation are in otolaryngology—head and neck surgery, 6th emphasis on cancer surgery. New York: Thieme
major components of management in pa- ed. St. Louis, PA: Mosby Publishing; 1998:285–8. Medical Publishers; 2001.
tients undergoing surgery for hypopharyn- Haughey BH, Forsen JW. Free jejunal graft: effects Sturgis EM, Cinciripini PM. Trends in head and neck
geal cancer. A primary TEP is the most of longitudinal myotomy. Ann Otol Rhinol Lar- cancer incidence in relation to smoking preva-
commonly used technique for voice resto- yngol 1992;101:333–8. lence: an emerging epidemic of human papil-
Haughey BH, Fredrickson JM, Sessions DG, et al. lomavirus-associated cancers? Cancer 2007;
ration. In patients undergoing total laryn- Vibratory segment function after free flap re- 110:1429–35.
gopharyngectomy, we create the TEP in the construction of the pharyngoesophagus. Lar- Wei WI. Cancer of the nasopharynx: functional
inlet of the esophageal stump through to yngoscope 1995;105:487–90. surgical salvage. World J Surg 2003;27:844–8.
EDITOR’S COMMENT Another major issue is the unknown primary chapter written by Professor Haughey and Dr.
with level II upper jugular chain of nodes. This Sinha, gave an excellent review of the current
may be in the medial base of the tongue, it also status of squamous cell carcinoma of the hypo-
The surgical treatment of pharyngeal cancer has may be in the submucosal tongue base, which pharynx, which is less prevalent, than most other
in the past been a very disfiguring exercise and takes the form of an unknown primary. major sites such as the oral cavity. Tumors arising
the functional results have been not too great, to Also commented on in the chapter is the in- in the hypopharynx have their own characteris-
put it mildly. Over the past decade, global leader- ternal carotid artery. I remember when I was a tics and considerations. As the authors say in this
ship of individuals such as Professor Haughey and young surgeon on the staff at the Mass General, very nice review, a high proportion of patients are
Professor Zeitels, among others, the field has be- I was called into the operating room by the head heavy drinkers of alcohol, and have additional
come much more conservative as far as function of oral and maxillofacial surgery because there significant comorbidities, in which I might add
and appearance and wishes to restore reasonable was a massive bleed from the back of the pharynx tobacco use, snuff use, etc. Approximately 70 to
function as well as cosmesis. To be sure, the iden- where there was a cut into what I believe to be 85 percent of these patients report and present
tification of the role of Epstein barr virus was an the external or the internal carotid artery. With themselves in stage III or IV of the disease, and
exciting chapter in nasopharyngeal cancer, and a torrential hemorrhage, I could get control, but the overall five year survival compared with other
has probably resulted in the decrease in neces- I could not repair it at that time with the instru- areas is only 15 to 45 percent. The traditional
sity for large procedures. But large procedures are mentation that we had, so what I did was ligate it treatment is impaired by approximately 60 to 80
required, and over the past five or ten years there without seemingly any central nervous system or percent at the time of presentation, the patients
have been efforts on the part of otolaryngologists other deficiency. have apparent tumor involvement of the regional
and head and neck surgeons to reduce the amount The literature of this field has not been very lymph nodes and even contralateral occult nodal
of cosmetic disfigurement and to improve func- significant as far as its scientific basis, but has metastases are present in nearly 40 percent of
tion. We will deal with that in this commentary. in the past 15 years undergone tremendous im- cases. Distant metastases occur in, to a greater
To begin with, not long into the chapter, in the provement with a very robust attempt in various extent, between 10 and 30 percent. The treatment
beginning of the section on the oropharynx, there journals to give the reader an excellent opportu- choices have traditionally been laryngopharynge-
is a procedure known as the maxillary swing in nity to review the management of hypopharyn- ctomy with reconstruction of the pharynx, which
which one reproduces—as best as one can—the geal and other forms of cancer. In particular, the has been the preferred initial treatment modality
function of the oropharynx. It is a traditional tour clinical reviews with various editors in Head and for hypopharyngeal cancers. But because of the
de force when radiotherapy, which is the stan- Neck, published online, in this case in 2010, Takes, morbidity of surgical therapy, radiation therapy
dard of oropharyngeal treatment of cancer, is too RP, et al., “Current Trends in Initial Management alone was reported to decrease the morbidity
disfiguring and the cosmesis needs to be restored of Hypopharyngeal Cancer: the Declining Use of of surgery and it is gaining in popularity. How-
after recurrence of radiotherapy. Open Surgery”. This, in addition to the text book ever, as this review points out, treatment with
Chapter 29: Surgical Treatment of Pharyngeal Cancer 393
radiotherapy alone is reported to have a worse They do take some time to talk about the tox- report on the impact of laryngectomy and surgi-
prognosis compared with surgery and chemo- icity of chemo radiation protocols and the quality cal closure technique on swallowing biomechan-
therapy, particularly in stage IV disease, as re- of life, which leaves something to be desired. The ics and dysphagia. The incidence of self-reported
ferred to by Pingree, TF, et al., Laryngoscope, 1987, toxic effects, both early and late (xerostomia, skin dysphagia following laryngectomy is high, and
97:901–904, Sewnaik, A, et al., Clinical Otorhino- toxicity, cervical fibrosis and lymphedema, oto- the surgical closure technique is not known on
laryngology, 2005, 30:52–57, and Buckley, JG and toxicity, significant swallowing dysfunction) is a biomechanics and dysphagia severity. By a so-
MacLennan, K, Head and Neck, 2000, 22:380–385. common finding after intensive chemo radiother- phisticated mechanism of measuring mid-pha-
The authors of this review state that “unlike ad- apy. In patients with head and neck squamous ryngeal pressures, the authors found that mid-
vanced laryngeal cancers, the question of organ cell carcinoma, the rate of symptomatic stric- pharyngeal pressures were significantly reduced
preservation in hypopharyngeal cancer has not tures is estimated to be about 20 percent, and a in pharyngectomy patients and hypopharyngeal
been thoroughly evaluated, precluding firm con- hypopharyngeal primary site as a significant pre- intrabolus pressures were significantly higher
clusions as to which is the optimal treatment.” dictive factor. in patients when compared to controls. The pa-
They then go on to say that primary surgery with Another situation, which comes to mind and tients who had undergone mucosa-and-muscle
postoperative radiation therapy seems to give the which is emphasized throughout the literature is pharyngeal reconstruction had higher peak and
best oncologic outcome for hypopharyngeal can- salvage surgery. As the authors say, although the mid-pharyngeal pressures compared to those
cer. However, the role of initial surgery seems to focus in this article is on initial treatment, salvage who had mucosa-alone closure. The authors con-
have fallen a little bit in favor of nonsurgical treat- surgery is part of the planned treatment by non cluded that following laryngectomy surgery, the
ment regimens of radiotherapy combined with surgical approaches. “High rates of patient sur- propulsive contractile forces are impaired, and
platinum-based chemotherapy. Surgery is still an vival in larynx preservation trials are achieved there is increased resistance, especially to bolus
option in early stage disease and later on, the au- because of effective salvage surgery for locore- flow across the distal pharyngoesophageal seg-
thors of this very nice paper make a point of say- gional recurrences.” This type of approach is in its ment. They intend to continue this work and try
ing that the side effects of radical radiotherapy as early period, and in the era where planned neck and discern what kind of technique is required
primary therapy is much worse functionally than dissections were the rule. Later it was realized for bolus propulsion.
well carried out surgery and reconstruction. that not all patients needed neck dissection, but Of course the transoral utilization of the ro-
Total laryngopharyngectomy has been re- a number did. Five year local and regional control botics has made its importance in this field. The
served for lesions that involve more than two rates for salvage pharyngectomy have been re- impact of patient reported quality-of-life and
thirds of the circumference of the hypopharynx, ported in 71 and 70 percent of cases, respectively, function has been measured by Leonhardt, FD,
and these have been treated with total laryn- although there are many other less favorable re- et al., Head and Neck, published online, 2011. In
gectomy and circumferential pharyngectomy sults. In addition, the rate of complications from this study, another quality-of-life study, this time
including varying amounts of the cervical or surgery after chemo radiation has increased up to in response to transoral robotic surgery (TROS).
even thoracic esophagus, followed by radia- 75 percent rate of fistulas. Clearly, this is an area, Patients were followed up with a short-form
tion therapy. Remarkably, the five year disease while important, needs to be carefully evaluated. (SF-8) and Performance Status Scale (PSS), six
specific survival has been 40 to 50 percent, and The authors conclude that total laryngopharyn- and twelve months of follow-up as compared
postoperative chemo radiation therapy rather gectomy is declining and that other approaches, with pre-surgical testing. For PSS Eating and Diet
than radiation alone is said to result in further such as partial laryngopharyngectomy as an domains, significant decreases occurred at six
tumor control. The resulting surgical pharyngeal open procedure or even performed endoscopi- months, which was statistically significant, but
defects require a very talented team, such as in cally have offered the opportunity of preserving not at twelve months. Speech was impaired at six
the authors’ chapter, and the deltopectoral flap, function of the larynx in selected cases. However, and twelve months, but there were no significant
not heretofore pictured, was the only reconstruc- the authors assume that only selective cases will declines in the SF-8 domains, except for bodily
tive approach until the myocutaneous flap, which be reasonable. pain and global health. The authors concluded
gives a better cosmetic outcome. Endoscopic la- In another paper, a different approach to that combination TROS and adjuvant therapy
ser microsurgery, endoscopic robotic surgery, larynx-preserving function is the partial pha- caused a temporary decrease in several domains
An often overlooked part of mastery is ele- grated to Australia over 100 years ago. should not become pregnant during the first
gant and specific simplification, which ap- Another factor is the number of moles that 5 years after such diagnosis. These alterna-
plies directly to most forms of skin cancer. exist in an individual patient, which may or tive factors of thickness, ulceration, and con-
Dramatic improvements in the early diagno- may not be complicated by a history of sun- formation supervene to indicate that preg-
sis of malignant melanoma have clearly oc- burns. The tendency to have multiple small nancy avoidance or termination becomes
curred in the last 30 years. Within that, over- dark moles is frequently inherited. As such, clinically more significant. Here lies a major
all improvement has been a remarkable parents of melanoma patients should be test of a patient’s trust in her melanoma sur-
increase in genuinely early diagnosis, yield- readily inspected, not only to determine geon. Few obstetricians are aware of this un-
ing more in situ and other very favorable what the pattern of their moles may be but usual risk. Whether or not pregnancy itself
forms of early invasive melanoma. The ac- also to look for new primary melanomas in predisposes to melanoma is less clear. How-
tual data regarding these changes are some- an often-unsuspecting population. ever, oral contraception is well known not to
what complex, since the majority of melano- Sun exposure, particularly of the blistering predispose to melanoma.
mas are diagnosed in the offices of type, during the period of teenage hormone Overt immunosuppression, either as the
dermatology specialists and family practi- bursts is especially important. Although the result of cancer chemotherapy or as agents
tioners. Much treatment is accomplished method by which data were collected is ques- used to suppress host responses to solid or-
either in the dermatologists’ office or in am- tionable, the reference to two or more blister- gan or bone marrow transplants, also pre-
bulatory surgery centers and not reported ing sunburns during teenage years as a caus- disposes to new or recurrent melanoma.
through traditional hospital-based tumor ative factor has found its way into the literature Obviously, physicians and patients do not
registries. The remarkable change for the and is probably accurate. undertake transplant immunosuppression
better by improving early diagnosis, how- In the same sense, it is commonly said lightly. However, in patients with previously
ever, has been offset, to some degree, by a that large birthmarks are innocent, includ- diagnosed and treated melanoma, in-
rising incidence of the disease related to in- ing bathing trunk nevi. This assertion is creased surveillance is warranted. Also, it
creased exposure to the sun, especially as a clearly untrue. A high proportion of these in- appears that de novo melanomas can de-
larger portion of the North American popu- dividuals acquire invasive melanoma at mul- velop more readily in this scenario. The im-
lation have moved to the Sunbelt. The tiple sites within the large nevus at a later munosuppressed patient warrants special
broader use of tanning beds, which is largely stage. When they begin to develop in such attention, with at least annual examina-
unregulated, is another factor which un- long-standing large pigmented lesions, mel- tions for a variety of skin cancers that in-
doubtedly contributes to this rise. anomas are virtually impossible to detect clude either new or recurrent melanoma
Information about squamous cell cancer even in the most attentive patients, family and squamous cell cancer.
is much less specific. Again, basic lesions members, and specialist–physicians. The dysplastic nevus syndrome is a rela-
are usually diagnosed in doctors’ offices. In Again, periods of maximum risk coincide tively rare phenomenon that generally con-
recent decades, the traditional victim, a with hormonal aberration, particularly the sists of >100 moles, and, frequently, as
family farmer who has suffered sun expo- teenage years and pregnancy. Pregnancy, in many as a 1,000 on a fair-complected per-
sure, has been altered politically and demo- and of itself, has been debated as predispos- son. Here, the dominant pattern is a relent-
graphically to include nearly anyone. The ing to the development, or the overt clinical less conversion of these moles to invasive
same sun exposure that predisposes toward spread, of existing melanoma. The authors’ melanoma, again apparently accentuated
melanoma appears to promote the likeli- opinion is that pregnancy is an adverse risk by the waxing and waning of hormones
hood of development of squamous cell factor for melanoma, and the senior author during teenage years or early adulthood.
cancer, especially in the head and neck has cared for at least five women who subse- The optimum surgical management of these
regions. quently produced soon-to-be orphans, ow- patients is unclear, although the senior au-
ing to progression of their melanoma during thor has never been able to clear the num-
PATHOGENESIS their pregnancies. The elaboration of mel- ber of lesions as rapidly as multiple primary
anocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) re- melanoma appear to progress during the
Some melanomas arise as changes in existing sponsible for darkening of the nipple areolar course of this illness once the first mela-
ordinary moles, while others appear to arise complex in pregnant women is believed to noma is detected.
de novo. Risk factors for development of ma- be a factor, although this remains largely un-
lignant melanoma are fairly well described. proven. This risk factor requires some very CLINICAL
Particularly at risk are fair-complected peo- careful thought by the treating physician, PRESENTATION
ple, often with blond or red hair, and who particularly related to the tendency of AND DIAGNOSIS
typically reside between the Tropic of Cap- women at present to have their first preg-
ricorn and the Tropic of Cancer, which pre- nancies at a later age, which naturally dimin- Diagnosis of melanoma has been simplified
disposes them to heightened sun exposure ishes the opportunity to have subsequent through the brilliant and imaginative work
and ultraviolet irradiation. A good example children. Our own recommendation is that a of the Queensland Melanoma Project, led by
of the prototype high-risk population would woman who has, or had, a melanoma thicker the late Professor Neville Davis. “A-B-C-D” is
be individuals of Celtic heritage who emi- than 1.5 mm, and/or is ulcerated or nodular, a simple mnemonic that can be applied by
Chapter 30: Malignant Melanoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin 395
A B
C D
Fig. 4. A: Lymphoscintigraphy with dermal injection of technetium-99m sulfur colloid around a melanoma reveals a sentinel
node. B: Injection of isosulfan blue dye performed immediately before skin incision. C: Blue lymphatic channels lead to a blue
sentinel node. D: Sentinel lymph node histology. Arrows depicting metastatic melanoma. (From Wargo JA, Tanabe K. Surgical
management of melanoma. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2009;23(3):565–81, with permission.)
therapy of some sort. We continue to feel as many false positives as true positives. able, the likelihood of systemic metastases
that the advantages are slightly in favor Having said that, it may be enormously decreases precipitously. Local recurrence,
of treatment. However, the side effects of helpful in patients who have had previous or in-transits, an inner circle name for in-
interferon alpha-2b are substantial. Many positive lymph nodes, where it should be tradermal lymphatic metastases, can be
highly motivated patients do not complete done annually or possibly even more fre- readily identified by physical examination.
their course of therapy because of signifi- quently. A major issue, aside from its ex- In-transit lesions are more readily palpable
cant side effects. Conversely, the value of pense, is that the positive PET scan often than they are visible. Any nodular lesion
systemic therapy in these patients contin- needs to be confirmed by tissue diagnosis, that occurs on the body part from which
ues to be debated. Systemic treatment may and that needs to be done in both a mini- the melanoma arose should be biopsied
slightly enhance 5- to 10-year survival. mally morbid and, yet, definitive way. It within a few weeks of its detection. When
However, a substantial number of thought- should be assumed that the PET scan fol- these lesions are confined to an extremity,
ful patients may choose to decline such lowed by biopsy confirmation would cre- hyperthermic isolated chemotherapeutic
treatment and simply depend upon their ate a treatment environment that can be perfusion is a standard therapy that will
surgeons for further regular follow-up, tolerated by the patient to proceed ac- stop progression permanently for about
treating recurrent melanoma when and cordingly. one-third of patients, significantly arrest
where found. The majority of melanomas that recur progression for another third, and will have
The outrageously expensive use of posi- either do so locally or in the body region relatively little impact on the final third. We
tron emission topography (PET) scanning initially involved, and are detected on phys- have experienced a large number of iso-
for patients must be carefully considered ical examination by the treating surgeon. lated extremity perfusions undertaken ei-
before requesting such tests. PET scanning Systemic disease occurs in less than one- ther for prophylaxis, or for extremely unfa-
for melanoma, unless carefully applied to third of patients treated surgically. As the vorable primary tumors (i.e., >5 mm thick,
select, genuinely, high-risk patients, yields tumor becomes progressively more favor- positive regional lymph nodes, or in-transit
Chapter 30: Malignant Melanoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Skin 399
recurrence). More than 400 patients yielded dermatology) and pathologists skilled in not to be of value in patients with unknown
2 deaths and 2 amputations. Fourteen pa- skin lesions as to who identifies melanomas primary melanoma because one simply
tients developed significant leaks of the most accurately. In fact, as we have now ad- cannot determine what is being treated.
chemotherapeutic material, which resulted vanced toward more in situ disease and the
in leukopenia that required additional development of dysplasia, atypia, and oth- CONCLUSION
treatment. These patients all recovered, erwise normal moles, the landscape has
however. In-transit disease that is not ame- become increasingly confusing. The fact After a diagnosis of melanoma has been
nable to perfusion can often be treated by that these lesions may be missed by even a made by an informed primary care physi-
simple local excision. The process through good pathologist paradoxically simplifies cian or dermatologist, the first, second, and
which the disease progresses is highly vari- their surgical management! If in doubt, any third consideration in the patient’s care is
able; simple local excision can allow the new lesion in a patient who had been adequate local excision and appropriate me-
patient to remain lesion free for long peri- treated for melanoma should be presumed ticulous personal follow-up, with an empha-
ods of time. There is clear evidence that the to be a new primary, and a full thickness sis on the potential for disease recurrence.
dermatotrophic variant of melanoma (i.e., local excision should be carried out by the In contrast to melanoma, the manage-
those that are prone to recur in the skin or treating surgeon, again, as guided by the ment of squamous cell cancer is extraordi-
metastasize in the subdermal lymphatics) body part involved and size of the lesion in narily simple in that margins should gener-
runs a very leisurely and rarely aggressive question. ally be adequate and consistent with the
course, which adds an element of confi- The second unusual characteristic re- function of the body part. An adequate mar-
dence to the conservative management of lates to occasional reports which still ap- gin can often be as little as 1 microscopic
the patient. pear about the extirpation of melanoma millimeter with garden variety squamous
metastases to other viscera. In general, cell cancers. In general, if the lesion is not in a
these are associated with a grave prognosis. functionally or cosmetically important area,
DISEASE RECURRENCE somewhat wider margins are warranted, but,
Survival is approximately 100 days and sur-
There are at least two unusual characteris- gical approaches in treating such metasta- again, whatever is consistent with simple
tics of melanoma. The first is the late recur- ses are seldom successful. Aggressive sys- closure of the wound.
rence of disease. While unlikely, there is a temic therapy will arrest disease in only a
variant of very late (some >25 years) recur- few patients. Among them are submucosal THE FUTURE
rence of melanoma; in all those whom the alimentary tract metastases that bleed or
senior author has seen, progression of dis- obstruct. However, one must also remem- Whether or not one is a devotee of the
ease was rapid. This is easy to recognize and ber that malignant melanomas are on that Green Movement, it is clear that the ozone
understand in patients who have been af- curious list of tumors that undergo sponta- layer has been impacted by some events,
fected by systemic immunosuppression, neous regression for reasons that we do not and it is less protective than it has been. If
such as that associated with organ trans- understand. we continue a scenario where leisure time
plantation. However, late recurrence does is enhanced, then the likelihood that more
occur in otherwise unaltered patients and people will be exposed to the sun for longer
justifies some form of longer-term follow-up,
THE UNKNOWN PRIMARY periods of time without the protection of
Edwards MJ, Martin KD, McMasters KM. Lymphatic Knutson CO, Hori JM, Spratt JS Jr. Melanoma. Curr Polk HC Jr. Surgical progress and understanding
mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy in the Probl Surg 1971; 3:55. in the treatment of the melanoma epidemic.
staging of melanoma. Surg Oncol 1998;7:51–57. Morton DL, Stern S, Elashoff I. Surgical resection Am J Surg 1999;178:443–448.
Emmett AJJ, O’Rourke MGE. Malignant skin tu- for malignant metastatic to distant sites. Pre- Reintgen DS, McCarty KS Jr, Vollmer R, et al.
mours. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingstone, 1991. sented at the 64th Annual Meeting of the Soci- Malignant melanoma and pregnancy. Cancer
Kirkwood JM, Strawderman MH, Ernsto MS et al. ety of Surgical Oncology, March 2–5, 2011, San 1985;55:1340–1344.
Interferon alfa-2b adjuvant therapy of high-risk Antonio, TX. Roberts DJ, Hornung CA, Polk HC Jr. Another duel
resected cutaneous melanoma: the Eastern Penn I. Malignancies associated with renal trans- in the sun: weighing the balances between sun
Cooperative Oncology Group Trial EST 1684. plantation. Urology 1977;10:57–63. protection, tanning beds, and malignant mela-
J Clin Oncol 1996;14:7. noma. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2009;48:614.
EDITOR’S COMMENT with the prevalence of other specialties dealing Augustine, et al. (Mol Cancer Ther 2010;9:
with what are clearly melanomas, it does ap- 779–790) investigated a series of gene sampling
pear as if a 1-cm margin has become accept- and responses to various chemotherapeutic
This is a new chapter in the sixth edition which able. These data provide evidence that it may agents in the treatment of in-transit metastases.
for some reason was not present in the fifth edi- not be. The problem is that a 3- to 5-cm margin They would agree that the current state of the
tion. An appropriate question is how we could makes this “a real operation.” A 1-cm margin is art is not sufficient to allow widespread clinical
have missed it, since this is a real public health not “a real operation” and can be done in the application of this gene selection.
problem in this country. Dr. Robert Stern, writ- office. Whether or not we are accepting results While immunosuppression is a necessary ing
in the Archives of Dermatology (2010;146:279– that are not in the best interest of the patient evil in patients who receive transplants, one of
282) attempted to estimate 2007 prevalence of population for political reasons has been raised the cutaneous complications of immunosup-
common types of nonmelanoma skin cancer by these papers. pression with cyclosporine is squamous cell
(NMSC) and basal cell carcinoma, squamous An additional series of papers for wide carcinoma which manifests a 65 to 100 times
cell carcinoma, or both. The model used was an excision deals with desmoplastic mela- increased risk from the normal population. The
evidence-based mathematical model to compare noma, a relatively rare but perhaps more incidence of basal cell is less. Writing in Nature,
the prevalence of NMSC with other common virulent melanoma. Wasif et al. ( J Surg Oncol Wu et al. (Nature 2010;465:368–372) point out
cancers which appeared to have much more at- 2011;103:158–162) from the Mayo Clinic in that the incidence of basal cell carcinoma, the
tention. Scottsdale recalled their results with 505 pa- other major keratinocyte-derived tumor of the
Approximately 13 million white, non-Hispan- tients of which mean thickness was 2.97 mm. skin, and melanoma and internal malignan-
ics living in the United States at the beginning of Patients undergoing a wide excision (>1 cm) cies increase to a significantly lesser extent. The
2007 have had at least one NMSC. Of 70-year-olds had an improved 5-year overall survival com- pharmacological suppression of calcineurin/ and
older, at least one in five have had multiple pared with simple excision (<1 cm) or bi- nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) pro-
nonmelanoma skin cancers, most of which were opsy alone (67% vs. 60% vs. 45%, respectively, motes tumor formation in experimental ani-
basal cell carcinomas. This model proposes that P < 0.01). Twenty nine percent of patients un- mals and xenografts. Calcineurin/NFAT inhibi- the
prevalence of a skin cancer history is five derwent sentinel node biopsy but only 2.8% tion counteracts p53-dependent cancer. Thus, times
higher than that of breast or prostate can- were positive. Breslow thickness, nodal positiv- intact calcineurin/NFAT signaling is critically cer and
greater than the 31-year prevalence of all ity, and ulceration did not predict survival, but required for p53 and senescence-associated other
cancers combined. Despite the fact that on multivariate analysis only adjuvant radia- mechanisms that protect against skin cancer this
represents a major public health problem, tion therapy and wide local excision correlated development.
much less attention is being paid to it and these with survival. The results indicate that in this Finally, an interesting initiative to elucidate
are widely regarded as not important and not of- somewhat aggressive melanoma, only wide (3 the incidence of melanoma and how it begins
ten related to mortality. This is probably because to 5 cm margin) excision may be acceptable as was reported by Rezze et al. (Hum Pathol 2010;
with the exception of squamous cell carcinoma the appropriate treatment. Epub ahead of print), proposing that the loss of
and of course melanoma, they are not viewed as Another variant of squamous cell carcinoma connectivity in early melanomas is an expression
lethal lesions. which may be associated with increased risk of of kallikrein 6 and 7 as well as desmocollin 3 and
A basic question for all of the treatment for local recurrence and metastasis is desmoplastic connexin 43 was higher in melanomas. They pro-
melanoma is the extent of resection and whether cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Velasquez pose that the kallikrein expression in melanomas
wide margins (i.e., 1 to 3 cm, largely 3) are the et al. (Am J Dermatopathol 2010;32:333–339) ar- may play a particular role in melanocyte develop-
only adequate resections. Until 30 years ago, it gue for a more aggressive approach to this tumor ment and the expression of kallikrein 6 and 7 may
was commonly accepted that a wide, 3-cm mar- with elongated cords of atypical epithelial cells very well be responsible for the loss of cell–cell
gin on biopsy-proven melanomas or melanomas associated with a “prominent (usually reactive) adhesion, which they propose is essential for the
that are clinically diagnosed is related to survival. desmoplastic stroma.” development of melanoma.
Mocellin et al. (Ann Surg 2011;253:238–243) per- A rather interesting historical and epide- This commentary would not be complete
formed a meta-analysis of five randomized clini- miological vignette is recounted by Autier et al. without recalling the controversy between
cal trials (RCT) in which narrow margins (namely (Curr Opin Oncol 2011;23:189–96) bringing in the Dr. Polk, a good friend for whom I have im- 1
to 2 cm) were compared with wide margins (3 evidence that sunbeds are carcinogenic; even mense respect, and myself as to the meaning of to
5 cm). The meta-analysis suggests that narrow in Australia where the incidence of melanoma increased long-term survival in patients with
margins might be associated with an increased is endemic, sunbeds increase the incidence. An negative nodes on node dissection in the era
risk of both locoregional disease recurrence and epidemic of melanoma began in 1985 in Ice- before sentinel node biopsy and before more so-
death by disease ( for both, P = 0.01). Disease- land where truncal exposure by women in this phisticated techniques of assaying for positive
specific survival (DSS) and overall survival (OS) northern country began when sunbeds were in- adenopathy by molecular means. This phenome-
were available for three and five RCT, respectively. troduced and truncal melanoma surpassed the non of node-negative lymph nodes in lymph node
The borderline disadvantage of narrow margins incidence in lower legs. Icelandic women had a dissection resulting in up to 20% improvement in (P
= 0.06) becomes statistically significant when lower incidence of melanoma; after the intro- survival probably reflects the fact that these neg-
enrolled patients with thicker melanomas were duction of sunbeds surpassed Norway and Den- ative nodes would likely be positive at this point
compared. In these data, locoregional disease- mark. In 2001, the incidence started decreasing in time were they tested by the currently avail- free
survival (LDFS) and disease-free survival as regulation decreased the ability to use sun- able biologic means. I suspect that is the reason (DFS)
were statistically significant. When death beds. A similar experience was recorded by Dif- for these seemingly paradoxical results. I doubt by any
cause was analyzed, no risk difference was fey in an article entitled “Sunbeds, Beauty, and whether these experiments will be repeated, but found.
Melanoma” in the British Journal of Dermatology it is nonetheless important to remember what
These results are disturbing. Although previ- (2007;157:350–356) and elsewhere (Autier et al., these results showed.
ously a 3-cm margin was seen to be adequate, Am J Epidemiol 2010;172:762–767). J.E.F.
Chapter 31: Evaluation and Repair of Common Facial Injuries 401
Craniofacial trauma occurs in broad demo- cause they are often dramatic in appear- life-threatening. These are (a) airway ob-
graphic and severity spectra, and is fre- ance and instinctually interesting, cranio- struction, (b) aspiration, and (c) hemor-
quently associated with multisystem facial injuries have the potential to deter rhage.
trauma. Multidisciplinary cooperation be- the clinician from appropriate evaluation
1. Airway obstruction: The craniofacial
tween trauma surgeons, orthopedists, of other more serious occult injuries. The
trauma patient frequently has an im-
neurosurgeons, oral surgeons, ophthalmol- presence of a facial injury implies that a
paired level of consciousness, and there-
ogists, otolaryngologists, and plastic sur- simultaneous injury to adjacent areas such
fore cannot adequately protect his or
geons is central to facilitating timely and as the neck, brain, and skull may have oc-
her airway. Additionally, massive facial
effective reconstruction. Every facial injury curred. Therefore, brain injury, skull frac-
swelling, displaced fractures, extensive
results in damage to soft tissue, with many ture, and cervical spine injury must be ex-
soft-tissue injuries, and cervical spine
involving injury to both soft tissue and cluded, as such injuries often have more
injury are common. Each of these sin-
bone. While well-trained general surgeons serious immediate consequences. In all
gular factors, let alone in combination,
can easily manage most soft-tissue injuries circumstances, the American College of
greatly increases the risk of aspiration
with fundamental wound care, common Surgeons principles of advanced trauma
and the inability to maintain oxygen
bony injuries and injuries to complex struc- life support (ATLS) remain paramount.
saturation. The maintenance of a safe
tures are best managed by surgeons with Assessment of airway, breathing, and cir-
airway is crucial in craniofacial trau-
craniofacial expertise. Although there are culation are performed in the primary sur-
ma, and, as in all trauma cases, must
few true facial emergencies, the advantages vey. The level of consciousness according
be the first management priority. Intu-
and superior aesthetic results of prompt, to the Glasgow Coma Scale (Table 1)
bating the craniofacial trauma patient
definitive anatomical reconstruction of fa- should be succinctly recorded and serially
can be very challenging, and the airway
cial bone and soft-tissue injuries has been reassessed.
team must be prepared to perform
historically underemphasized. As the face Evaluation of craniofacial injuries takes
place in the secondary survey. The observa- emergency cricothyroidotomy or trache-
is vital for communication, perception, nu-
tion of other organ systems must be contin- otomy when standard orotracheal intuba-
trition, and interpersonal relationships,
ued throughout the entire period of facial tion is not possible. Cricothyroidotomy
appropriate management of craniofacial
injury treatment and continuous monitor- should be converted to tracheotomy
trauma is thus essential for maintenance of
ing provided where appropriate. That said, as soon as feasible, especially in pa-
patient livelihood and identity.
This chapter provides an overview of the there are three mechanisms by which cran- tients who are comatose or not expect-
evaluation, management, and treatment of iofacial trauma alone can be inherently ed to control their own airway within
the most common manifestations of cran- 1 week.
One special scenario is noteworthy:
there is evidence that the airway is not Once the initial trauma evaluation is should be taken in the emergency depart-
being protected. complete, and life-threatening trauma (sys- ment, or sketches of wounds should
3. Hemorrhage: Life-threatening hemor- temic or isolated craniofacial) has been ad- be included as part of the craniofacial
rhage from craniofacial trauma has equately addressed, management can focus evaluation.
two mechanisms: (a) bleeding from fa- on craniomaxillofacial injury. Details sur- Two types of physical examination
cial lacerations, and (b) bleeding from rounding the traumatic episode including should be performed: sequential and di-
the sinuses and cranial base. Bleeding mechanism of injury and elapsed time until rected. In the sequential examination, an
from facial lacerations is the result of presentation are crucial determinants of orderly examination of all facial structures
transected arteries and veins. The par- next steps in diagnostic and therapeutic is methodically performed. Examination
tially transected major artery can result measures. Historians, including witnesses, proceeds from cephalad to caudal (or cau-
in near exsanguination. Arterial hem- family members, and emergency medical dal to cephalad), and lateral to medial in
orrhage is best controlled by direct su- staff, can provide valuable information. each of the following facial regions: fore-
ture, carefully avoiding the locations of Many craniofacial trauma patients are un- head, orbits, nose, maxilla, and mandible.
branches of the facial nerve. Similarly, der the influence of intoxicating substances, Extensive palpation of all bony surfaces
major veins may require suture ligation. and this potentiality should be investigated should note tenderness and deformity. In
While blunt contusion causes bleeding through appropriate toxicology screens particular, the superior and inferior orbital
within facial soft tissue, this bleeding is when indicated. The patient’s current medi- rims, zygomatic arches, and malar promi-
usually tamponaded by facial soft-tissue cations and past medical history, including nences should be palpated. The mandible
pressure. The result is a hematoma that tetanus immunization status, should be should be thoroughly evaluated with an in-
is either diffuse or localized. Localized documented. traoral examination including direct palpa-
hematomas should be drained, as the The diagnosis of most facial injuries is tion of the maxillary and mandibular dental
pressure generated from the expanding accurately suggested by thorough clinical arches, mandibular teeth, and the horizon-
hematoma may produce tissue necro- examination. Discoloration, pain, localized tal and vertical portions of the mandible.
sis. Additionally, pressure produced by tenderness, numbness or paralysis, maloc- The occlusal relationship of the maxillary
osmotic imbibition as the hematoma clusion, crepitus step-off or level discrepan- and mandibular dental arches should be
dissolves may impair circulation, caus- cies over the margins of facial bones, double noted. If lucid and cooperative, the patient
ing tissue atrophy and even infarction. vision, decreased visual acuity, facial asym- should be asked if his or her teeth feel like
The treatment of localized hematomas metry, gross facial deformity, changes in fa- they are meeting together normally. The ex-
is discussed later in this chapter. Obser- cial contour, and changes in eye position cursion of the mandible while palpating the
vation is the only treatment for diffuse (exophthalmos or enophthalmos, vertical temporomandibular joint and the relation-
hematomas. dystopia, etc.) are all symptoms suggestive of ship of the mandible to the maxilla should
deeper structural trauma. Soft-tissue inju- also be evaluated. Midface instability sug-
Cranial base, orbital, and midface frac- ries are inevitable and one should suspect an gestive of maxillary fractures can be deter-
tures may produce hemorrhage from lac- existing fracture of the underlying facial mined by bimanual palpation (Fig. 1). In
erations of arteries and veins within the bones beneath any contusion, bruise, or lac- this technique, the upper alveolar ridge is
sinus cavities. Cranial base bleeding can eration. Ideally, photographs of trauma sites manipulated with one hand while the other
involve major arteries and veins, cannot
be controlled by tamponade, and must al-
ways be considered in cases of massive
facial hemorrhage. It must be quickly rec-
ognized when present as it can cause
rapid exsanguination. Generally, bleeding
from midface fractures can be controlled
by four mechanisms: (a) the maxilla can
be repositioned and secured in the best
“rest” position by applying maxilloman-
dibular fixation (MMF); (b) a posterior
pack can be placed as an obturator in the
nasopharynx, and anterior packing can be
placed against the posterior pack; this
provides tamponade pressure for lacer-
ated vessels in sinus walls; (c) selective
arterial embolization may be utilized for
those cases that do not respond to manual
maxillary repositioning and anterior–
posterior nasal packing; (d) rarely, and
when the above measures fail, bilateral
external carotid and superficial temporal
artery ligation or coil embolization, per-
formed simultaneously, reduces the pres-
sure in the external carotid system and
may assist in control of massive orbital
and midface hemorrhage. Fig. 1. Bimanual palpation of the facial skeleton for the diagnosis of midface fractures.
Chapter 31: Evaluation and Repair of Common Facial Injuries 403
hand stabilizes the head while palpating ined. The repair of injuries to the lacrimal Three-dimensional CT scans can greatly aid
the nasal root. system is discussed later in the chapter. in operative planning of complex craniofa-
The presence of “step-off ” or “level” de- Fractures that involve the frontal or cial trauma, and will likely play an increas-
formities in the dentition, bleeding, loose basilar skull may lacerate the dura, leading ing role in the imaging of craniofacial
teeth, and intraoral lacerations all suggest to pneumocephalus (passage of air inside trauma as this technology becomes more
areas of deeper bony involvement. Irregu- the skull) or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak. widely available.
larities in the dental arch and abnormal ar- CSF may exit from the nose (CSF rhinor- In most cases, CT evaluation of the cran-
eas of occlusion are all suggestive of local- rhea) or ear (CSF otorrhea). This implies a iofacial trauma patient supplements and
ized fractures. Avulsed or missing teeth and communication between the subdural confirms, but never replaces, the findings of
intraoral or gingival lacerations indicate space and the external environment, rais- a thorough clinical examination. A review
the possibility of an underlying fracture of the ing the possibility of meningitis. CSF rhin- of both bone and soft-tissue CT windows
alveolus, or more extensive fracture of the orrhea or otorrhea is often obscured by the should be promptly completed, and the
mandible or maxilla. Lacerations of the lips, presence of blood mixed with draining CSF, specific areas with radiographically identi-
chin, palate, and floor of the mouth often making the detection and confirmation of a fied fractures reexamined. This is particu-
accompany fractures of the jaws. The search CSF leak difficult. A “double ring” or “halo” larly useful in cases of suspected intraocu-
for occult lacerations must include the eye- sign may be visible when draining blood lar muscle entrapment as discussed later.
lids, ear canal, mouth, floor of the mouth and CSF is absorbed to a paper towel. This
under the tongue, pharynx, and nasal cav- may be subsequently confirmed via serum TREATMENT OF FACIAL
ity. Nasal examination is greatly facilitated electrophoresis. In the presence of dis-
by using a nasal speculum. Pain and pres- placed fractures, intracranial repair of the SOFT-TISSUE INJURIES
sure sensation, including complete anes- dura is indicated. Definitive operative treat-
thesia orhypoesthesia, should be documented ment is accompanied by the administration General Considerations
in the supraorbital, corneal, infraorbital, of prophylactic antibiotics for several days. After completion of the primary survey, sec-
and mental nerve distributions. Crucially, Therefore, rhinorrhea and/or otorrhea in ondary survey, and radiographic imaging,
the neurologic facial examination, includ- the setting of craniofacial trauma should be soft-tissue injuries of the face may be de-
ing evaluation of all cranial nerves, must be evaluated thoroughly for the presence of finitively treated. Lacerations are thor-
completed and documented before the ad- CSF, warranting detailed computed tomog- oughly inspected and accessed for depth
ministration of any local infiltrative anes- raphy (CT) evaluation of the cranial base. and direction. Any foreign bodies are iden-
thesia or nerve blocks. Any history of Conversely, the presence of pneumocepha- tified, the level of wound contamination is
posttraumatic neck pain or alteration in pe- lus on CT imaging raises high clinical suspi- assessed, and damage to deeper structures,
ripheral motor or sensory function pre- cion for a CSF leak that should be thor- such as muscles, nerves, or bone, is identi-
cludes operative treatment of facial inju- oughly investigated and ruled out. fied. Tetanus prophylaxis is essential, and is
ries, as this raises suspicion for concomi- administered according to the guidelines of
tant cervical spine injury. RADIOLOGIC EVALUATION the American College of Surgeons (Table 2).
The eye and function of vision must be The goals of initial treatment are the cleans-
specifically evaluated in the sequential ex- Computed tomographic scans of the face, ing of wounds, debridement of devitalized
A B
marginal suture tails under the first exter-
nal skin suture to prevent corneal irritation,
and possible corneal abrasion. External skin
sutures are removed in 4 to 7 days, and mar-
ginal sutures are removed in 7 to 10 days.
Lacrimal duct injury should be sus-
pected with laceration to the upper or lower
lid margin medial to the lacrimal punctum,
or following injury to the medial canthus.
The lacrimal duct in these areas is superfi-
cial, and thus easily injured by vertical lac-
erations (Fig. 7). Specialty consultation is
indicated if duct injury is suspected. In a
similar fashion to the repair of parotid duct
injuries, repair of lacrimal duct injury C
involves intraoperative cannulation of the Fig. 9. Repair of complex nasal laceration. A: The nasal mucosa is reapproximated with absorbable sutures.
nasal lacrimal duct with silastic tubing, fol- B: The cartilage is repaired with absorbable sutures on a noncutting needle. C: The skin is reapproximated.
lowed by microsurgical repair of the duct
over the stent and repair of the lid lacera-
tion. The stent is usually left in place for able monofilament sutures as previously MANAGEMENT OF FACIAL
6 months to avoid duct stenosis. described. Similarly, in full-thickness lacer-
ations to the nose, the nasal lining is re-
FRACTURES
INJURIES TO THE EXTERNAL paired with chromic sutures, the cartilage The advent of rigid plate and screw fixation
normal occlusal relationships. Fractures level is a useful framework for reconstruc- conservatively. Debilitating scar contrac-
are typically exposed through gingivobuc- tion. In this schematic division, the “lower tures can occur at the eye, nose, and mouth.
cal sulcus incisions and then reduced and face” refers to the mandible and the maxilla Scars in these areas are therefore more
fixated. If highly accurate rigid fixation is up to the Le Fort I level. The “upper face” re- likely to require revision. Laser treatments
obtained, intermaxillary fixation may be fers to the zygoma, nose, nasoethmoidal re- and dermabrasion have been suggested as
released postoperatively or light elastic gion, and frontal bone. Distant soft tissue is ancillary methods to manage hypertrophic
traction in occlusion can be utilized. If the frequently required to replace missing bone scars, but supporting evidence is lacking,
bone segments are highly comminuted and and soft tissue. While microsurgical free tis- especially for use of these treatments early
fixation is not as stable or accurate as de- sue transfer for the reconstruction of cran- in the wound-healing process.
sired, MMF is maintained for 3 to 4 weeks. iofacial trauma is well beyond the scope of
While in MMF, chlorhexidine gluconate this chapter, bone and soft tissues from dis- CONCLUSIONS
oral rinse and tooth brushing with a small tant regions can be transferred to the area of
toothbrush ensure adequate oral hygiene. injury using free microsurgical techniques Many common facial injuries can be appro-
Displaced fractures of the frontal sinus to achieve multiple reconstructive aims in a priately managed by the trauma surgeon
are treated to prevent deformity, telecan- single-stage procedure. through adherence to basic surgical princi-
thus, and late infections, including pyomu- ples. More complex injuries require spe-
cocele and intracranial infection. While de- POSTOPERATIVE cialty consultation. Effective treatment of
pressed fractures of the anterior wall may be MANAGEMENT these injuries is maximized by early recog-
treated by simple elevation, posterior wall nition, referral, and treatment as outlined
fractures imply the possibility of a dural Postoperative wound hygiene is accom- in this chapter. Knowledge regarding treat-
laceration, especially when the depth of plished daily with cleansing of sutures and ment of these complex injuries can facili-
displacement exceeds the thickness of the application of an antibiotic ointment. In- tate interspecialty communication, allevi-
posterior table. Fractures blocking the naso- traoral lacerations are cleansed by irrigation ate patient concerns early in the posttrauma
frontal duct are treated by obliteration or and oral mouth washes. Strenuous physical period, and optimize long-term reconstruc-
cranialization of the sinus cavity. These tech- activity should be avoided 48 hours after in- tive outcomes.
niques minimize the possibility of intracra- jury. Cold compresses can minimize swelling
nial infection and mucocele development. and discomfort. Incisions can be washed 24 SUGGESTED READINGS
Following exposure through a coronal inci- hours after closure. Application of a 50/50 Clark N, Birely B, Manson PN, et al. High-energy
sion, the mucous lining of the frontal sinus mix of hydrogen peroxide and normal saline ballistic and avulsive facial injuries: clas-
is stripped in its entirety, and a burr is used can help remove crusts that have formed sification, patterns, and an algorithm for
to lightly abrade the sinus walls. Burring along the suture line. Frequent postrepair primary reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg
eliminates invaginations of mucosa into the wound inspection should be performed to 1996;98(4):583.
detect hematoma or infection. Sutures are Glassman N, Iliff N, Vander Kolk C, et al. Rigid
bone ( foramina of Breschet), preventing fixation of orbital fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg
mucosal regrowth. In sinus obliteration, the generally removed in 4 to 7 days. Contact 1990;86:1103–9.
nasal frontal ducts are then plugged with sports can be resumed after craniofacial Luyk NH, Ferguson JW. The diagnosis and initial
bone grafts. The remainder of the sinus is trauma requiring plate and screw fixation, management of the fractured mandible. Am
then obliterated with bone shavings. This but there is no consensus as to the duration J Emerg Med 1991;9(4):352–9.
procedure attempts to convert the sinus of time patients should refrain from contact Manson P. Facial injuries. In: Mathes SJ, ed. Plastic
into a portion of the bony skull through bone sports postinjury. In our practice, contact surgery, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, Inc;
2006.
transplantation. An acceptable alternative sports can be resumed after radiographic Manson PN. Fractures of the zygoma. In: Booth
is sinus cranialization. In this procedure, the evidence of bone healing, which varies de- PW, Schendel SA, Hausamen JE, eds. Maxillo-
posterior wall of the frontal sinus is removed pending on the location and extent of injury. facial surgery, 2nd ed. St. Louis, PA: Churchill
following mucosal stripping and abrasion. Patients are generally concerned about Livingstone Elsevier; 2007:120–54.
The brain and dura are then allowed to rest scarring and the negative cosmetic seque- Manson P, Clark N, Robertson B, et al. Subunit
on the remaining sinus floor and anterior lae of their injury. They should be informed principles in midface fractures: the importance
that all wounds and surgical incisions cre- of sagittal buttresses, soft tissue reductions and
wall. The sinus is thus incorporated into the sequencing treatment of segmental fractures.
intracranial space. Nose blowing is restricted ate scars, but simple measures can reduce Plast Reconstr Surg 1999;103:1287–306.
for a few weeks postoperatively. scars. Gentle wound massage with moistur- Markovitz BL, Mandon PN, Sargent L, et al. Man-
The term “pan facial fractures” refers to izing lotion can minimize scarring and pig- agement of the medial canthal tendon in na-
midface fractures in combination with man- mentation changes. Massage can begin soethmoid orbital fractures: the importance of
dibular and/or frontal bone fractures. These 2 days after suture removal. Surgical scar the central fragment in classification and treat-
injuries are frequently the result of high- revision should only be considered after ment. Plast Reconstr Surg 1991;87:43.
velocity gunshot wounds or massive blunt Rodriguez ED, Stanwix MG, Nam AJ, et al. Twenty-
wound maturation at 6 months to 1 year six-year experience treating frontal sinus frac-
trauma. Once no more soft-tissue necrosis postinjury. Mature scars are characterized tures: a novel algorithm based on anatomical
is seen following soft-tissue debridement as by return of skin pliability and resolution of fracture pattern and failure of conventional
previously described, the missing bone and induration. Scar revision is highly benefi- techniques. Plast Reconstr Surg 2008;122:1850.
soft tissue can be reconstructed either seri- cial for cases where primary healing of the Taub D, Jacobs JS, Bessette RW. Treatment of
ally or simultaneously. In reconstructing wound was compromised by local infec- disorders of the temporomandibular joint. In:
complex craniofacial trauma, fractures are Guyuron B, Erikkson E, Persing JA, eds. Plastic
tion, hematoma, or suboptimal wound care surgery: indications and practice. Philadelphia,
sequentially fixated to reconstruct disrupted due to associated life-threatening trauma. PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2009:591–603.
facial buttresses. Dividing the face into two As scars are generally made larger by exci- Zide B, Swift R. How to block and tackle the face.
conceptual units relative to the Le Fort I sion, scar revision should be undertaken Plast Reconstr Surg 1998;101(3):840–51.
Chapter 31: Evaluation and Repair of Common Facial Injuries 411
EDITOR’S COMMENT antibiotic coverage, the antibiotic coverage was junctival incision without canthotomy, was the
in different areas in different ways. Some were most successful surgical outcome. The authors
only perioperative antibiotics, whatever that stated that when a major surgical procedure is
Injuries to the face are like injuries to the lips, as means, and I could not find in this paper the necessary, a subciliary incision is recommended.
mentioned in Chapter 23, one of the things that definition of what was considered satisfactory There are some nice photographs in this article;
one sees first, and so an injury to the face, which as far as perioperative antibiotic use was con- Figure 3 shows a subciliary approach in the left
is not well repaired, or in which the bones are not cerned. Then, there were patients who received eye and the scar appearance 11 months postre-
aligned, or the eyes with an orbital fracture in perioperative antibiotics and postoperative an- pair; a transconjunctival incision with follow-up
which there is some difference between one eye tibiotics presumably after the repair was closed. 10 months postoperatively; and a transconjunc-
and the other, is easily recognizable. The most antibiotic use was in those patients tival approach with canthotomy, in which unfor-
Facial fractures, particularly in high-speed au- who received pre-, peri-, and postoperative tunately at 3 months there is an ectropion. The
tomobile accidents and other such injuries, can antibiotics, and these apparently had a bias in authors conclude that any lateral canthotomy
be destructive. Patients can lose their lives from that these facial injuries were more severe than very often will have poor healing, scleral appear-
bleeding, which can occur within the cranium or those in the cohort that received only periopera- ance, and unfortunately an ectropion. They ad-
from lacerations of arteries and veins within the tive antibiotics. Trauma and assault constituted vise against this repair.
sinus cavities. Bleeding from a mid-face fracture 39% of these patients, motor vehicle accidents As the authors state, the subtarsal incision,
can be controlled by four mechanisms, as the au- 28%, and 11% suffered falls. Interestingly, there which is also known as the mid-lower eyelid or
thors state: is no difference between infection rates for the mid-lid approach, was popularized in the 1940s
patients in each antibiotic group. The authors by the great plastic surgeon at New York Hospital
1. The maxilla can be repositioned and secured concluded that the use of additional antibiotics John Converse. It is made at a level more inferior
in the best “rest” position by maxillomandib- outside of the perioperative time frame did not to the lower lid margin in one of the subtarsal
ular fixation.
reduce the rate of postoperative infection. They creases and extends laterally into one of the rest-
2. A posterior pack can be placed as an obtura- hedged their bets and said that perhaps antibi- ing skin tension lines located along the lateral
tor in the nasopharynx, and an anterior pack otic use might be warranted in the case of se- aspect of the orbit.
against the posterior pack. This is the best vere contamination, trauma, and multiple open As the authors conclude, whatever approach
tamponade pressure for lacerated vessels in fracture wounds. That may well be, but what is
the sinus walls. is used to access the orbital floor, lower eyelid
disturbing here is that they actually could not malposition is the most common long-term com-
3. Selective arterial embolization may be uti- vouch for the time frame in which the periop- plication following the surgical repair of orbital
lized in those cases that do not respond to erative antibiotics were given; in other words, fractures. A canthotomy should be avoided in the
manual maxillary repositioning and anterior- although the rate of infection was fairly low, it is hope that there will not be an ectropion.
posterior nasal packing. not clear that patients who were to receive anti-
4. And on occasion, external carotid and su- Orbital fractures that go through the naso-
biotics received the antibiotics in a timely fash- ethmoid area are among the most complex of
perficial temporal artery ligation is utilized. ion prior to the repair of the injury so that there reductions. Sargent LA, in a single-author paper
In my own experience, when I found my way was a reasonable level of antibiotics while the from Chattanooga, Tennessee, and the University
into a large vessel in the back of the throat, wound was being repaired. To really solve this
I had no alternative but to ligate the vessel, of Tennessee at Chattanooga (Plast Reconstruct
question once and for all, one would probably Surg 2007;120(Suppl 2):16S), provided a review of
and in fact it could have been a vessel with a have to conduct a randomized prospective trial
major vascular supply to the brain, although I his experience with 450 nasoethmoid fractures.
in which one looked carefully at the time frame He used a computed tomographic scan with a
did not think so. in which antibiotics were given. simple classification: Fractures that are displaced
There are some nice tidbits here, which I think Orbital trauma is one of the most frequent or moved upon examination require open reduc-
the readers should be aware of. I entirely agree traumatic episodes and is important to restore tion and stabilization. Wide exposure with me-
that Dermabond (2-octyl cyanoacrylate) should the orbit so that patients could have a reason- ticulous reduction and hemostasis is necessary.
(continued)
412 Part III: The Head and Neck
When attempting to excise unhealthy mu- release maneuvers if necessary, and (6)
cosa overlying the posterior cricoid plate, reconstruct.
the excision should not be carried >2 cm The patient is placed supine with an in-
proximal to the inferior edge of the plate to flatable roll beneath the upper back to ex-
avoid injury to the cricoarytenoid joint. tend the neck. An esophageal bougie (size 30
Maloney) or nasogastric tube can be placed
to facilitate later dissection of the trachea
Incisions from the esophagus. A transverse cervical in-
The surgical approach is dictated by the lo- cision centered at the cricoid cartilage is
cation and extent of diseased trachea. Ma- made. Skin flaps are elevated in the subplat-
lignant lesions involving the upper and ysmal plane, extending from the superior ex-
mid-thirds of the trachea and benign condi- tent of the larynx to the sternal notch inferi-
tions extending down to within four rings of orly. The strap muscles and thyroid isthmus
the carina may be managed through a cervi- are divided along the midline. Blunt dissec-
cal incision. This may require a partial ster- tion to separate the superficial and deep
notomy for adequate visualization. Malig- strap muscles facilitates exposure and subse-
nant lesions involving the distal third and quent tracheal mobilization. The pretracheal Fig. 3. Once the thyroid isthmus is divided, the
benign conditions extending to within four plane is bluntly developed with a finger in the tracheal stenosis is evident through the outward
rings of the carina may be accessed via a anterior mediastinum toward the carina. appearance of narrowing, dense scar, and sur-
right thoracotomy, although a transsternal The level of the tracheal stenosis is usu- rounding inflammation. A circumferential trache-
approach can also be considered. The latter ally evident through the outward appearance al dissection is carefully performed, and the tra-
approach allows an exposure of the carina of narrowing, dense scar, and surrounding chea is transected through the stenotic segment.
by incising the posterior pericardium while inflammation. If in doubt, the tracheal steno-
retracting the superior vena cava to the sis can be localized with the use of a flexible
right and the ascending aorta to the left. bronchoscope inserted through the endotra-
cheal tube from above. Under bronchoscopic the shoulder roll deflated, the proximal and
control, the stenosis is then identified by distal traction sutures are now temporarily
Operative Steps transillumination or by direct localization approximated to determine whether ade-
The management of the airway requires using a transtracheal 25-gauge needle. The quate mobilization has been performed to
synchronized communication between the tracheal wall at this point is then marked allow a tension-free anastomosis or whether
surgeon and anesthesiologist. At the start with a fine stitch. After mobilization is com- a release maneuver is required. If no release
of the procedure, assessment by bronchos- plete, circumferential tracheal dissection at maneuvers are needed, a single layer of in-
copy guides whether initial dilatation with the level of the affected segment is performed terrupted 4-0 vicryl sutures (lubricated with
a ventilating scope is required to permit sharply, taking care to remain close to the mineral oil) is placed along the posterior
the passage of an orotracheal endotracheal tracheal wall in order to minimize risk of in- membranous wall in an end-to-end fashion
tube beyond the stenosis. In the setting of jury to the recurrent laryngeal nerves and to with the knots inside the lumen. Sutures are
nearly obstructive lesions, induction via in- avoid airway devascularization. placed 3 to 4 mm apart and 3 to 4 mm away
haled agents should be employed to pre- Before the trachea is incised, proximal from the edge. The armored tube is removed
serve spontaneous ventilation. If possible, and distal full-thickness 2-0 silk traction su- and replaced as needed to allow the meticu-
intubation across the lesion is performed tures are placed 1 to 2 cm away from the pro- lous placement of sutures. Alternatively, a jet
following dilatation. Sterile anesthesia tub- posed line of resection on either side in the catheter into the distal airway can be used,
ing and connectors are passed to the anes- mid-lateral position. The trachea is partially either through the partially withdrawn en-
thesiologist for use across the operative transected anteriorly through the stenotic dotracheal tube or across the field directly
field. Upon tracheal division, the orotra- segment (Fig. 3). Subsequent parallel incisions into the distal end of the trachea. Folded
cheal tube is retracted out of the field, and can be made distally until the airway lumen is blankets are placed under the head to main-
a sterile cuffed 6-0 flexible armored endo- sufficient to allow direct tracheal intubation tain the head in a flexed position while the
tracheal tube is intermittently inserted into and cross-table ventilation. Transection of the posterior wall sutures are tied.
the cut end of the distal trachea to provide posterior wall of the trachea is performed Once the posterior wall is complete, the
cross-table ventilation. Alternatively, a jet under direct vision from the luminal as well anesthesiologist advances the jet catheter
ventilation catheter can be directly placed as external aspects, using the esophageal within the oropharyngeal endotracheal
into the cut distal airway from the field or a bougie as a guide to help avoid esophageal tube and continues ventilation in this man-
separate jet catheter can be advanced from injury when separating the membranous ner, while the sutures for the lateral and an-
within the lumen of the partially with- wall of the airway from the esophagus. The terior anastomosis are placed with knots
drawn oropharyngeal endotracheal tube. caliber and thickness of the airway wall at on the outside of the lumen (Fig. 4). Before
Once the posterior half of the anastomotic the distal extent of the resection is evalu- the anterior wall sutures are tied, the oropha-
sutures is complete, the original orotra- ated. If the distal end is not free of disease, ryngeal endotracheal tube is advanced un-
cheal tube is advanced into the distal air- then further resection is done, incising 1 to der direct vision past the anastomosis. After
way during completion of the procedure. 2 mm at a time in a “breadloaf ” fashion to the anastomosis is complete, the anesthesi-
The steps of tracheal resection and re- avoid removing normal airway. ologist then tests for a leak by insufflating
construction can be reduced to the follow- Attention is then turned to the proximal to 30 cm H2O airway pressures, with the en-
ing: (1) localize the diseased segment, (2) end of the stenosis, which is gradually incised dotracheal tube cuff deflated.
mobilize the trachea, (3) transect the tra- in stepwise fashion until normal airway is If the airway damage involves the cri-
chea, (4) resect the affected area, (5) employ encountered. With the head in flexion and coid as in the case of idiopathic subglottic
Chapter 32: Resection and Reconstruction of Trachea 415
Fig. 4. While the trachea remains transected, the airway may be managed with a jet ventilation catheter
placed into the distal airway either across the field or through the lumen of a partially withdrawn oral
Fig. 5. Through the cervical incision, skin flaps are
endotracheal tube. The posterior wall of the anastomosis is performed with the jet catheter in position.
elevated, extending from the larynx superiorly to
Before the anterior wall sutures are secured, the endotracheal tube is carefully advanced over the jet
the sternal notch inferiorly. In laryngotracheal re-
catheter and past the anastomosis.
sections, a suprahyoid release may be performed
through a separate transverse incision over the
hyoid bone.
airway anastomosis for airway protection. ter tracheal resection. They documented a
On occasion, a silicone T-tube may be POSTOPERATIVE progressive rise in anastomotic tension with
placed following a laryngotracheal resec- MANAGEMENT increasing length of resection and suggested a
tion. The judgment to place a tracheos- There is no role for routine use of pro- safe limit of 4.5 cm (corresponding to 1,000 g
tomy postoperatively is determined by ex- longed postoperative systemic steroids. A of tension) to avoid anastomotic failure.
pected vocal cord edema more than by dose of solumedrol may be administered Anastomotic complications are uncom-
anticipation of an ongoing need for posi- at the completion of the procedure, fol- mon but can lead to severe morbidity when
tive pressure ventilation. The tracheos- lowed by one or two doses for the first 24 to they occur. They result from excessive ten-
tomy assures airway patency until resolu- 36 hours. To further decrease glottic and sion across the suture line, as well as failure
tion of perioperative edema and also supraglottic edema, an algorithm of con- to resect back to healthy mucosa, and to
facilitates pulmonary toilet. Mini-tracheo- current maneuvers can be employed. These postoperative infection. The incidence of
stomies require nursing education for safe, include voice rest, racemic epinephrine complications varies according to the un-
informed handling. nebulizers, humidified air, upright posi- derlying pathology of tracheal stenosis and
tion, gentle diuresis, and heliox adminis- whether or not the anastomosis involves
Special Consideration for Distal tration. To decrease the movement of the the larynx. In the largest series of tracheal
Tracheal Resection larynx and avoid aspiration, patients are resections examining 901 cases over 28
maintained NPO for the first few days, with years, Wright et al. reported that the high-
Based on the nature of the operative indi- a longer interval prescribed the closer the est rate of anastomotic complications oc-
cation, distal tracheal and carinal resec- anastomosis lies relative to the glottis. curred in diagnoses such as tracheoesopha-
tions may be approached via either median Bedside swallow evaluations are initially geal fistula and postintubation stenosis,
sternotomy or right posterolateral thorac- performed by the staff starting with jello, rather than idiopathic subglottic stenosis
otomy. For benign disease or a tumor that followed by oral intake monitored for and tracheal tumors.
appears confined to the airway without sig- cough or other signs that accompany aspi- Successful results following resection
nificant extension beyond the trachea, the ration. Patients are slowly advanced in were identified in 95% of patients, anasto-
median sternotomy approach is suitable. their diet accordingly. motic complications occurred at a rate of
For bulky tumors or tumors with subcari- Laryngotracheal resections are associ- 9%, and overall perioperative mortality was
nal or posterior extension, a right thoraco- ated with a higher rate of transient pharyn- 1.2%. A multivariate analysis identified the
tomy is preferred. To promote maximal geal dyscoordination with the potential risk following risk factors to be associated with
mobilization of the trachea, a right hilar of aspiration, attributable to postoperative anastomotic complications: diabetes, reop-
release is performed, which is possible pain and edema, regardless of the status of eration, longer resections (>4 cm), young
from either a sternotomy or thoracotomy glottic sensory feedback. Physical restric- age (pediatric patients <17 years of age),
approach. The hilar release refers to the re- tions against hyperextension are initially need for tracheostomy before the opera-
lease of the right hilum from pericardial at- reinforced through the maintenance of the tion, and laryngotracheal resection. Some
tachments to the inferior vena cava, afford- chin stitch for the first 5 to 7 days after re- of these factors, such as preoperative tra-
ing a couple of centimeters in cephalad section. cheostomy, longer resections, and laryngot-
mobility of the trachea and is the same ma- One week postoperatively, a surveillance racheal resection, are surrogate markers of
neuver often used to reduce anastomotic bronchoscopy, often at the bedside, is per- advanced disease with greater severity of
tension following a right upper lobe sleeve formed to evaluate the health and patency tracheal involvement. In patients who had
resection. Of note, there is no release ma- of the anastomosis. Subsequently, patients anastomotic complications, the mortality
neuver associated with the left hilum. A are scheduled for outpatient visits at estab- was 7.4%; in those without them, it was
curved pericardial incision is made ante- lished intervals and monitored for symp- 0.01%.
rior and posterior to the lower border of toms, which may herald the development of This series established the excellent
the right inferior pulmonary vein in a “U”- anastomotic strictures. outcomes of surgical resections and the
shaped fashion. The cut edge of the pericar- associated low mortality rate that are
dium inferior to the pulmonary vein is OPERATIVE RESULTS possible in the hands of experienced sur-
grasped with a Kocher clamp. This exposes geons. It also emphasized the use of rou-
the fibrous septum extending between the The rationale behind rigorous planning of tine bronchoscopy before hospital dis-
pericardium and the inferior vena cava to- the timing and selection of surgical candi- charge in the early detection of anastomotic
ward the diaphragm. The septum is subse- dates before tracheal resection is to avoid complications. Depending on the severity,
quently incised within the pericardium. complications, which can be life-threatening anastomotic complications are managed
The airway proximal and distal to the le- if an adequate airway is not maintained. by bronchoscopic interventions such as
sion to be resected should be encircled, Airway complications can be divided into debridement and dilation, placement of
taking care to avoid injury to the left recur- those that involve the anastomosis and an airway appliance, or reoperation. The
rent laryngeal nerve, which lies in the tra- those that do not. Airway-related compli- complications vary along a spectrum of
cheoesophageal groove at this level. Tra- cations that do not involve the anastomo- differing severity: granulation tissue,
cheal rings are successively removed, with sis include glottic edema, aspiration, stenosis, and disruption. Granulation tis-
attention to not exceed the safe limits of vocal cord paralysis, and the need for sue may be handled with bronchoscopic
tension upon the anastomosis. In the case temporary tracheostomy. These are more cautery, progressive debridement, and
of adenoid cystic carcinoma, incomplete common after a laryngotracheal resection gentle dilation. Airway stenosis following
resection and postoperative radiation than with simple segmental tracheal re- tracheal resection will usually respond
treatment may be preferable to a complete section. to serial dilation using balloon dilation
resection with a tenuous anastomosis un- Grillo et al. were among the first to pub- or rigid bronchoscopy. In rare cases, the
der tension. lish their experience with complications af- treatment of recurrent airway stenosis
Chapter 32: Resection and Reconstruction of Trachea 417
may require the use of tracheal stent or T- SUGGESTED READINGS Grillo HC, Mathisen DJ, Wain JC. Laryngotra-
cheal resection and reconstruction for sub-
tube. Local therapies such as mucosal in-
jections of steroids may be employed in Ashiku SK, Kuzucu A, Grillo HC, et al. Idiopathic glottic stenosis. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;53(1):
laryngotracheal stenosis: effective definitive 54–63.
cases of refractory stenosis but usually treatment with laryngotracheal resection. J Grillo HC, Donahue DM, Mathisen DJ, et al. Postin-
have limited long-term benefit. Initial Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004;127(1):99–107. tubation tracheal stenosis. Treatment and results.
management of disruption at the suture Cooper JD, Grillo HC. The evolution of tracheal J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995;109(3):486–92;
line requires airway control through a tra- injury due to ventilatory assistance through discussion 92–3.
cheostomy or T-tube. Limited separation cuffed tubes: a pathologic study. Ann Surg 1969; Mathisen DJ. Surgery of the trachea. Curr Probl
may heal over temporary silicone stents or 169(3):334–48. Surg 1998;35(6):453–542.
Cooper JD, Grillo HC. Analysis of problems re- Montgomery WW. The surgical management of
T-tubes without further intervention. If supraglottic and subglottic stenosis. Ann Otol
lated to cuffs on intratracheal tubes. Chest
deemed necessary, reoperation is usually 1972;62(2):21S–27S. Rhinol Laryngol 1968;77(3):534–46.
deferred for at least 6 months to a year Cooper JD, Todd TR, Ilves R, et al. Use of the sili- Pearson FG, Cooper JD, Nelems JM, et al. Primary
until peritracheal inflammation resolves cone tracheal T-tube for the management of tracheal anastomosis after resection of the cri-
maximally. complex tracheal injuries. J Thorac Cardiovasc coid cartilage with preservation of recurrent
Surg 1981;82(4):559–68. laryngeal nerves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1975;
70(5):806–16.
SUMMARY Cooper JD, Pearson FG, Patterson GA, et al. Use
of silicone stents in the management of airway Pearson FG, Todd TR, Cooper JD. Experience
Tracheal resection is performed for benign problems. Ann Thorac Surg 1989;47(3):371–8. with primary neoplasms of the trachea and cari-
causes of stenosis, fistula to surrounding Gaissert HA, Grillo HC, Shadmehr BM, et al. Laryn- na. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1984;88(4):511–8.
gotracheoplastic resection for primary tumors Pearson FG, Brito-Filomeno L, Cooper JD.
structures (esophagus or innominate ar- of the proximal airway. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Experience with partial cricoid resection and
tery), and for malignancy. The process of 2005;129(5):1006–9. thyrotracheal anastomosis. Ann Otol Rhinol
evaluating a patient for tracheal resection Geffin B, Grillo HC, Cooper JD, et al. Stenosis Laryngol 1986;95(6 Pt 1):582–5.
and reconstruction begins with a careful following tracheostomy for respiratory care. Perelman M. Surgery of the Trachea. Moscow: Mir;
evaluation of the anatomy and the estab- JAMA 1971;216(12):1984–8. 1976.
lishment of a patent airway. Selective refer- Grillo H. Surgery of the Trachea and Bronchi, 1st ed. Urschel HaC, JD. Atlas of Thoracic Surgery, 1st ed.
Hamilton, Ontario: BC Decker; 2004. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995.
ral of operable candidates for tracheal re- Wright CD, Grillo HC, Wain JC, et al. Anastomotic
Grillo HC, Cooper JD, Geffin B, et al. A low-pressure
section leads to excellent outcomes and a cuff for tracheostomy tubes to minimize complications after tracheal resection: prog-
low associated mortality rate in experi- tracheal injury. A comparative clinical trial. J nostic factors and management. J Thorac Car-
enced hands. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1971;62(6):898–907. diovasc Surg 2004;128(5):731–9.
EDITOR’S COMMENT but rather to have a program that was pyramidal served on the front of North Africa as the special
in nature by which the surviving excellent sur- consultant to the Mediterranean theater, which
geons who stayed around at Johns Hopkins as a resulted in the transfusion of blood products
One cannot talk about surgery of the trachea sort of junior faculty after or before they finished during war-time conditions, saving numerous in-
without mentioning Dr. Hermes Grillo, a great the program but when they finished the program jured soldiers. This has been remembered by the
(continued)
418 Part III: The Head and Neck
donor and buccal mucosa from the recipient, had the tracheal transplant was not utilized but its vi- another model that can be used for this impor-
begun to be placed once “revascularization was ability was documented for at least 60 days. tant work.
achieved.” The recipient had been placed on im- Another way of approaching the same prob- Finally, a chronic problem in patients with
munosuppressive therapy, which was then with- lem is to use a scaffold of inert material. Jansen tracheostomies, other than stenosis, is trache-
drawn and then the tracheal allograft was moved et al. (Archives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck oinnominate arterial fistula. I do not know how
to its correct anatomical position with an intact Surgery 2009;135:472–8) used a porous titanium many of the readers were exposed to the rupture
blood supply. This is a surgical tour de force. The scaffold, which was then created in rabbits, po- of a tracheoinnominate artery fistula, but it is
patient reported was a 55-year-old woman who rous titanium and mucosa on a pedicled fascia impressive indeed and I would not recommend a
had been involved in a car accident and had un- flap utilizing a two-stage procedure. They noted person other than one with a stomach that was
dergone a tracheotomy with a long history of long normal mucosa in a submucosal layer and vital really cast iron to be around to watch this par-
tracheal stenosis. The fact that she is a woman cells on top of the titanium. The also noted mul- ticular situation.
and the cadaver donor was male made it rela- tiple blood vessels from the muscle layer through Sung et al. ( Journal of Korean Neurosurgery
tively easy to tell which cells in the allograft were the titanium strut. Cytokeratin expression was Society 2011;49:107–11) focused on different
which and indeed the 8-cm tracheal allograft present in the suprabasal and basal layers of the measurements by CT angiography on 22 patients
from the recipient’s forearm could be traced to mucosal epithelium. All animals survived the who had tracheostomies. They wish to evaluate
having male donor respiratory cells as well as the reconstruction. As far as I am aware, this type of the relationship between the tracheal anastomy
tracheal allograft. experiment has not been tried in humans. tube and the innominate artery utilizing the
This is not a new idea. In 1979, Rose et al. Another approach was tried by Hodjati et proximal tube position on the cervical vertebra,
(Lancet 1979;1:433) reported the first allogenic al. (Annals of Thoracic Medicine, January–March the distal tube position, and the course of innom-
tracheal transplant in a human. The donor tra- 2011;17–21) in which 10 adult mongrel dogs inate artery and the gap between the tube and
chea was originally implanted heterotopically, had a segment of seven tracheal rings resected the innominate artery. After some complicated
very much as here, in the sternocleidomastoidal circumferentially and a submuscular tunnel measurements they came to the conclusion that
recipient and transferred to the orthotopic po- was induced between the muscular layers of the a low tracheostomy tube departure level (TTDL)
sition 3 weeks later. The recipient was not given adjacent esophagus right next to the trachea. was an indicator that some mischief would occur.
immunosuppressive therapy, however. The report Implated Gore-Tex passed through reinforcing Only 6 of the 22 patients were free of difficulties in
did not document the viability of the allograft, the trachea and the anastomosis was made be- these observations. These writings suggest that if
and no information has been made available tween distal ends of Gore-Tex and the trachea. one is concerned about this disastrous complica-
about the long-term outcome. Their criteria and end points were air tightness, tion, there may be a way to avoid it.
Klepetko et al. (Journal of Thoracic Cardiovas- good re-epithelialization, and no limitation on Tracheal resection, reanastomosis, and the
cular Surgery 2004;127: 862–7) reported a pre- esophageal length, which were all important. The elimination of tracheostomy and tracheal steno-
served viability of a heterotopically revascular- Gore-Tex grafts were implanted and harvested 12 sis are excellent advances in thoracic surgery. I
ized allograft, which was revascularized in the weeks after the implantation and the ephithelial- am pleased to have been able to call Dr. Hermes
omentum of a patient who ultimately received a ization that resulted was with mixed squamous/ Grillo my friend.
lung transplant from the same donor. However, mucociliary metaplasia. It does seem as if this is J.E.F.
But one spot lay exposed, where collarbones portance of the platysma muscles. the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Cours-
lift the neckbone off the shoulders, the open Spreading subcutaneously as a sheet across ing obliquely from the skull base to the
throat, where the end of life comes quickest the entire length of the lower border of the sternum and medial clavicle, the sterno-
Book 22: The Death of Hector, The Iliad mandible down to and across the length of cleidomastoid separates anterior and pos-
the clavicle below, this muscle serves to terior triangles. The anterior triangle is
distinguish superficial from deep. Deeper further bounded by the midline and lower
fasciae envelope the infrahyoid “strap” border of the mandible and contains the
ANATOMY muscles (sternohyoid, omohyoid, and ster- “carotid bundle” (carotid artery and bifur-
Few areas of the body concentrate vital nothyroid) laterally, and encircle the esoph- cation, internal jugular vein, and vagus
anatomy as the neck. Notable structures agus and trachea centrally. Palpable land- nerve) (Fig. 2). Zone I of the neck extends
include the pharynx, larynx, trachea, marks along the midline of the neck, which from the clavicle to the cricoid cartilage,
esophagus, common carotid artery, inter- is not covered by platysma muscle, include zone II from the cricoid to the angle of the
nal carotid artery, external carotid artery the thyroid cartilage superiorly, the cricoid mandible, and zone III from the angle of
and its branches, the vertebral and subcla- cartilage caudally, and the suprasternal the mandible to the skull base. Surgeons
vian arteries, the internal and external notch at the base of the neck between the have historically favored the classification
jugular veins and their tributaries, cranial clavicles. by zones because it is useful in prediction
nerves IX to XII (glossopharyngeal, vagus, Traditionally, anatomists divide the of operative access to structures of surgi-
spinal accessory, and hypoglossal), thyroid, neck into triangular areas (Fig. 1), bor- cal importance. While injuries within
parathyroid, and submandibular glands, dered by musculature and bony land- zone II are easily exposed and repaired,
and the bony spine and spinal cord. Knowl- marks, while surgeons refer to Monson’s operative approaches to zones I (the tho-
edge of the anatomy of this region is essen- three “zones” of the neck. The dominant racic outlet) and III (the skull base) are
tial. To begin, one must appreciate the im- muscular landmark of the lateral neck is challenging.
Chapter 33: Penetrating Neck Injury 419
Fascia investing
External carotid artery submandibular gland
Common trunk of facial
and lingual arteries
Stylohyoid
Occipital artery
Clavicle
Clavicular head
Lateral View Sternocleidomastoid
Sternal head
Fig. 2. Deep dissection of the carotid triangle. (From Agur AMR, Dalley AF. Grant’s atlas of anatomy, 12th ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009.)
420 Part III: The Head and Neck
CLINICAL between the thumb and middle fingers, tive approach, based on findings from vari-
PRESENTATION leaving the index finger free to palpate the ous radiologic and endoscopic studies, has
membranous space between the thyroid replaced this standard. With the advance-
AND DIAGNOSIS and cricoid cartilages. A transverse inci- ments in technology associated with the
As with any injured patient, the principles sion or vertical incision (if landmarks are multislice helical computed tomography
set forth by Advanced Trauma Life Support not absolutely clear) is made at this level (CT) scanner, CT angiography (CTA) has
guide our initial assessment. Important in- and the subcutaneous tissues are separated emerged as the screening modality of choice
formation from the history includes mecha- bluntly with a straight or curved clamp to for penetrating neck wounds in asymptom-
nism of injury and blood loss at the scene. the cricothyroid membrane, which is then atic or stable patients. CTA is easily acces-
Gunshot wounds are associated with a sig- incised with a No. 11 or 15 knife blade for sible, well tolerated with minimal risk, sen-
nificantly higher likelihood of vital structure direct access to the subglottic space. This sitive for defining trajectory, and reliable to
injury than stab wounds. The primary sur- will allow entry of the left index finger for exclude significant arterial injury. Abnor-
vey will identify patients in shock or with control and dilatation or one can use the malities identified on CTA or trajectory sus-
hard signs of vital structure injury such as knife handle or curved clamp to dilate the picious for aerodigestive tract injury should
airway compromise, massive subcutaneous space. A No. 6 endotracheal tube can then be further evaluated with surgical explora-
emphysema, a sucking wound, active hem- be positioned and secured (or No. 5 in a tion, laryngoscopy, tracheobronchoscopy,
orrhage, expanding or pulsatile hematoma, small female). Do not incise too deeply with catheter-based arteriography, esophagos-
carotid bruit or thrill, neurologic defect, or the blade, as this can injure posterior tra- copy, or esophagography as needed. A com-
absent/decreased radial pulse in the ipsilat- chea wall and esophagus. In addition, avoid prehensive literature review by the Practice
eral upper extremity. Immediate surgical cutting or spreading in a vertical axis, as Management Guidelines Committee of the
intervention is indicated when any of these this may injure the cricoid cartilage. Re- Eastern Association for the Surgery of
“hard” signs are appreciated. member that the cricoid cartilage is the Trauma in 2008 concluded that “either con-
Impending airway occlusion can occur only circumferential support for the air- trast esophagography or esophagoscopy
with tracheal or laryngeal injury, with com- way; injury will require repair. When a cri- can be used to rule out an esophageal per-
pression from a large or expanding hema- cothyroidotomy is required it should be foration that requires operative repair.”
toma, or from intraoral hemorrhage. Con- converted to a tracheotomy at the earliest
trol of the airway is a priority in these safe opportunity. PREOPERATIVE PLANNING
patients and may be accomplished by oral Large-bore peripheral venous catheters
endotracheal intubation, cricothyroido- are adequate for circulatory support. How- In the symptomatic patient who requires
tomy, or formal tracheotomy. While blind ever, avoid the ipsilateral upper extremity operation without prior diagnostic testing,
nasotracheal intubation is contraindicated as an access site in patients with zone I zone of entry and likely trajectory are criti-
in this setting, fiberoptic bronchoscopy- (thoracic outlet) entry or trajectory. Pa- cal for planning exposure. The patient
assisted nasotracheal intubation may be tients should have plain radiographs of the should be positioned supine, with arms
helpful when tracheal deviation from large chest to assess for hemopneumothorax or tucked, neck extended, and head deviated
hematoma is present. It is important to rec- missiles and as thorough a neurologic ex- slightly away from the side of injury. A towel
ognize the patient with penetrating neck amination as possible prior to sedation and roll placed transversely beneath the shoul-
injury who has a large hematoma or blood intubation. Active hemorrhage from a der will extend the neck. The sterile prepa-
in the hypopharynx, who needs to be intu- wound in the neck in any zone is best man- ration should include both sides of the neck
bated early but not urgently in the emer- aged by digital compression until the air- from the temporomandibular joint to the
gency department, and who is spontane- way is controlled and surgical access can lower lip down to and including the entire
ously breathing. The initial inclination in be obtained. This digital tamponade may anterior chest to the table laterally and
such a patient is often rapid sequence in- be required until proximal and distal vas- torso distally to the midthighs. Thoraco-
duction with pharmacologic paralysis. This cular control can be obtained in the oper- tomy or median sternotomy may be re-
may convert a patient who was marginally ating room. On occasion, gauze packing or quired for proximal control; this may be the
protecting his airway but breathing to the insertion of a balloon catheter in the oral initial incision with zone I injury (Fig. 3).
patient who now cannot be intubated or cavity to control hemorrhage may be nec- Access to the groins and saphenous veins
ventilated with a bag valve mask. Recogni- essary. must be available. Zone II injuries are best
tion of such patients and control of the Physical examination is unreliable in ex- approached via an oblique incision along
airway with the patient awake, sometimes cluding aerodigestive tract injuries in the the anterior border of the sternocleidomas-
including a surgical airway under local asymptomatic patient with penetrating toid muscle from the angle of the jaw to the
anesthesia, is critical to prevent an avoid- neck wounds deep to the platysma muscle. clavicular head (Fig. 4). With zone I entry,
able disaster. Although some authors have described suc- the surgeon should be prepared to perform
When oral intubation fails or is not fea- cessful observation protocols in patients a median sternotomy for access to and re-
sible, cricothyroidotomy is the quickest without hard signs of vascular injury, such pair of structures in the thoracic outlet or
and most efficient way to access and secure protocols are not appropriate to exclude base of the neck. In this circumstance the
the airway. It is critical to understand that pharynx, esophagus, larynx, or trachea in- ipsilateral arm should be free and prepped
this is a procedure performed basically by jury in the asymptomatic patient. The diag- to the elbow. A horizontal incision along
palpation, not by visualization, of struc- nostic approach to this group of patients the superior aspect of the clavicle will sup-
tures. If right-handed, the operator should has evolved significantly over the past two ply access to the proximal subclavian ves-
be on the patient’s right side and should be- decades. Mandatory surgical exploration of sels and innominate vessels on the right.
gin by palpating the superior and inferior injuries in zone II trades ease and reliability This incision may be independent or
aspects of the thyroid cartilage and by for a high rate of negative and nonthera- can extend an anterior sternocleidomas-
securing this structure with his left hand peutic operation. A more selective opera- toid or median sternotomy incision when
Chapter 33: Penetrating Neck Injury 421
injury) can be observed with repeat imag- wounds when encountered at initial explo- the internal jugular directly over the carotid
ing after a 2-week interval on anticoagula- ration. Although definitive treatment is usu- bifurcation from the midline (see Fig. 1). Li-
tion. ally deferred, consultation to otolaryngology gation of this vein should be by suture liga-
at the time of exploration is important. ture. The vagus nerve travels between the
carotid and jugular and care must be taken
Internal Jugular Vein when retracting the vein to protect this cra-
Any venous structure in the neck can be
Trachea nial nerve from injury.
safely ligated. Small, simple lacerations to Tracheal injury requires repair. Anterior in- As with any vascular injury, proximal
the internal jugular vein should be repaired jury of appropriate size and location may be and distal control should be obtained prior
with a 4-0 nonabsorbable, monofilament converted to tracheotomy. Unless small and to entering the hematoma. This is often dif-
suture. Larger lacerations can be repaired simply repaired, tracheal injuries should be ficult in the tight confines of the lateral
as well provided the patient’s clinical condi- protected with a tracheotomy. Use an absorb- neck and proximal access alone will fre-
tion permits. When both internal jugular able 3-0 or 4-0 suture, placed transversely, quently suffice along with digital compres-
veins are injured, an attempt at repair of in an interrupted fashion and incorporate sion. Exposure of the proximal common
one should be made. Any vein in the neck the tracheal ring above and below the injury. carotid artery requires release of the inter-
that is ligated should be done so with a su- mediate tendon of the omohyoid muscle
ture ligature to avoid postoperative bleed- Pharynx and Esophagus (separating the superior and inferior bel-
ing from pressure-induced slippage of a lies) along with the enveloping fascial
simple tie. When considering injury to the pharynx or sheath that tethers this muscle like a mes-
cervical esophagus, the importance of early entery to the clavicle below. At a negligible
diagnosis and repair cannot be overstated. cost to patient function, this release allows
Vertebral Artery A delay of several hours can significantly in- a more complete eversion of the sterno-
Vertebral artery injury is much less com- crease the incidence of mediastinitis and cleidomastoid muscle, which can be further
mon than carotid artery injury and the ma- empyema. Injuries should undergo repair enhanced by liberating the sternal head of
jority are diagnosed by angiography (CT or as soon as diagnosed. All repairs should be this muscle (also useful as an interposition
catheter-based) in hemodynamically stable drained with a closed-suction drain that is muscle flap should one be required). This
patients. Optimal treatment is coil or gel– left in place until a contrast esophagram at approach also serves to expose the proxi-
foam occlusion via catheter-based angioem- 1 week shows no extravasation and the pa- mal vertebral artery for ligation when re-
bolization with repeat angiography at tient is tolerating a diet. A leak from a repair quired. To this end, dissection is along the
2 weeks to exclude pseudoaneurysm or ar- can heal without additional surgery, as long lateral border of the jugular vein with re-
teriovenous fistula formation. In the rare as adequate drainage is maintained. En- traction of the bundle medially to encoun-
instance where active hemorrhage and as- teral nutrition can be administered via a ter the supraclavicular fat pad. Careful
sociated shock prevent angiography, hem- soft feeding tube placed during surgery. An- blunt dissection here will yield the first
orrhage control must take place in the oper- tibiotics appropriate for oral flora should stage of the vertebral artery deep in the tho-
ating room. The vertebral artery travels be given perioperatively. racic outlet. Protect the phrenic nerve dur-
within the bony transverse foramen of the ing this dissection. As described earlier,
cervical spine and this portion of the poste- median sternotomy or left anterior thorac-
rior triangle is difficult to expose. If packing SURGICAL TECHNIQUE otomy may be necessary to control proxi-
the wound can decrease bleeding enough to An incision along the anterior border of the mal vasculature for zone I injuries.
achieve hemodynamic stability, the patient sternocleidomastoid muscle offers the best To expose the internal carotid artery at
may be taken to angiography for emboliza- exposure for a unilateral penetrating injury the skull base, a “hockey stick” extension
tion. Alternatively, control must be obtained to the neck (see Fig. 4). Separate right and curves the superior aspect of the skin inci-
by proximal ligation of the vessel at the tho- left incisions may be made when bilateral sion toward the back of the ear along the
racic outlet (see “Surgical Technique”). How- exploration is required. The skin incision mastoid process. Anatomy in this region is
ever, this should be avoided without distal should begin near the angle of the jaw and dense with cranial nerves, which should be
control of the injury, as angiography and extend down to the sternum. After incising preserved. Protect the marginal mandibu-
embolization will no longer be possible. the platysma muscle, a layer of investing lar branch of the facial nerve (Fig. 5). The
fascia is encountered and taken (in line glossopharyngeal (coursing anteriorly) and
with the skin and platysma incisions) along spinal accessory (coursing posteriorly) nerves
Larynx depart high, while the hypoglossal nerve, as
with two cutaneous nerves (the greater au-
When significant enough to compromise ricular and anterior cervical) and the trans- it swings down beneath the occipital branch
the airway, laryngeal injury is typically dis- verse portion of the anterior jugular vein. of the external carotid artery en route to
covered at surgical exploration during the The plane along the anterior border of the the tongue, is most vulnerable. The dissec-
creation of a tracheotomy or during the con- sternocleidomastoid is further developed, tion should begin with division of the poste-
version of a cricothyroidotomy to a formal allowing posterolateral retraction and ac- rior belly of the digastric muscle. The oc-
tracheotomy. Patients with less complex in- cess to the carotid bundle. The internal cipital branch of the external carotid artery
juries found on CT scan or laryngoscopy jugular vein lies most prominently in this and the less important ansa cervicalis (in-
should undergo tracheotomy to protect the space and obscures the carotid artery, nervation to the strap muscles) can be sac-
airway. Laryngeal injuries often need recon- which at this point in the dissection should rificed to preserve the hypoglossal nerve,
struction, internal fixation, or stent place- be easily palpable. Lateral retraction of the which can now be retracted anteriorly. Fur-
ment and are best treated semielectively internal jugular will expose the carotid ar- ther exposure at the skull base can be best
by otolaryngologists. The surgeon should tery and vagus nerve and is facilitated by accomplished via a vertical ramus osteot-
resist the temptation to widely debride these ligation of the facial vein, which courses to omy. Advantages to this procedure over a
Chapter 33: Penetrating Neck Injury 423
Sternothyroid Carotid
Ansa cervicalis
arteries:
Internal jugular vein
Internal Facial
Hyoglossus
Posterior belly of digastric Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Fig. 5. Anatomy pertinent to internal carotid artery exposure. (From Agur AMR, Dalley AF. Grant’s atlas of anatomy, 12th ed.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009.)
temporomandibular subluxation have been controlled. This technique can unrelenting bleeding from the vertebral ar- tery when
suggested. also control proximal ligation is insufficient. Dissection can then
Clearly, dissection at the skull base is a proceed or, in the case of hemodynamic instability,
challenge even when structures are not ob- the catheter can be left in place, sutured to the
scured by active bleeding or hematoma. A vessel and secured at the skin, for 48 to 72 hours.
more practical approach to exsanguinating This approach is essentially equivalent to ligation
hemorrhage from injury at this level of the of the internal carotid and should be reserved for
internal carotid is to place a small throm- patients in extremis.
bectomy catheter into the vessel through Displacement of the entire carotid bun- dle
an arteriotomy in the common or proximal laterally will expose the pharynx and esophagus
internal carotid artery and inflate the bal- as well as the larynx, thyroid gland, and trachea
loon at various levels until the bleeding is inferiorly. The recurrent
424 Part III: The Head and Neck
laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve travels
in the groove between the esophagus and
trachea and is vulnerable to injury
during dissection (Fig. 6).
Esophageal injury is the most common
injury missed at neck exploration. Often
flat and with a lie off center to the left,
the esophagus must be evaluated
circumferen- tially. Necrotic tissue
should be debrided and healthy tissue
approximated with a 3-0 or 4-0 suture in
one or two layers as needed to establish a
watertight closure. The repair should then
be reinforced with a buttress of
Chapter 33: Penetrating Neck Injury 425
Sympathetic trunk
Vertebral ganglion
Parathyroid glands
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Clavicle
Sternothyroid
Anterior sternoclavicular ligament
Articular disc
A. Anterolateral View
External carotid
artery
Superior thyroid
artery
Thyroid isthmus
Thyroid ima artery
Inferior thyroid Left common
artery carotid artery
Thyrocervical
trunk
Left subclavian
Right subclavian
artery
artery
Brachiocephalic Arch of aorta
trunk
Fig. 6. Alimentary layer of the visceral compartment. (From Agur AMR, Dalley AF.
B. Anterior View Grant's atlas of anatomy, 12th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009.)
426 Part III: The Head and Neck
muscle, usually the detached sternal head of for wound exploration. Blood pressure and the American Association for the Surgery of
the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Care must heart rate should be monitored particularly Trauma. J Trauma 2001;50:289–96.
be taken to direct drains away from associ- if there has been dissection or injury near Feliciano DV. Management of penetrating injuries
to carotid artery. World J Surg 2001;25:1028–35.
ated vital structure repairs as salivary en- the carotid bifurcation. A chest radiograph Henry AK. Extensile exposure, 2nd ed. Edinburgh:
zymes are quite corrosive. Occasionally, it is should be obtained to assess for pneu- Churchill Livingstone; 1973.
not possible (extensive tissue injury) or pru- mothorax. Antibiotics in the postoperative Inaba K, Munera F, McKenney M, et al. Prospec-
dent (operative delay) to primarily repair period should be reserved for esophageal tive evaluation of screening multislice helical
the esophagus at the initial operation. In injuries and drains left routinely can be re- computed tomographic angiography in the
this case, the proximal esophagus should be moved after 48 hours if the output is low initial evaluation of penetrating neck injuries.
J Trauma 2006;61:144–9.
exteriorized as an esophagostomy or widely (<20 mL). (The exception is with associ- Kumins NH, Tober JC, Larsen PE, et al. Vertical
drained and the distal portion ligated. ated esophageal injury, as discussed ear- ramus osteotomy allows exposure of the distal
lier.) Injuries to the various cranial nerves internal carotid artery to the base of the skull.
POSTOPERATIVE can result in the following predictable defi- Ann Vasc Surg 2001;15:25–31.
MANAGEMENT AND cits: facial droop ( facial), aspiration Osborn TM, Bell RB, Qaisi W, et al. Computed
tomographic angiography as an aid to clinical
COMPLICATIONS (glossopharyngeal), dysphagia/dysarthria
(hypoglossal), and vocal cord paralysis (re- decision making in the selective management
of penetrating injuries to the neck: a reduction
Patients who have undergone vascular re- current laryngeal branch of vagus). in the need for operative exploration. J Trauma
pair should be monitored closely for hem- 2008;64:1466–71.
orrhage and neurologic deficit in the imme-
diate postoperative period. Any sign of
SUGGESTED READINGS Tisherman SA, Bokhari F, Collier B, et al. Clinical
practice guideline: penetrating zone II neck
bleeding or arterial thrombosis should Asensio JA, Chahwan S, Forno W, et al. Penetrat- trauma. J Trauma 2008;64:1392–1405.
prompt rapid return to the operating room ing esophageal injuries: multicenter study of
EDITOR’S COMMENT injuries in Zone II. This is because there were imaging modality with similar accuracy. LeBlang
times when in examination of the area of Zone II and Nunez (Am J Roentgenol 2000;174:1269–78)
following penetrating trauma did not reveal any demonstrated that CTA gives 100% sensitivity
With the war zone that many of our cities have be- severe injury or what seemed a severe injury only in identifying penetrating injury to the cervical
come and with the ready availability of knives and to find that the injury had been missed. While this vessels. Obviously, the use of CTA also results in
guns, and it seems, injuries for the most trivial of was adequate in World War I, in which penetrat- fewer neck explorations in the study by Woo K
altercations, the injuries to the neck, whether by ing neck trauma had a mortality rate of 11%, this et al. (Am Surg 2005;71:754–8).
bullets or certainly by stab wounds, are an impor- dropped in World War II to 7% and in modern ci- Mandatory neck exploration has been
tant part of the contemporary care of trauma. As vilian series, which increasingly resemble various strongly recommended by the authors of a
the authors of every paper quoted here state, the war zones, to 3% to 6%. The first recorded repair large series from South Africa. Over a 20-month
most exposed area is Zone II, which is between of a vascular injury was in 1552 when the French period, Apffelstaedt and Muller (World J Surg
the cricoid and the bottom of Zone III, which is surgeon Ambroise Paré ligated both common ca- 1994;18:917–9) explored all 393 patients present-
from the angle of the mandible to the skull base. rotid arteries and a jugular vein of a soldier who ing with penetrating injuries in Zones I, II, and III.
(continued)
Chapter 33: Penetrating Neck Injury 427
ing, say the authors, led to a significant decrease ion.” In 1956, Fogelman and Stewart (Am J Surg acceptance.
tive series. There is only one Class I reference quoted and the same groups of 120 patients with are produced.
TRAUMATIC AND Every year, ~52,000 deaths occur from TBI ■ The head is a rigid compartment filled
NONTRAUMATIC HEAD and it is the leading cause of death and dis- with brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
ability in children and adults from ages 1 to and blood.
AND BRAIN INJURY 44 years. At least 5.3 million Americans, ■ Cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the healthy
that is, 2% of the U.S. population currently individual is autoregulated for systolic
Traumatic Brain Injury: Blunt live with disabilities resulting from TBI. In blood pressure (SBP) 80 to 160 mm Hg to
Versus Penetrating Trauma addition, moderate and severe head inju- generate an adequate cerebral perfusion
ries are associated with an increased risk of pressure (CPP).
Epidemiology of Traumatic Brain Injury developing Alzheimer’s disease. ■ If autoregulation is intact, CBF is main-
Before we commit ourselves to reviewing Males are about twice as likely as fe- tained constantly via a mean BP adjust-
the management of traumatic brain injury males to experience this and hospitaliza- ment to generate a CPP of 50 to 60 mm
(TBI), we need to understand that this tion rates have increased from 79 per Hg.
problem remains a major public health is- 100,000 in 2002 to 87.9 per 100,000 in 2003. ■ In moderate or severe brain injury cases,
sue in our times. To illustrate this point, I Blasts are a leading cause of TBI among autoregulation is disrupted in a way that
want to reiterate some facts about TBI in active-duty military personnel in war zones CBF varies greatly with mean BP.
the United States as an introduction to the and veterans’ advocates believe that be- ■ The injured brain is more vulnerable to
topic as reported by the Brain Trauma tween 10% and 20% of Iraq veterans, or episodes of hypotension and metabolic
Foundation (www.BTF.org): 150,000 and 300,000 service members, have imbalance which may cause secondary
Brain injuries are most often caused by some level of TBI. Of note, 30% of soldiers brain injury.
motor vehicle crashes, assaults, sports inju- admitted to Walter Reed Army Medical
ries, or even simple falls on the playground, Center have suffered TBIs. Intracranial Pressure
at work, or in the home. An estimated 1.5 Besides hemodynamic parameters and con-
million moderate to severe head injuries Traumatic Head Injury Basics fining metabolic conditions, intracranial
occur every year in the United States and an What are the unique features of brain anat- pressure (ICP) is the single most important
additional estimated 1.6 million to 3.8 mil- omy and physiology, and how do they affect determinant of neurological function of the
lion sports-related TBIs occur each year. patterns of brain injury? brain (Table 1).
Chapter 34: Neurosurgical and Neurological Emergencies 427
for Surgeons
Normal state - ICP normal
Fig. 1. Monro–Kellie
doctrine.
Normal ICP is defined as the pressure (in ration, and a correlation with body weight other components, otherwise it will cause an
Neck
static pressure that must be applied to pre- MRI).
vent the emergence of fluid through a punc- The Monro–Kellie doctrine (Figs. 1 and 2) ■ In TBI, resulting increased ICP leads to de-
creased brain function and poor outcome.
ture needle from the CSF in the horizontal states that the sum of all intracranial volumes
■ Systemic hypotension and low O2-satu-
body position. Normal ICP should reside will remain constant and that any increase in ration adversely affect outcome via poor
below 15 cm H2O. An increase in ICP occurs one of them or adding an intracranial mass CPP and hypoxia (Table 2).
when one of the intracranial compartments will be offset by an equal decrease in one of its
within the rigid skull is increased (1,500 to
1,700 mL total volume, which is made of
around 80% brain parenchyma, 10% CSF,
and 10% blood). An acute increase in ICP
above tolerance is fatal.
Physiological variations occur and show
age dependence, with children having lower
values than adults, fluctuation with each
pulse-pressure wave, fluctuation with respi-
Table 1 Intracranial Pressure 20 Decompensation
head) takes precedence over a detailed sec- open fractures until in the OR and after stimuli are applied to elicit an adequate
ondary trauma survey ! adequate imaging has been obtained. response. Learn to recognize the postur-
Inspect and palpate the globes to assess ing responses to be able to distinguish
possible rupture. Corneal reflexes can be decerebrate, decorticate, triple-flexion
Traumatic Brain Injury: The used to assess CN 5/7 function in the co- withdrawal (Figs. 3 and 4)
Glasgow Coma Scale matose patient. A fundoscopic/ophthal-
In conversant patients also check the
Once the trauma survey has been con- moscopic examination is less valuable
sensation from the head toward the toes
ducted, evaluate the patient rapidly yourself in the adult since ICP increase does not
and mark any possible level that correlates
before other diagnostic studies are done. cause immediate optic nerve pallor and
with a spinal cord injury. Check tactile
Check the patient’s initial Glasgow Coma it is unlikely that one picks up a decrease
stimulation as well as pain. You must per-
Scale (GCS) score to evaluate the patient’s in retinal venous pulsations in this ER
form a rectal examination to assess sphinc-
level of consciousness via motor response, setting. However, in pediatric patients
ter tone; in the comatose patient, this may
eye opening, and verbal response. This and unclear mechanism of injury, evi-
be the only evidence for spinal cord injury.
score has predictive and prognostic value dence of retinal hemorrhage may point
If the bulbocavernosus reflex is missing (re-
(Table 5). to abuse. Pharmacological dilatation
flecting acute myelopathy), the patient may
If the patient is stable and in reasonable must be avoided until ICP elevation has
show signs of spinal shock.
neurological condition, obtain a focused been ruled out. Check the external audi-
Check biceps and patellar reflexes as
examination: tory canal (EAC) for hematotympanum
well as plantar responses (Babinski’s reflex).
Neck
lar hematoma, and ecchymosis = Battle’s injury, one can find hyperreflexia in the
if noticed later during hospitalizations,
sign indicating a skull base injury). acute setting.
needs attention to assess the risk of
Check head and neck for wounds such Serial neurological examinations and se-
aspiration.
as lacerations, abrasions, and contu- 2. Body: Check for motor response in all rial imaging are necessary to diagnose de-
sions, and palpate for possible fractures. four extremities; if the patient has de- layed neurological status change and deterio-
Do not probe lacerations concerning for creased level of consciousness, painful ration from secondary brain injury (Table 6).
Table 6 Classification of
Injury Patterns
■ Concussion or mild TBI
Altered MS with closed head injury
Fully reversible
■ Contusion (e.g., deceleration injury)
Structural changes; mass effect (ME)/
mid line shift (MLS)/swelling
Possibly reversible; some residual
■ Contre-coup injury/second impact
syndrome
■ Diffuse axonal injury (DAI or shear injury)
1 2 microscopic/multiple structural lesions
and LOC severe; poor prognosis
Fig. 4. Decerebrate Posturing.
Chapter 34: Neurosurgical and Neurological Emergencies for Surgeons 431
INITIAL TREATMENT
PLAN IN THE ER Table 7 First Set of Conservative TBI Treatment Measures (Before Imaging)
■ Optimize positioning: Elevate the head of bed above the level of the heart to improve venous
Since TBI is a rather heterogeneous group return and choose a level of approximately 30 degrees; if the spine is not cleared, tilt the entire
of incidents, it has been extremely difficult bed into reverse Trendelenburg position; make sure the neck is not compressed by tapes from
to gather prospective randomized trial data intubation or tight collars resulting in compromise to jugular venous return. Keep even the
and treatment recommendations from cli- mild TBI patient initially at bedrest until the assessment has been completed
nical studies in this scenario. However, a ■ Administer warm isotonic fluids (ns + 20 mM KCl) for volume resuscitation and give
few fundamental and basic recommenda- maintenance fluid to avoid secondary injury
tions were derived from detailed analysis of ■ Avoid hypotension (SBP >90 at all times for sufficient CPP)
retrospective data and prospective collec- ■ Avoid hypothermia; cover the patient with warm blankets
tion of data from cohorts that were followed ■ Intubation in all patients with GCS score of <8 who cannot protect their airway at all times;
long term. since facial and skull base fractures may be present, orotracheal intubation is the method of
choice
Some priorities in guidelines are intui-
■ Keep the patient NPO and insert nasogastric tube (NGT) for intubated patients
tive, for example, the systemically unstable ■ Prior to imaging, provide assisted ventilation/hyperventilation
patient needs to be treated first since sys-
temic hypotension from hypovolemic shock If the patient arrives in poor neurological condition and with a high suspicion for increased ICP,
initiate osmotherapy (100 g mannitol + 20 mg Lasix) as you go to the CT-scanner as it buys
in the multitrauma patient carries a poor
you time
prognosis in neurotrauma. Also, if there are
any concerns for raised ICP or the GCS
score is <9, the patient should have the
treatment initiated imaging is obtained be- stratify the injury into mild, moderate, and
fore, and then the time-consuming diagnos- Strategy in the Trauma Bay:
severe (see Table 6).
tic studies are undertaken (see later).
Document the morphology: Surface and ■ Early intervention is the goal for all treat-
vault injuries: open versus closed, depressed able conditions
ICP Treatment versus nondepressed, with and without trans- ■ Each patient with a significant impact
After systemic stabilization (make sure located fragments. Basilar injuries: with or or unclear story must be studied with
only isotonic solutions are used), adminis- without CSF leak, with or without cranial imaging.
ter mannitol (around 1 g/kg BW) and ■ Comatose TBI patients (GCS score of Š8)
furosemide (Lasix) (10 to 20 mg IV) and hy-
nerve palsy.
Once a CT of the head as been obtained, with normal CT scans may be watched
perventilate the patient (increase fre- during further workup.
quency and volume for goal pCO2 = 30) classify the injury pattern into bony and ■ All comatose TBI patients (GCS score of
before you run off to radiology/CT for fur- parenchymal: epidural/subdural/subarach- Š8) with abnormal CT scans should re-
ther studies. noid/intracerebral/focal or diffuse (see later). ceive invasive ICP monitoring.
Upon arrival, the patient will undergo ■ This algorithm helps with earlier
The current existing guidelines for man- some ER management in the hospital. Here detection of intracranial lesions to prog-
are some conservative measures that can nosticate recovery and it improves out-
agement of acute head trauma are con- come.
tained by a publication of the Brain Trauma be initiated quickly and efficiently (Tables 7
Foundation and the American Association and 8).
of Neurological Surgeons (AANS) and can
be obtained from the AANS or found via
Weblink under: http://www.guideline.gov/
content.aspx?id=10995.
Some points of interest need to be de- ■ Invasive ICP monitoring is indicated in all patients with a GCS score of <8 and/or signs of
scribed when accepting or signing out a raised ICP on imaging (the only exception being the intoxicated patient with a normal head CT
patient: single versus multiple wounds, who has an obvious reason for depressed mental status and may recover in a short period of
LOC at the scene, GCS score at the scene, time in the ICU under constant observation); each patient should have an immediate repeat
downtime until patient was found and CT after placement of a EVD or ICPB to assess success and/or complications. If the GCS score
is <8 but the patient shows two out of the following three signs: posturing, hypotension, or
treatment was initiated, seizures at the
age >45, monitoring is also recommended
scene, and any accompanying systemic in-
■ Anticonvulsants: Once intracranial imaging has revealed a superficial focus of injury or blood
jury. Then focus on the actual neurological products, load the patient with prophylactic medication such as phosphophenytoin (dilatin
injury: 10 to 15 mg/kg BW) which equals about 1 g per adult load followed by 100 mg TID maintenance
Document the mechanism of injury as dose for a blood serum level of 10 to 20 for a minimum of 10 days. Overall risk of seizures is low,
nonpenetrating blunt trauma in which the even in severe TBI (around 1%), and less in mild TBI (around 0.1%), but their consequences can
bony confinements remain intact (e.g., be dramatic, especially because they can exacerbate secondary damage. Newer data support
strike with a baseball bat) versus penetrat- the use of Leviracetam (Keppra) 1,000 mg p.o. BID, but the drug is still being evaluated.
ing trauma in which the bony integrity has ■ Steroids: Currently there is no indication for routine application of steroid therapy in trauma
been violated (GSW and stabs). It is helpful ■ Antibiotics: In patients with an obvious open scalp injury, provide skin flora coverage (e.g.,
to realize that the energy transfer accounts Cephalosporin: Ancef 1 g Q8 h × 3). If there is an obvious CSF leak or exposed brain tissue,
for the devastation, so one should specify provide triple coverage (gram-positive and gram-negative anaerobes; e.g., Vanco/Gent/Flagyl)
“high energy” versus “low energy” injury. On ■ Analgesics, sedatives, and antiemetics should be prescribed p.r.n.; mind you not to cloud your
neuroexamination by oversedation. See Table 9 for a guide on dosing
the basis of the initial GCS score, you can
430 Part III: The Head and Neck
D E F
Fig. 5. Slices of an emergent CT. A: Foramen-Magnum. B: Fourth ventricle. C: Temporal lobe. D: Sylvian fissure. E: Midline/
Ventricles. F: Superficial sulci.
432 Part III: The Head and Neck
A B C
Fig. 6. A: ICP bolt insertion position on lateral XRT. B: Right frontal EVD placement. C: Postplacement CT scan: the soft tissue
window shows the tip of the catheter at the level of the Foramen Monro.
■ Outcome correlates with clot location, Subarachnoidal Hemorrhage Look carefully at the distribution of the
clot thickness, clot volume, and MLS. It is characterized as diffuse bleeding in blood and especially the basilar cisterns
■ May be managed conservatively if pa- the CSF space (looks like “sugar spilling” of and the Sylvian fissure. If there is any suspi-
tient is noncomatose, without focal extra-axial, hyperdense material on native cion that it could be aneurysmal in nature
deficits, clot thickness <10 mm, clot head CT) not confined by suture lines. It is and the story does not make sense, it is
volume <30 cc, and MLS <5 mm, best visible in the sulci and fissures and mandatory to rule out that the SAH did not
nontemporal location; manage with in the occipital horns of the ventricles precede the TBI.
ICP-bolt. (Fig. 11). Intraparenchymal Hematoma
■ Indication for surgery: GCS score of
<9, clot thickness > 10 mm, MLS > ■ Incidence among severe TBI patient is ■ Traumatic parenchymal lesions occur in
5 mm, and/or volume > 30 cc. very high. 10% of all TBI patients and in up to 30%
■ Remember: Time from deterioration ■ Patients may be in coma on admission of severe TBI patients.
to decompression correlates with out- (depends on mechanism of injury and ■ Smaller lesion may not require aggres-
come! impact), but it is very important to get a sive operative treatment, but additive
precise PMH. mass effect may result in secondary
A B
Fig. 9. Subdural hematoma (SDH).
Fig. 11. A: R traumatic subarrachnoidal hemorrhage filling the sulci over the convexity (green arrows).
B: L frontal traumatic subarrachnoidal hemorrhage from head on collision.
■ Early intervention is advocated with Skull Fracture Indications for surgery: if the depressed
progressive neurological deterioration. bone segment is thicker than the thickness
■ It is characterized by bone destruction of the overlying skull, they are unstable and
■ The threshold for decompression is a
to the skull and possible displacement, require surgery.
medically refractory ICP increase > 25
forming an extra-axial mass, not con-
for >5 minutes. fined by sutures (Fig. 14). Gunshot Wounds (GSWs)
■ Incidence among all TBIs is about 6%.
Clinical Case Vignette ■ Because of the high impact, it is associ- ■ GSWs are the most frequent penetrat-
ated with high risk for intracranial hem- ing injuries (other are stabs/nailguns/
■ A 22-year-old man presented s/p snow-
orrhage and a significant neurological falls into sharps) and account for one-
board crash against brick wall; upon ar-
rival he had a GCS score of 8 and an R deficit thus causing a poor outcome. third of TBI trauma deaths in patients
third palsy; emergent CT revealed a small ■ Closed fractures can be fixed intraopera- aged <45 years. The overall “proximal
R acute SDH with a nondisplaced skull tively in one setting with craniotomy for mortality” remains >90% (Fig. 15 and
fracture, significant midline shift, and exploration and bone fragment eleva- Table 12).
multiple bilateral hemorrhagic contu- tion and repair.
sions adding up to significant mass ef- Hospital course: CPR is likely to be per-
■ All open fractures require a craniectomy formed in the field as necessary. Most pa-
fect. with discarding of the bone, followed by
■ Emergent R craniectomy, evacuation of tients will arrive per EMS in the hospital
delayed allograft cranioplasty. Most pa- intubated and sedated. An expeditious
SDH, and temporal lobectomy were per-
formed (Fig. 13). tients have to receive long-term antibi- trauma survey must be performed and ad-
otics. ditional injuries need to be identified and
A B
Fig. 10. Right osteoplastic craniotomy for evacu- Fig. 12. A: Small R SDH with global swelling. B: Right temporal hemorrhagic contusion adding mass
ation of hematoma. effect.
Chapter 34: Neurosurgical and Neurological Emergencies for Surgeons 435
A B C
Fig. 13. A: Right hemicraniectomy and evacuation of an SDH. B: R temporal lobectomy performed to create space. C: Second-
stage R cranioplasty performed 8 weeks posttrauma.
treated accordingly. Control bleeding from Outcome: GCS score and LOC (or the main- bral centers. Among the most dangerous
the scalp and other sites. DO NOT PROBE tained level of consciousness) at the scene conditions is brain herniation and its most
WOUNDS. Remember to keep mean arte- and upon arrival in the hospital are the critical final route of brainstem compres-
rial pressure (MAP) high during resuscita- most relevant predictors of outcome. Most sion with consecutive death.
tion and avoid excessive hydration to avoid victims die at the scene. If the patient shows Brain herniation (Fig. 16) occurs when
cerebral edema; standard spine precautions positive LOC at the scene and upon arrival, brain tissue inside the rigid skull is dis-
apply. It is important to describe entrance 94% die and 3% survive with severest dis- placed or shifted by local pressure from its
and exit wounds and unilateral injuries ver- abilities. Suicide attempts are more likely to normal position toward another location
sus bullets crossing midline (very poor be fatal. As in most TBIs, young age and with less pressure. It frequently happens as
prognosis). Get 3D reformats from the CT physical status are advantageous for im- a direct consequence of hemorrhage (sec-
done right away. If you have any chance to proved recovery during rehabilitation, ondary to blood volume) or perifocal brain
save the patient, act proactively and apply which should happen at an experienced TBI edema following ischemic stroke, CNS
mannitol, Lasix, and hyperventilation as center. trauma, infection, or inflammation, but it is
outlined, and get the patient to the OR also commonly seen as vasogenic edema in
swiftly for decompression above. NONTRAUMATIC EMERGENCIES the context of both primary and metastatic
A B C
Fig. 14. A: L frontal depressed skull fracture from a golf club assault. B: Bone window demonstrating internally displaced frag-
ment. C: Postoperative CT of elevated calvarial fracture, which was repaired and augmented with titanium mesh.
436 Part III: The Head and Neck
Fig. 17. Hemorrhage into a left subtotal MCA infarction: Note radiographic signs (points b to d from the above text list) of
transtentorial herniation as mentioned in the text. Note apparent shift of pons and associated changes in perimesencephalic
cisterns.
438 Part III: The Head and Neck
(a) eliminating the offending mass that cre- infarction,” for example, ACA occlusion due spect to surgical versus nonsurgical treat-
ates such pressure and (b) forming a space to transfalcine herniation or PCA occlusion ment. According to a pooled analysis of
by creating a skull defect to allow brain ex- due to transtentorial herniation. these trials, the case fatality rate was sig-
pansion to occur and thus significantly low- The primary goal of surgical interven- nificantly reduced comparing decompres-
ering the resulting net tissue pressure and tion is to save the patient’s life and also to sion (29%) versus conservative treatment
reducing midline shift and herniation. limit the functional deficit. Several studies (78%), the absolute risk reduction was 50%,
Neurosurgical strategy, approach, and indicate that decompressive craniectomy and the functional outcome was signifi-
technique for decompression hence depend limits the progressive evolution of effects cantly better. Age appears as most impor-
on the nature of the underlying lesion, the on adjacent areas (e.g., secondary cerebral tant predictor of mortality, disability, and
actual patient systemic status, and relevant ischemia in the penumbra). For supratento- long-term functional dependence.
imaging findings. One classic example is rial strokes it has been shown that early de- Currently there are only limited data re-
decompressing craniectomy for ischemic compressive hemicraniectomy with duro- ported as to the optimal time point for sur-
stroke, which is discussed in detail later. tomy/duroplasty is the most effective gical intervention. More recently available
intervention in such circumstances, ulti- imaging techniques, such as perfusion and
Ischemic Stroke (Malignant mately resulting in interruption of this vi- diffusion MRI, may help determine the time
Media Infarction) cious cycle. It not only reduces mortality course of cerebral ischemia early after
but also improves outcome and reduces in- symptom onset, thereby allowing the clini-
Acute occlusion of any major cerebral ar- farction size. It generates space, decreases cian to decide on indication for surgical in-
tery will result in significant ischemia to ICP, alleviates mass effect, and increases ce- tervention.
the brain secondary to the lack of adequate rebral perfusion to the penumbra, allowing
perfusion given that there is no functional for retrograde perfusion via leptomeningeal
collateral circulation. Resulting tissue death Technical Considerations Concerning
collaterals. Metabolically compromised but Hemicraniectomy
leads to the breakdown of the blood–brain viable parenchyma may thus survive. Opti-
barrier causing significant edema and In order to give the brain parenchyma max-
mal patient selection remains to be deter- imum space for swelling and allowing for
raised ICP, which may result in herniation. mined, but preoperative clinical signs and
Among strokes, large middle cerebral artery maximum decompression, the primary goal
timing of surgery seem to influence the in a standard hemicraniectomy for MCA in-
(MCA) territory or hemispheric infarction prognosis.
is often characterized by early and rapid farction is to remove a large bone fragment
Many retrospective clinical reports have
clinical deterioration (“malignant MCA in- over one hemisphere (see Fig. 18).
indicated the significant effect of hemi-
farction”) and resulting death unless a life- craniectomy on survival of MCA infarction ■ Trauma flap: fronto-parieto-temporal.
saving intervention is performed. patients, several of them also pointing to ■ Margins:
The clinical picture of total MCA infarc- positive results concerning functional out- ■ Anteriorly: superior border of orbital
tion is characterized by severe sensorimo- come. rim, avoiding frontal sinus
tor hemisymptoms, head and eye deviation Data of three randomized controlled tri- ■ Posteriorly: 2 cm posterior to external
to the side of the lesion, hemi-inattention, als are currently available, that is, DECI- meatus
and global aphasia (dominant hemisphere), MAL, DESTINY, and HAMLET. All of them ■ Medially: 2 cm lateral to midline, avoid-
accompanied by an early deterioration of show significant rates of survival with re- ing superior sagittal sinus
consciousness and need of mechanical ven-
tilation. Main causes are thromboembolic
and atherothrombotic occlusions of proxi- Brain
mal MCA or ICA. Such complete MCA in- Cranium (skull)
farction represents about 1% to 10% of all
supratentorial ischemic strokes and occurs
at an incidence of 10 to 20/1,000,000/year; 1. Pressure from
compared to other stroke types, it tends to Dura mater brain swelling is
affect women more likely and occurs at relieved by
younger ages. It is associated with a signifi- creating more
cant mortality and morbidity rate of up to room.
Skin
80%.
Early diagnosis and initiation of aggres-
sive therapy are determinants of outcome.
In most cases, developing brain edema can- Fat deposits
not be adequately treated by conservative
means alone. Parenchymal edema is mainly
due to ischemia resulting in cytotoxic cellu-
lar reaction. Its effect peaks ~1 to 5 days af-
ter the insult. The term “malignant” is used
for such cases when brain swelling is start-
ing early (within 24 to 48 h) and results in
significant mass effect. Extensive edema and
marked elevation of ICP may cause second-
ary brain damage via ischemia of neighbor-
ing brain areas and can lead to “bystander Fig. 18. Hemicraniectomy.
Chapter 34: Neurosurgical and Neurological Emergencies for Surgeons 439
■ Inferiorly: just above the ear cartilage, include a definite duration criterion for SE. ance; antiepileptic drug (AED) serum
that is, floor of middle fossa GCSE has often been defined as >30 min- level drop caused by intercurrent dis-
utes’ seizure activity or a series of seizures ease (e.g., gastrointestinal) or pharma-
Mentioned below are the steps involved in without return to full consciousness be- cological interaction (after prescription
hemicraniectomy: tween the individual seizures. Notably, even of an interacting drug); intercurrent
■ Reflect temporal muscle anteriorly a short period of seizure activity may cause infection/febrile disease; and complica-
■ Place several burr holes neuronal injury and self-limitation is really tion acquired during a preceding seizure
■ Store bone fragment in abdominal pouch rare after 5 minutes. (intracranial hemorrhage, CNS trauma).
or cryo-conservated So, do not miss a new acute/subacute
■ Remove sphenoid wing Epidemiology and Etiology cause unrelated to preexisting epilepsy!
■ Tack up dural edges to bony margins SE incidence is estimated to occur in 10 to 20 ■ First manifestation of a idiopathic/cryp-
■ Open dura via stellate or c-shaped inci- cases per 100,000 per year and is increasing togenic seizure disorder.
sion with age. Approximately 50,000 to 200,000 ■ Acute and subacute symptomatic CNS
■ Perform duraplasty (periosteum, tem- cases occur per year in the United States. disease.
poral fascia) Males and females are affected nearly
Notably, any CNS disease may be associated
equally. SE affects all age groups but more
This emergent intervention generates an with the development of acute seizures in-
frequently at the extremes of age (i.e., in
~10 cm × 15 cm calvarial defect with a cluding SE, which can be the first symptom
neonates it is related to hypoxic injury or
lower margin that should be extending <1 also.
metabolic disease and in elderly people it is
cm to the floor of the middle cranial fossa. If Given that such causes might also occur
related to stroke).
the bony opening is too small (<8 cm × 8 as secondary change (e.g., infarction due to
Overall mortality rate is as high as 20%
cm), it can lead to parenchymal injury from vasospasms because of SAH, or intracranial
but may exceed 50% in prolonged SE cases,
persistent pressure at the craniectomy mar- infection after any open surgery, or general-
and death often relates to underlying cause,
gins with subsequent infarction. It must be ized edema due to metabolic derangement
unsuccessful treatment, or SE complica-
emphasized that this type of emergent sur- due to sodium loss because of diuretic treat-
tions.
gery is a dramatic event and justified only ment), any of these scenarios must be con-
Systemic SE complications are (a) ex-
as a life-saving measure. It is to be noted sidered regardless of primary cause of hos-
cessive catecholamine release leading to
that secondary to the significant compro- pitalization.
hypertension, tachycardia, cardiac arrhyth-
mise, from among most of these patients mia, hyperglycemia, and lactic acidosis; (b)
sustained from their TBI, only 55% of the Important Notes
hyperpyrexia promoted by excessive mus-
survivors answered “yes” to the question: cular activity; (c) hypoxia from impaired ■ Classic GCSE is easily recognizable at the
“whether they would have liked the surgery ventilation, pulmonary edema; and (d) bedside by the typical rhythmic tonic–
being performed on them in this setting.” myoglobinemia due to muscular destruc- clonic activity. Rarely, SE presents as
Once the craniectomy has been successfully tion with danger of renal failure. persistent tonic seizure (postural, ver-
performed, one should plan on elective re- sive fits).
Causes of SE may be roughly divided into
pair 8 to 12 weeks thereafter to reconstruct three groups (Table 13): ■ Rapid repeated and prolonged extensor
Neuropsychiatry. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Krieger DW, Demchuk AM, Kasner SE, et al. Park J, Kim E, Kim GJ, et al. External decompres-
Williams & Wilkins; 2003:1150. Early clinical and radiological predictors of sive craniectomy including resection of tem-
Harscher S, Reichart R, Terborg C, et al. Outcome fatal brain swelling in ischemic stroke. Stroke poral muscle and fascia in malignant hemi-
after decompressive craniectomy in patients 1999;30(2):287–92. spheric infarction. J Neurosurg 2009;110(1):
with severe ischemic stroke. Acta Neurochir Kuchta J, Klug N, Ernestus RI. Nonconvulsive sta- 101–5.
2006;148(1):31–7. tus epilepticus as a possible cause of coma in Porth, C. Essentials of pathophysiology: concepts of
Holtkamp M, Othman J, Buchheim K, et al. Pre- neurosurgical intensive care. Current Eur Neu- altered health states, 3rd ed. Hagerstown, MD:
dictors and prognosis of refractory status epi- rosurg 2009;70:176–9. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.
lepticus treated in a neurological intensive care Langlois J ScD MPH, Rutland-Brown W MPH; Sauaia A, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al. Epidemiol-
unit. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76(4): Wald M. The epidemiology and impact of trau- ogy of trauma deaths: a reassessment. J Trauma
534–9. matic brain injury: a brief overview. Journal of 1995;38(2):185–93.
Huttner HB, Schwab S. Malignant middle cerebral Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2006;21(5):375–8. Scalea TM. Does it matter how head injured pa-
artery infarction: clinical characteristics, treat- LaPlaca MC, Simon CM, Prado GR, et al. CNS trau- tients are resuscitated? In: Valadka AB, An-
ment strategies and future perspectives. Lanc ma. In: Weber JT, Mass AIR, eds. Neurotrauma: drews BT, eds. Neurotrauma: evidence-based
Neurol 2009;8:949–58. new insights into pathology and treatment. El- answers to common questions. Stuttgart/New
Jaramillo A, Góngora-Rivera F, Labreuche J, et al. sevier Science; 2007:13–19. York Thieme; 2005:3–4.
Predictors for malignant middle cerebral artery Lhatoo SH, Alexopoulos AV. The surgical treatment Schwab S, Steiner T, Aschoff A, et al. Early hemi-
infarctions: a postmortem analysis. Neurology of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2007;48(8):61–5. craniectomy in patients with complete middle
2006 28;66(6):815–20. Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus: an overview of cerebral artery infarction. Stroke 1998;29(9):
Jüttler E, Schwab S, Schmiedek P, et al. Decom- the clinical problem. Epilepsia 1999;40(1):S3–8. 1888–93.
pressive surgery for the treatment of malignant Lowenstein DH, Bleck T, Macdonald RL. It’s time Spendel M, Lanner G. Operative decompression in
infarction of the middle cerebral artery (DES- to revise the definition of status epilepticus. malignant brain infarction. Neurologia Croatica
TINY): a randomized, controlled trial. Stroke Epilepsia 1999;40(1):120–2. 2007;56(5):21–7.
2007;38(9):2518–25. Marion DW. Pathophysiology and treatment of in- Sullivan PG, Rabchevsky AG, Hicks RR, et al. Dose
Kasper EM, Luedi M, Kasper BS. Gunshot injuries tracranial hypertension. In: Andrews BT, ed. In- response curve and optimal dosing regimen of
to the head. In: Velmahos G, Degiannis E, Doll tensive care in neurosurgery. New York: Thieme cyclosporin A after traumatic brain injury in
D, eds. Penetrating trauma: a practical guide to Medical Publishers; 2003:52–3. rats. Neuroscience 2000;101(2):289–95.
operative technique and perioperative manage- Mayer SA, Claassen J, Lokin J, et al. Refractory status Uhl E. Decompressive hemicraniectomy for space-
ment. Springer; Heidelberg 2011. epilepticus: frequency, risk factors, and impact occupying cerebral infarction. Cen Eur Neuro-
Kaufman HH. Civilian gunshot wounds to the on outcome. Arch Neurol 2002;59(2):205–10. surg 2009;70(4):195–206.
head. Neurosurgery 1993;32: 962–4. Meierkord H, Holtkamp M. Non-convulsive status Vahedi K, Vicaut E, Mateo J, et al. Sequential-de-
Keenan T, Anthony J, Benson D. Non-contiguous epilepticus in adults: clinical forms and treat- sign, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial
spinal fractures. J Trauma 1990;30:489–91. ment. Lancet Neurol 2007;6(4):329–39. of early decompressive craniectomy in malig-
Kellie, G. An account of the appearances observed Merenda A, DeGeorgia M. Craniectomy for acute nant middle cerebral artery infarction (DECI-
in the dissection of two of the three individuals ischemic stroke: how to apply the data to the MAL Trial). Stroke 2007;38(9):2506–17.
presumed to have perished in the storm of the bedside. Curr Opin Neurol 2010;23(1):53–8. Vahedi K, Hofmeijer J, Juettler E, et al. Early de-
3rd, and whose bodies were discovered in the Monro A. Observations on the structure and func- compressive surgery in malignant infarction of
vicinity of Leith on the morning of the 4th No- tions of the nervous system. Edinburgh, Creech the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of
vember 1821 with some reflections on the pa- & Johnson 1823:5. three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neu-
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Chirurgical Society of Edinburg, 1824;1:84–169. in head injury. J Neurotrauma 2002;19(5):503–57. Waterhouse EJ, DeLorenzo RJ. Status epilepticus
Kleweno CP, Zampini J, White A, et al. Survival Nkwuo N, Schamban N, Borenstein M. Selected in older patients: epidemiology and treatment
EDITOR’S COMMENT As Dr. Kasper writes in the introduction, actual injury to the brain, which results in the
there are ~1.5 million moderate to severe head death of a number of areas of brain cells.
injuries in the United States each year, and there
This chapter is not necessarily intended to be are in addition, we are beginning to note, ~1.6 to 1. Cerebral blood flow, which is normally auto-
concerned with the isolated brain injury as much 3.8 million sports-related traumatic brain inju- regulated for systemic blood pressure between as
it was to deal with brain injury which com- ries each year as well. Traumatic brain injury is 80 and 160, will give adequate cerebral perfu-
pounded other types of injury. Nonetheless, an the cause of at least 52,000 deaths, and traumatic sion. When hypotension occurs as a result of
essential knowledge, although minimal for the injury is the leading cause of disability in children trauma, autoregulation, which is a major pro-
trauma surgeon with respect to head injury, which and adults from 1 to 44. At least 5.3 million Amer- tective mechanism for the brain, is disrupted, may
either be individual or may complicate other icans currently live with disabilities resulting so that cerebral blood flow, which is autoregu- more
major forms of trauma, seems to be essen- from traumatic brain injuries. It is possible that lated to generate an adequate cerebral perfu- tial in
this society in which we find ourselves with a number of these could have been prevented sion pressure, assumes for the most part the a
significant amount of high-speed trauma in to or the causal after-effects could have been pre- perfusion pressure of a mean blood pressure, which
our injured are placed. It does us little good vented from better-informed treatment of these which may be hypotensive. If the brain is in- to have
a superb resuscitation, arresting of liver traumatic brain injuries. jured, the episodes of hypotension and meta-
bleeding, doing splenectomies, having the ortho- We have learned a great deal from the combat bolic imbalance cause secondary brain injury. pedic
service, repair fractured femurs, etc., only experience of our soldiers in Iraq and Afghani- 2. On the other hand, other than perfusion, the to lose
the patient because of a traumatic head stan, and one-third of the soldiers who are admit- intracranial pressure is perhaps the most injury
that was poorly taken care of. Thus, on Dr. ted to Walter Reed do so because of traumatic damaging. Normal intracranial pressure is Kasper’s
suggestion, I included a chapter on brain brain injury. very low; it is 15 cm of water and below. Since
injuries the brain resides in the cranium, and thismuch
is a to
what theyincan
an and
effort to make
cannot do. surgeons aware of There are twobrain
of traumatic main sources
injury, andofallthe residual
of them are the rigid compartment, it does not take
(continued)
442 Part III: The Head and Neck
disrupt this rather low intracranial pressure. Initially, a patient may look pretty reason- of nine or less is serious and usually involves a
Most of the volume of the skull is made up able when he comes in, and since it is rare that focal neurological deficit, thought of as possibly of
brain parenchyma (80%); 10% is cerebro- either the trauma surgeon or the person taking reversible and some residual possible. A severe spinal
fluid, and remaining 10% is blood. An care of the neurological status is at the scene, a traumatic brain injury results in a Glasgow Coma acute
increase in intracranial pressure is fatal. careful history, if it can be obtained, is critical. A Score of five to eight and a critical traumatic brain Most of
the time, when we are concerned as record of vital signs and first examination should injury results in a Glasgow Coma Score of three trauma
surgeons with traumatic brain injury, be mandatory. Was there any evidence of seizure or four, with few survivors. This is a very detailed we are
concerned with intracranial pressure, activity or progressive obtundation? Was the pa- chapter, and I do not want to burden the reader monitoring
it, and attempting to keep it below tient involved in alcohol or drugs? If the patient with the kind of repetition of what the person tak- certain levels.
was accompanied on the way to the hospital, ing care of the patient needs to know. However,
what was the cause of the evolution of the situ- it is quite important that the trauma surgeons be
We know we cannot alter the events of the trau-
ation? If the patient became unconscious and a knowledgeable and know the prognosis and the
matic brain injury. Thus, what is necessary to hap-
pupil dilated up, we need to know when that outcomes of the various scores and which type of
pen is that we must keep the patient from deterio-
happened. All of these things should be a part of progression neurologically or lack of progression
rating as 50% to 60% do during a hospitalization as a
trauma Level-I protocol, which hopefully most of will be fatal. Not to do so will jeopardize the pa-
result of secondary injury. The latter, which may
our patients will come in at. As far as the most tient, and one gets into types of priorities, which
ultimately cause increase in intracerebral pressure and
life-threatening aspect of the patient’s survival, leads to the death of the patient.
brain herniation, are things which perhaps that is a blown pupil, if it did occur en route, or if
can partially be obviated. The causes for second- it were present at the time when the patient was A Final Mention of Special Cases: The special case
ary brain injury are the following: is of the elderly with what seems to be a trivial
first found, we must know about it; the cause of fall and is on warfarin for chronic atrial fibrilla-
1. Edema; the blown pupil may indicate which side is filling tion. I have spoken out against this for several
with a space-occupying lesion, and we need to years, as continued atrial fibrillation need not
2. Change in cerebral blood flow (CBF), usually
decreased; know which side this is happening with. be anticoagulation for >2 years with warfarin as
3. Hypercapnia, which can be controlled by a The Glasgow Coma Scale the presumed clot in the atrial appendage is epi-
ventilator; This is absolutely essential for the people involved thialized. However, the mortality of the elderly on
4. Acidosis, likely to occur with injury, but pos- with trauma or for that matter for anyone else to warfarin with a seemingly trivial injury is 40%. As
sible to forestall; know what type of Glasgow Coma Score is present described in a fine section of Chapter 6, there are
5. Alterations in metabolism, some of which are initially and then upon admission. Each trauma numerous new oral anticoagulants and at least
subtle and cannot be avoided; surgeon should be able to have by heart the way one, apixaban (Pfizer and Bristol-Myers Squibb),
6. Changes in neurotransmitters and receptor in which Glasgow Coma Scores are assigned. It has bested warfarin in a head-to-head clinical
activity, which are likely the result of other probably is easier to have a general range for what trial—perhaps more rapid reversal. Others seem
changes and are really beyond our capacity to the Glasgow Coma Score is. The normal Glasgow to fill the same criteria.
deal with; Coma Score, as we know, is 15, and impaired alert- The high mortality under these circumstances
7. Excitotoxicity; ness or memory leads to a somewhat decrease in seems to have escaped notice.
8. Infection and abscess formation. the Glasgow Coma Score. A Glasgow Coma Score J.E.F.
35 Tracheotomy
Paul F. Castellanos
INTRODUCTION omy, each done as quickly as possible in the have to be taken, ventilator and all, to the
context of an arrest with the single-minded operating room (OR). Concerns about the
The surgical access to the airway has three indication being the preserving of the pa- potential for great and dire complications
spheres, each with different distinct anatom- tient’s life. While the surgical anatomy is have made this sphere slow to evolve and
ical considerations and clinical indications. relevant in the general sense, it is far less of fraught with controversy.
These are the open surgical tracheotomy, the an issue than getting a tube into the airway
emergency tracheotomy or cricothyrotomy, by whatever means as quickly as humanly OPEN SURGICAL
and the percutaneous dilatational tracheot- possible. This, therefore, involves relegating TRACHEOTOMY
omy (PDT). The first two have a wide range of the process of airway protection and reduc-
described techniques each with advocates ing the risk of complications to the surgical General Issues and Indications
and detractors. The indications for a surgical aftermath of the successful emergency pro-
open tracheotomy include: the securing of cedure. The primary indication for tracheotomy is
the airway for its prolonged intubation and PDT is a relatively new sphere of airway the bypassing of the larynx when prolonged
mechanical ventilation; the bypass of the up- surgery generally performed at the bedside intubation is necessary to reduce the risk
per airway for ventilatory protection, per- within the intensive care unit (ICU) with of airway stenosis and secure airway ac-
haps in preparation for major head and neck minimal surgical instrumentation and sim- cess. Apart from these, other indications
surgery; and the establishment of the airway ple surface anatomy guidance. The process include the treatment of airway obstruc-
below a narrowing to enable safe respiration includes, in most circumstances, some tion and the protection of the airway in an-
after the structures above this point have be- means to see into the airway such as a flex- ticipation of head and neck surgery. The
come scarred, most often after prolonged ible or rigid video endoscope to establish timing of when to consider this operation
orotracheal intubation. where you are entering the airway from in the context of prolonged intubation is
Emergency airway access techniques in- within. It is indicated for the critically ill both critical and controversial. There are
clude cricothyrotomy and “slash” tracheot- ventilated patient who would otherwise data that support a 10- to 12-day window
Chapter 35: Tracheotomy 443
of intubation as the target for converting there is essentially no chance they will ever protect the trachea and reduce the stenosis
from orotracheal intubation to tracheot- be decannulated. Examples of such condi- risk (Fig. 2). Leaving one or two undisturbed
omy access. Having performed many bed- tions include huge strokes, extensive brain rings below the cricoid is also beneficial to
side laryngoscopy procedures in the con- injury, or high quadriplegia. The second increase the protection to the cricoid.
text of tracheotomy, I have found a huge scenario is in the care of patients with in- Erosion up toward the larynx is com-
variability in the degree of laryngotracheal tractable aspiration who are being treated mon, particularly in obese patients or those
injury associated with prolonged intuba- by one of a variety of laryngeal closure or with very short necks. These body types
tion. I have developed a strategy for antici- diversion techniques and need a permanent promote the development of stenosis by the
pating the need for conversion to trache- stoma to avoid airway obstruction if the upward displacement of the cannula and
otomy. cannula ever fell out or became plugged the consequent disrupting of the anterior
Younger patients are commonly able to and had to be removed. In both cases, this tracheal wall. The classic surface appear-
tolerate longer intubations. This does not technique allows a low maintenance stoma ance is of a tracheostomy wound with a
apply to children whose airway care is out and the safety of a channel that will remain dense vertical scar beneath it indicating
of the scope of this work. The closed head open for hours to days with no cannula at that the initial entry point into the airway
injury patients, who tend to be younger, are all in many cases. The down side is that if was far lower than it ended up (Fig. 3). A
an exception to this generalization because the clinical assessment is incorrect and the higher cannula placement point can there-
they tend to be constantly fighting to get person’s condition does improve, the stoma fore be justified in these patients to help
the ETT out of their throats, bucking and will have to be closed by a somewhat exten- avoid this. Moving quickly to decannulation
coughing. The pure physical erosion of this sive operation. is more important in this population. They
process is very damaging to the larynx and can be considered to be at a very high risk of
the constant “combat” is intrinsically dan- Open Tracheostomy Techniques post tracheotomy complications.
gerous. They either need to be converted to The technique I advocate for a “mature
a tracheotomy or extubated in a controlled There are innumerable techniques for per- stoma” tracheostomy involves the genera-
way as soon as prudent. This may be within forming a tracheotomy and a tracheostomy tion of laterally based cartilage flaps sewn
the first 2 to 3 days of their care. Conversely, (Fig. 1). The distinction between the two is to the skin by multiple buried absorbable
the comatose patient who needs no seda- of a surgically mature stoma in the latter, sutures (I use 4-0 PDS on a taper needle like
tion and who has some chance of spontane- though both involve an opening or “otomy” an RB-1) (Fig. 4). I use a vertical incision
ous recovery will often have a pristine lar- into the trachea as an intrinsic feature of the through two rings in the midline connected
ynx even after 2 or 3 weeks of OT intubation. operation. Vertical or transverse skin inci- above and below by a generous transverse
They do not cough. They do not swallow. sions are often debated. The vertical is more incision. This is termed an “I” flap by virtue
They just lay there. The other consideration easily made with little risk of needing to li- of the shape of the capital letter “I.” The car-
is to get them out of a unit by converting gate large anterior jugular veins but heals tilage of each flap is supported by lateral
them over to a tracheotomy. This is a care less well than a transverse incision that can axial blood and mucosa, so there is no “ran-
and logistics issue not related to avoiding be put into a skin crease. The deep dissec- dom” feature to the support of this tissue
injury to the larynx. tion often includes the need to either divide that may promote iatrogenic stenosis. All
On the other end of the spectrum is the or reposition the thyroid isthmus. Dividing the suture materials I use in this technique
Fig. 1. Steps of a typical open tracheotomy. The incision of the thyroid isthmus is a common part of the procedure, though
one I typically avoid if possible. It leaves a lot of tissues to necrose within the tracheotomy wound making the site fetid and
causing malodorous drainage. My preference is to mobilize the isthmus and draw it up or down, whichever is more anatomi-
cally convenient. The hazard is that you will not enter the airway where you want to and that the stoma position may make
for a greater tendency for stenosis of the subglottis by injuring the cricoid cartilage. If necessary, the isthmus can be taken
down sharply and hemostasis can be achieved by focal bipolar cautery and suture ligature. En mass ligation and monopolar
cautery is a much more gross, if not less effective, means for achieving the same end. (Modified from Weissler MC, Couch ME.
Tracheotomy and Intubation. In, Bailey BJ, Johnson JT, Newlands SD, eds. Head and Neck Surgery—Otolaryngology, 4th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.)
dilator of the infrastomal airway will eventu- ments like repeated swallowing and cough- mon complication of tracheotomy and tends
ally erode the mucosa and scar the distal tra- ing play a role in this erosive and dilatational to occur early after the procedure has been
chea. This is a very difficult clinical problem process. Because of these host factors, poten- performed and before scar has formed to
to repair. Erosion into the anterior or poste- tially dire complications can occur even un- maintain the trachea in registration with the
rior wall may also occur, thus entering the der the most meticulous attention. As a care- skin incision. This enables the tip of the can-
adjacent structures. Although, in my experi- taker of these complications, I have a list of nula to fall out entirely or to sit within a false
ence, erosion of this type is more likely the recommendation to help avoid them: (a) cuff passage anterior to the tracheal lumen. The
result of the contour and direction of the air- pressure monitoring multiple times per day patient may be able to breath, in the latter
way relative to the cannula design, the angle and (b) keeping track of the total volume in a situation, through the cannula for a short
of the tip of the cannula, the cannula’s flexi- cuff. Changes in cuff pressure and volume time but usually the loss of tidal volumes
bility, and the surface of the patient’s neck will indicate a gradual dilation of the trachea and decreased gas exchange begin to indi-
and chest. Depending on these factors, the and may herald the damage that leads to cate a problem. If the driving pressures are
tip of the tube may be pointing into the “party complications. (c) Endoscopic evaluation of increased or “bag ventilation” is employed
wall” with the esophagus or the anterior tra- the airway through the tracheotomy tube enabling far higher air pressure and volume
chea toward the largest artery of the body can guide appliance choice and its adjust- delivery, a pneumothorax soon follows and a
apart from the aorta (Fig. 6). The dilation that ment to avoid the piercing of the walls in any dire downward spiral can result. The can-
occurs, even in the absence of erosion, can be direction. If done with a “side port” attach- nula can sometimes be replaced by “feel,” if
its own disease in the form of tracheomala- ment, the circuit for ventilation is maintained the problem is caught early and the tracheal
cia. This can make the process of decannula- and the distention of the airway as it is dur- wall is still widely open. If not, manipulating
tion laborious, long, and potentially unsuc- ing normal mechanical ventilation can make the cannula can fully close off the communi-
cessful. Other factors such as the patient’s this assessment more accurate. cation between the skin and the trachea. In-
overall state of nutrition, the ventilatory Inadvertent decannulation warrants spe- tubation from above should be considered
pressures being used, and patient move- cial mention. It is possibly the most com- under such circumstances. If intubation
Chapter 35: Tracheotomy 445
Fig. 2. A: Generation of the “Björk Flap.” It should be clear to anyone operating on the trachea, that there is no way to main-
tain a vital blood supply to such a long and “random” strip of tissue. The two sides of cartilage at the top of the tracheotomy
are much more prone to lose their curvature if not altogether lose their strength allowing for the generation of the so-called
A-Frame stenosis. I recommend against the use of this technique and present it with the hope of describing why it should be
avoided, even as we continue to advocate it. B: The skin from the neck can be advanced to the trachea instead of the other way
around, if additional security against the dislodgement of the cannula is needed. It takes only a small amount of additional ef-
fort to enable this. In fact, the same maneuver can be extended in the circumference of the tracheotomy to generate an appro-
priately named “tracheostomy” by advancing flaps of skin on the three sides of the opening suturing each to the corresponding
part of the trachea with slowly absorbing buried monofilament sutures. (Modified from Weissler MC, Couch ME. Tracheotomy
and intubation. In: Bailey BJ, Johnson JT, Newlands SD, eds. Head and Neck Surgery—Otolaryngology, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.)
A B
Fig. 4. Incisions and dissection that are needed
Fig. 3. A: This stoma began at the level of the transverse scar and eroded upward. The jagged edges are for a surgically matured tracheostomy, in the tru-
made up of granulation tissue and cartilage that has lost it circular shape. B: This very old tracheostomy est meaning of the term. The four divided skin seg-
lacks obvious granulation tissue but clearly has eroded up from its original starting point near the tho- ments are sewn down to the airway on each of four
racic inlet up to its ending spot below the larynx. Both patients experienced severe airway complications sides bring them to the mucosa circumferentially.
from the tracheotomies. “A” required a segmental tracheal resection prior to being able to be decan- This promotes the generation of an “ostomy” that
nulated. “B” was able to be decannulated after a series of minimally invasive procedures to widen his will be secure, require little local care, and will have
airway from the inside. to be surgically closed if it is ever no longer needed.
446 Part III: The Head and Neck
A B
Fig. 5. A: Video image of a stoma surgically “matured,” in that skin flaps were sewn to the trachea to accomplish what can
happen to a tracheotomy after it has had a cannula in place for several years depicted in “B.” B: This image, taken during an
endoscopy, provides internal illumination allowing the detection of the granulation tissue evident within the stoma that per-
sists despite the fact that this stoma has been in place for several years. See Figure 4.
from above is not successful or the patient the excellent blood supply and the vigor of not specifically designed for this purpose
has arrested, removal of the existing cannula the immune system built into our design. (Portex Vocalaid Cuffed Blue Line, Smith
and digital exploration of the wound should Nonetheless, tracheotomy sites are often Medical, OH).
be attempted. The anterior tracheal wall oozing with foul mucopurulent secretions Another factor in the generation of a
may be palpated and the opening into the and blood. This indicates a local process particular kind of post-tracheotomy tra-
trachea found. If so, an ETT can be used to that promotes stenosis and can potentially cheal stenosis is the “Bjork Flap” (see Fig. 2).
reintubate the airway and provide for some erode the mucosa within the airway. The This is a random (in vascular terms) carti-
degree of ventilation while chest tubes are most common source of these secretions is lage flap using one or two rings of anterior
being placed. The tracheotomy cannula can the oral cavity pool of saliva and oral flora; tracheal wall to anchor the trachea to the
be passed by Seldinger technique once the but the worst of all bodily fluids able to in- skin and theoretically reduce the risk of in-
situation is stabilized. Depending on why jure the airway are those from the gastroin- advertent decannulation. The problem is
the cannula became dislodged in the first testinal tract. The acid, enzyme, and bile that it can also destabilize the tracheal ring
place, it may be reasonable to introduce an flow from within the central GI tract pro- structure and that in conjunction with the
extra long cannula such as the Shiley XLT vide a perfect mix for injuring the airway to chondritis of the wound in the trachea it-
that comes with a proximal or distal extra a spectacular degree. The solution surely in- self, it promotes a straightening of the two
long segment (Mallinckrodt, St. Louis, MO). cludes avoiding reflux of GI fluids by pos- sides of the tracheal wall that then fall into
Dealing with complications such as tra- tural means, the use of gastrojejunostomy one another. I call this the “A-Frame” steno-
cheoesophageal fistula (TEF) formation technology for post pyloric feeding (the de- sis after this type of house construction (Fig.
and innominate artery fistula (IAF) should tails of which are beyond this work), and 7). Part of the problem with this complica-
be mentioned but cannot be addressed de- vigorous irrigation and suctioning of the tion is that the trachea is not actually
finitively in a work of this scope. The critical aerodigestive tract including the mouth stenotic. No amount of dilation will enlarge
issue is to avoid a tracheostomy in the con- and trachea if at all possible. The “High Low this airway pathology more than for a short
text of a known TEF unless the fistula is Evac” (Mallinckrodt, St. Louis, MO) endo- interval. The posterior wall in the segment
very high and unlikely to be at or below the tracheal tube technology, for example, will of the airway may be fully pliable and will
level of the entry point of the tracheotomy enable the cleansing of the airway above simply stretch open and back to its original
itself. Otherwise, the risk is that the can- the cuff of the tube and has been shown to shape and size afterward. There are some
nula will be placed into the fistula and the decrease infection. In my opinion, this scale transoral techniques that may help but for
esophagus will be intubated. Repositioning of cleansing would also help keep the tra- the symptomatic A-frame stenosis patient,
can be hazardous and ineffective. Dire sce- cheotomy sight healthier, too. Unfortu- a segmental tracheal resection is often all
narios are common in this setting. nately, this technology does not exist in tra- that can be done to repair this complication
The “fetid” tracheotomy wound also cheotomy cannulas to my awareness. There of tracheotomy. In my opinion, the Bjork
bears mention here. Local infection is pos- is a form of tracheotomy cannula that al- Flap is a common and controllable predis-
sible in any wound. The head and neck is lows for the delivery of air into the supras- posing factor to the development of this
famous for tolerating a high degree of con- tomal passage that could be adapted to complication, although it can form in any
tamination without infection because of cleanse the mucosa or to suction, but it is type of tracheotomy. How commonly a Bjork
Chapter 35: Tracheotomy 447
of air continues to flow through the connec- thyrotomy as the only way to go, this is
tion and of necessity maintains its patency. sometimes a very challenging access port,
This should be evaluated endoscopically by not wide enough to put a tube through
an airway clinician through the larynx without the use of the “digital dilator” or the
and through the PTF, if it is wide enough. index finger to enlarge it. The anatomy of
The surgery needed to repair airway steno- the posterior cricoid ring is also unfavor-
sis of the trachea is out of the scope of this able in that it is sloped upward and can
work. Suffice it to say, there are many such sometimes guide your endotracheal tube
options including minimally invasive tech- cephalad rather than down into the tra-
niques that could enable a safe and effective chea. The hallmark of this inadvertent pas-
widening of the airway to restore such a pa- sage is the brisk flow of air out of the mouth.
tient to normalcy. Following such care, the This often baffles the clinicians at the scene
fistula could be closed as described below. and can be confused for a posterior wall in-
Until such surgery is performed, it may be jury. The lost time in getting the airway se-
safest to replace a small cannula through cured can cause dire complications and
the fistula tract to secure the patients air- death. My approach in such circumstances
way. Even a tiny PTF can be dilated under is to turn my blade vertically and bivalve
local anesthesia to accommodate a small the cricoid (Fig. 8). When I teach emergency
metal or cuffless plastic cannula. airway management I include this adage:
A final cause of a PTF is the lack of coop- “anything you bivalve in the service of
eration on the part of the patient to occlude saving someone’s life can be repaired if the
the channel post decannulation with their patient is still alive.” The finest operation in
finger over the wound gauze when speaking the world to gain access to the airway that
or coughing. This is a presumed cause in is clean and well dissected but too slow to
children and head injury/CVA adults who maintain a life is of no value. There is one
are more apt to have this problem. Given goal and one goal only: to sustain life. That
their limited ability to concentrate or even which gets the clinician to that goal fast
understand the need to block the outflow of enough is the right choice.
air through the stoma after removal of the The contribution I offer to this sphere is
Fig. 6. Diagrammatic rendering of the anatomical cannula, it seems reasonable that a persis- of a technique I developed at the University
basis of tracheal erosion through the wall into the tent tract may follow. This may be an unre- of Maryland and the Maryland Shock Trauma
innominate artery. The curved shape of common lated coincidence, of course, since these pa- Center to enable emergency surgical access
tracheotomy cannulas is a common fit for most tients also tend to have their cannulas in despite the chaos of a typical resuscitation.
patients but not all. Common bleeding may indi-
cate a poor shape match for a given patient. A
place for a long period compared to other Getting access to the neck is very challeng-
brisk arterial bleed that stops spontaneously may groups treated as such. ing in someone who is at points being mask
be the so-called sentinel bleed of an innominate If the airway is not narrowed on endo- ventilated, going through repeated efforts at
A B
Fig. 7. A: Endoscopic view of a patient whose airway was nearly untenable at the time of an intraoperative consult. This initial
view demonstrated no airway at all. On passage of the endotracheal tube, the channel was splayed and the patient resusci-
tated. On dilation, no change in the caliber of the airway was noted, diagnosing the classic “A-Frame” stenosis. B: View after
the first session of laser treatment of this condition by the technique of Dr. Guri Sandu. The patient avoided the need for a
tracheal resection or tracheotomy. The patient was treated with an additional laser procedure and has had a durable benefit.
used to accomplish this. A few additional ing with pressure, pending going to the OR to itself should be bivalved to enable the pas-
pearls: (a) Do not try to place a standard tra- explore and/or revise the wound. (b) An en- sage of the ETT. (d) If the patient has any
cheotomy cannula through an emergency dotracheal tube is the perfect implement means of resisting your efforts to save their
surgical access. These cannulas are not de- and a #6.0 tube fits wherever a typical adult life, wait a little while. (e) Bleeding is a good
signed to enter a small wound or one that index finger can fit. (c) If the wound in the sign that you are not too late. ( f) In my expe-
may be undissected and may become dis- CTM or the trachea is not big enough, en- rience, no one has ever made too large a tra-
rupted. In addition, there is no room to keep large it. The CTM cannot be enlarged in some cheotomy. (g) Anything divided to secure the
your finger in the wound or to control bleed- patients. In these cases, the cricoid airway can be repaired if the patient survives.
(h) Never load your own scalpel blade. (i)
And lastly, imagine your first emergency tra-
cheotomy as often as you think you may have
encountered it to gain a kind of virtual expe-
rience. This comes in very handy when you
first lay knife to skin for the real deal.
Percutaneous Dilatational
Tracheotomy (PDT)
Possible PDT is a technique sphere that is minimally
misdirection invasive and kit based (Fig. 10). It is indi-
of tube
cated for nonemergency situations and de-
signed for bedside care in an ICU setting. It
is commonly performed with bronchoscopic
If incision too small, airway lumen visualization through the ex-
Subglottis
turn knife 90 degrees
and cut down
isting endotracheal tube. This approach has
dramatically altered bedside airway care in
Endotracheal tube
many parts of the world and is rapidly gain-
ing popularity in the USA and Asia. Regard-
less of the technique, taking a critically ill
patient to the OR for a tracheotomy not only
removes them from the location where he/
she is best cared for, but also adds additional
Fig. 8. The basics of an emergency cricothyrotomy. The first incision is commonly vertical and deep enough
risks related to the need to transport them
to allow for the palpation of the cricothyroid membrane. The second incision is of the membrane itself,
entering the airway. The vertical rotation illustrated is intended to widen the incision enough to allow for some distance away, rolling their IV pole(s)
the intubation by an endotracheal tube and not a tracheostomy cannula. The latter will not fit through this and their ventilator with them. The costs as-
small aperture and is not intended as an emergency appliance, though such devices do exist. (Modified sociated with OR tracheotomy are very high
from Weissler MC, Couch ME. Tracheotomy and intubation. In: Bailey BJ, Johnson JT, Newlands SD, eds. when OR time is taken into account along
Head and Neck Surgery—Otolaryngology, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.) with the personnel costs of the transport
Chapter 35: Tracheotomy 449
A B
C D
Fig. 9. Emergency airway surgery handhold technique. A: Side view of the neck anatomy with markings indicating the rele-
vant anatomy such as the thyroid notch, the cricoid, and the thoracic inlet. The vertical mark above the thoracic inlet is the
planned skin incision. B: Lateral view of the handhold placed on the airway to stabilize it and isolate the trachea in the context
of a resuscitation procedure. C: Oblique view identical to “B.” D: En face view of the procedure as it could be performed with
team and those in the OR for the surgery by the typical PDT technique or T-PDT, a (SL-PDT) has been introduced to the Oto-
itself. Bedside tracheotomy has the advan- bronchoscope is used to get the existing en- laryngology community (Fig. 11). This tech-
tage of being performed in the ICU obviat- dotracheal tube repositioned so that the tip nique differs from T-PDT in that a suspen-
ing all of the costs unrelated to the proce- of the tube is at or just above the likely entry sion laryngoscopy system is used to secure
dure itself. If done in the ICU by the open point of the trachea as viewed from within the airway such that there is no way for the
technique, there is the disadvantage of the lumen of the airway. This is in reality, a airway to be lost or the patient inadver-
needing to essentially bring the OR to the controlled partial extubation and will limit tently extubated because of the very nature
bedside. With head lights and OR trays, a the minute ventilation of some patients sig- of suspension laryngoscopy. The airway is
cautery device and drapes; tracheotomy nificantly. Most patients with high positive trapped by the orifice of a rigid laryngo-
can be performed in a manner similar to end expiratory pressure (PEEP) needs or scope and elevated with a device designed
that which is performed in the OR itself. Ac- high minute ventilation needs will not tol- to fulcrum the scope against the maxilla
cording to the advocates of this approach, erate this. Inadvertent complete extubation and a second surface, commonly the pa-
this is done in the event that a deep explo- can occur and may be followed by difficulty tient’s tray table. A new foreshortened (cut
ration of the neck is needed to control a in finding the airway and the potential for off at 20 cm) ETT is then passed into the
bleeder that might retract into the sur- dire consequences, even death. While com- airway through the rigid laryngoscope and
rounding tissues. plications on this scale are rare, the poten- the balloon is inflated within the scope and
Kit-based PDT techniques, by contrast, tial for this scale of adverse outcome has the upper larynx so as to seal the airway
are based on the surface incision of skin made the adoption of this otherwise safe within the ventilatory circuit. This enables
with the blunt dissection of the superficial and effective technique slow. This has been the delivery of the requisite tidal flow with
tissues to gain access to the tracheal wall. particularly the case by the one specialty the entire PEEP the patient needs. The in-
The operating clinician navigates through most commonly involved in tracheotomy, ternal view of the airway is accomplished
the procedure by seeing on a video monitor the Otolaryngologists. by a 30 cm × 5 mm rigid telescope. I prefer
the effect of the manipulation of the soft tis- Recently, a new approach to PDT known the 30 degree angled view to allow for
sues overlying the airway. When performed as suspension laryngoscopy-assisted PDT something of an oblique perspective to the
450 Part III: The Head and Neck
Fig. 10. Anatomy and instrumentation of the typical or “traditional” percutaneous dilatational trache-
Both the T-PDT and the SL-PDT tech-
otomy technique with the flexible bronchoscopic image of the inside of the airway, the guide wire enter- niques have a role to play in a comprehen-
ing the airway ahead of the dilator in the area that is transilluminated. (Modified from Weissler MC, sive multispecialty ICU airway program;
Couch ME. Tracheotomy and intubation. In: Bailey BJ, Johnson JT, Newlands SD, eds. Head and Neck T-PDT applying to roughly half of ICU pa-
Surgery—Otolaryngology, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.) tients who need an tracheotomy but have
A B
C D
(continued)
452 Part III: The Head and Neck
we needed for an open tracheostomy. Happily, I derwent what they call PDT, using a TED made by airway, whereas emergent procedures were per-
do not remember very many disasters, but they Karl Storz (Tuttlingen, Germany) and Carl Reiner formed on patients with complete airway ob-
easily could have happened. It was in fact a rite (Vienna, Austria). These were patients on long- struction and elective procedures were defined
of passage. term ventilation with orotracheal intubation to as those performed on patients with a secure
The author recognizes the challenging nature within an average of 10 days. There was a kit with airway “with an endotracheal tube or a laryn-
of this procedure and the fact that one can lose a single dilator, and continuous gas monitoring geal mask airway.” I differ with the writer. In any
the patient very quickly. There are a number of was used. Patients were sedated. Heart rate and event, after analyzing 325 patients, 20 examples
pearls offered, by which one can tell he is an ex- rhythm were monitored, as was blood pressure of urgent wide-awake tracheostomies were found
perienced tracheostomist, such as bleeding being and arterial catheterization, and oximetry was in 19 patients. The operation seems to be done in
a good sign that you are not too late, and [num- monitored using a finger probe. The introduction the same fashion as I perform it, including the
ber 6] in my experience no one has ever made too of the TED seems rather complicated and is done cricoid hook being placed into the cricoid or the
large a tracheotomy. I’m not sure whether I agree at right angles. However, the outcome showing first tracheal ring. Since the patient was preoxy-
with the latter one, but I think he’s got the idea. that when one does the percutaneous dilatational genated, oxygen was delivered during the proce-
But the point is to get the patient stabilized and tracheostomy, the incision in the trachea and not dure through a bag mask or nasal cannula or a
to get an airway that cannot be dislodged. out through the back wall seems like a good idea. face mask, it would seem that this is a reasonable
The standard tracheostomy should be carried I have no idea how much this instrument costs, definition of an urgent tracheostomy, since the
out whenever possible in the operating room. and it looks like it is very finely machined, as one patient’s airway is not intubated. Quite honestly,
This is a difficult operation, and there is no point would expect. It is not clear exactly how these pa- I am not entirely certain what the purpose of
in letting the junior person do it except under tients were selected, but the complications with that review, other than that urgent tracheostomy
excellent assistance and supervision. It is best to TEDs were tracheal ring fractures. It remains to could be done safely, but I think we already know
have an anesthesiologist or an anesthetist at the be seen, when this kit is introduced into general that.
head of the table. There needs to be a adequate usage, whether individuals find it helpful or not. Finally, Fikkers BG, et al., from the Depart-
monitoring equipment such as a Pco2 monitor in Kilic D (Ann Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg ment of Intensive Care Medicine in Radboud
order to tell whether you’re in the right place, as 2011;17:29–32) carried out a nonrandomized University Nijmegen Medical Center in Holland,
well as the ability to make certain that all sizes of study with 121 patients, performing surgical reviewed early and late outcomes of single-step
endotracheal tubes are available. Unfortunately, tracheostomy, in other words a standard tra- dilatational tracheostomy (SSDT) versus the
in some situations, such as the patient who has cheostomy, with a U-shaped flap and carried out guidewire dilating forceps (GWDF) technique,
swallowed a foreign body, and of course with the in the operating room between March 2003 and which was a randomized prospective trial in a
patient with no neck or thyroid hyperplasia, it December 2006. In this technique, instead of re- true fashion, such that that 120 patients with 60
gets kind of sticky. moving the tracheal ring, it was used to create a patients in each group were properly randomized
However, it does appear as if the percutane- flap, and the tracheal flap was hung with a suture to two techniques of percutaneous tracheos-
ous tracheostomy is the order of the day, and so from the middle of the second or third cartilage tomy, one the GWDF technique and the second
much of the reading material that one comes rings. At the same time, 85 patients underwent the SSDT technique. Patients were followed up
across in this area is to try and make percuta- the Griggs dilatation technique, which was per- 3 months after decannulation. The complica-
neous tracheostomy, which is challenging in its formed in the intensive care unit. Complication tions in both groups were monitored, yet they
own right, more accurate. Rajajee et al. (Critical rates were similar such that the tracheostomy at were high (58.3% in the GWDF group and 61.7%
Care 2011;15:R67, published online) employed 4.1% had bleeding in two patients, late stenosis in the SSDT group). Nonetheless, they found a
real-time ultrasound-guided percutaneous dila- in two patients, and stomal infection in 1 patient trend toward major perioperative complications
tational tracheostomy as a feasibility study and and percutaneous tracheostomy at 3.6% includ- in GWDF (10% vs. 1.7%). A significant tracheal
found in 13 patients [on the neurosurgical ser- ing bleeding in two patients and pneumothorax stenosis appeared in the SSDT group, but the
vice] that ultrasound actually helped guide the in one patient. The mean operating time was 12 study could not blame the technique since pro-
percutaneous tracheostomy. These were selected minutes for surgical tracheostomy and 8 minutes longed translaryngeal intubation had been car-
patients including three who were morbidly for percutaneous tracheostomy. It is difficult to ried out. Apparently, on follow-up, only 37.5% of
obese, two in cervical spine precautions, one understand how the “staff utilization cost” seems the patients in the GWDF group and 31.8% in the
with a previous tracheostomy. In all 13 patients, like the major advantage of percutaneous tra- SSDT group had no complaints after their percu-
bronchoscopy confirming the guidewire entry cheostomy. Regardless of whether or not there are taneous tracheostomies. The authors concluded
was through the anterior wall and between the similar complication rates, surgical tracheostomy that the SSDT technique appears to have fewer
first and fifth rings, avoiding pneumothorax, tube is necessary and, the authors say, most favorable complaints in the way of major complications
misplacement, posterior-wall injury, significant for select patients with thyroid hyperplasia, short and a comparable long-term outcome.
bleeding or other complication occurred during neck, tracheaomalacia, and obesity neck opera- I am not sure how exactly I view all of these
the procedure. The authors state that percuta- tion history and for pediatric patients. I agree. I different techniques. Clearly, these are patients
neous tracheostomy performed under real-time am not certain that this can be a randomized pro- who are in difficulty and require tracheostomy
ultrasound guidance is not only feasible but also spective trial, because, if you had somebody with assistance. There are a variety of techniques for
appears accurate and safe, and they are contem- a body mass index of 40, it is highly unlikely that carrying this out, which is not surprising, but 5 to
plating a randomized prospective trial. To me you’re going to do a percutaneous tracheostomy. 10 years after the introduction of this technique,
this sounds like a reasonable plan, as one can It is difficult to know how one can actually I suspect, that it would be somewhat uncomfort-
generally use all the help one can get. process urgent tracheostomies. Bobek S, et al. able to have these many techniques up in the air.
An additional aid that might come in handy (J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2011;69:2198–2203, pub- One can only hope that, by the time of the appear-
was described in Laryngoscope (2011;121:1490– lished online) reviewed 327 separate procedures ance of the next edition, the intensive care com-
1494, published online). Nowack A and Klemm E in 325 patients and attempted to distinguish ur- munity thoracic surgeons and general surgeons
described this in the section on how to do it, by gent tracheostomies from elective and emergent as well as intensivists may have come to some
introducing a percutaneous dilatational tracheo- tracheostomies by reading operative reports. I conclusions concerning what the proper tech-
stomy using a tracheotomy endoscope. This is a agree that one can differentiate urgent tracheo- nique for percutaneous tracheostomy is.
discussion of 24 intensive care patients who un- stomies, in which there is an intact unprotected J.E.F.
Endocrine Surgery IV
Introduction to the Parathyroid
000 Chapter Title Section
Josef E. Fischer, MD Author Name
The world of surgery for hyperparathyroid- There are some complicating issues here. neck exploration in which all four parathy-
ism is in transition, and it is not difficult to First, there are the 20% to 22% of patients roids are identified under general endotra-
understand why this is the case. Hyperpara- present with disease that is not the result of cheal anesthesia to something less, either
thyroidism is a protean disease with symp- a single, large hyperfunctioning adenoma, unilateral and/or unilateral or even ambu-
toms that are sometimes difficult to deci- whereas 10% to 12% of patients present latory operation. However, even with the
pher. It is not a rare disease—incidence with the disease are the result of hyperpla- accuracy of Sestamibi scan and ultrasound,
ranges between 1 to 1,000 of the population sia, usually of all four parathyroid glands, the outcome from local directed, unilateral
to 1 to 2,500 of population—and it is also a and the rest are mixed between multiple ad- exploration is between 80% and 90%, as
disease of the elderly that disturbs homeo- enomas and an occasional carcinoma. This compared with the 99% to 100% that bilat-
stasis to the extent that it interferes with does not include those that have multiple eral exploration yields.
quality of life. Furthermore, because the endocrine neoplasia syndromes, which We are very pleased to have Dr. George
number of elderly is increasing, and any op- complicates matters even more. In addition, Irvin, who is essentially the creator and
eration that requires general anesthesia in as a number of authors reviewed in the fol- popularizer of intraoperative measurement
the elderly is fraught with hazard, not only lowing chapters agree, the size of the gland of parathyroid hormone, to put forth his
for the operation itself but in their ultimate does not always equal hyperfunction, and point of view. Dr. Irvin’s argument is very
recovery of their mental faculties, one can microadenoma has been clearly identified. simple: that even with Sestamibi and ultra-
easily understand the great interest in oper- With the number of increasing elderly, sound in the presence of a single adenoma,
ations that can be carried out quickly, effi- including those that are hypercalcemic, I the outcomes do not come close to the out-
ciently, and without full-dress exploration of have had enough experience and have heard comes of bilateral exploration. He proposes
all four parathyroid glands, which remains other stories about the elderly with hyper- that a >50% drop from one of the baseline
the gold standard, with the highest cure rate calcemia to know that I disagree with the values of the quick parathyroid hormone
of 99% to 100%, provided it is carried out in NIH Consensus Conference of 2002. The assay, while increasing the range of success
the hands of an experienced parathyroid symptoms of hyperparathyroidism are so to the range of 93% to 94%, does not ap-
surgeon. Two of the large-series experienced protean and so nonspecific that it is not un- proach the gold standard of bilateral neck
parathyroid surgeons quoted in this section til the hypercalcemia is relieved that one exploration, despite the fact that for a par-
are Dr. Jonathan van Heerden, and his group knows that it was really interfering with ticular elderly patient this may be the way
at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, and Dr. Orlo their mentation, making them feel poorly, to go. Thus, one has a choice, and the choice
Clark of the University of California in San and resulting in some deleterious cardiac is that of whether to do, for example, a local
Francisco. Both agree that in the hands of symptomatology and hypertension. Thus, anesthetic or cervical block exploration on
an experienced parathyroid surgeon with at least, I believe that unless a good argu- an elderly patient with Sestamibi and ultra-
adequate workup and a diagnostic array, ment as to why the patient should not be sound pointing to the same area, thereby
which is not terribly complicated and agreed operated on can be provided, these patients achieving some degree of success in a pa-
on by most, that the positive outcome of re- deserve operation. That takes us to the ap- tient who might not tolerate a general anes-
lief of hypercalcemia and hyperparathyroid- parent revolution in parathyroid surgery. If thetic as well. It is a good argument, and I
ism should be in the range of 99% to 100%. one can do a focused exploration under cer- am certain the argument will continue. We
Much of this is made possible by newer im- vical block, local anesthesia, or local anes- are very pleased to have the number of ex-
aging techniques, including the Sestamibi thesia with mild sedation, one can convert perts in this field writing these chapters as
scan and real-time ultrasound. the standard operation from a bilateral the debate is very cogent and very timely.
Success in the surgical management of a ever, if the preoperative process is correctly or pathologists is different from surgical
patient can be conveniently divided into conceived, at least in an elective procedure, anatomy. Because surgeons operate through
three phases: preoperative, intraoperative, a perfectly executed operation guarantees a limited incisions and must preserve func-
and postoperative. Vitally important is the smooth postoperative course in a high per- tion wherever possible, as well as control or
preoperative decision making and plan- centage of patients. The foundation for this prevent bleeding, the “anatomist’s anat-
ning; an expertly performed operation for a operative success is a thorough knowledge omy” must be applied from the surgeon’s
wrong reason is still a bad operation. How- of surgical anatomy. Anatomy to anatomists perspective. An attempt has been made to
454
Chapter 36: Surgical Anatomy of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands 455
THYROID
EMBRYOLOGY
Fig. 1. A: A thyroglossal duct cyst is excised from its usual location just above the thyroid cartilage, in
From a median entodermal diverticulum the midline, overlying or just inferior to the hyoid bone. The central portion of the hyoid bone is excised
on the ventral wall of the pharyngeal gut, in with the specimen, as is a core of muscle tissue encompassing duct tracts that lead to the former fora-
approximately the fourth week of embryo- men cecum at the base of the posterior tongue. B: Lateral view showing the surgeon’s finger through the
logic development, the thyroid descends patient’s mouth positioned to assist excision of the tract at its origin.
from the posterior tongue ( foramen cecum)
in front of the pharynx as a bilobed diver-
ticulum. It initially remains attached to the
pharynx by a hollow tube, the thyroglossal Ectopic normal thyroid tissue or papillary relatively avascular plane. In this plane, the
duct, which attaches to the foramen cecum. thyroid carcinoma can develop in a thyroglos- superior and inferior flaps can be raised
At the end of the second month, the thyroid sal duct cyst or anywhere along the tract of with minimal blood loss. Once the flaps have
reaches its final position in front of the tra- the thyroglossal duct. Lingual thyroid repre- been developed, the strap muscles—the
chea; and the thyroglossal duct tissue, sents a total failure of thyroid descent, in sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles—are
which has become solid, usually breaks up which the entire thyroid is located at the fora- exposed. The more anterior sternohyoid
and disappears. Distal persistence of the men cecum of the tongue, under the mucosa. muscles lie close together, but the midline
solid duct is represented by the pyramidal Contributing perhaps less than 1% of the between them can be identified as a thin
lobe of the thyroid. If parts of the ductal eventual thyroid mass, yet critically impor- line of fat and avascular fascia. Dissection
epithelium persist, the secretion of the epi- tant in considering thyroid malignancy, are along this line to separate these muscles is
thelium expands the remnant tube, which the lateral thyroid anlagen. Originating facilitated by lifting the muscles anteriorly
is closed at both ends, into a cystic mass from the fourth pharyngeal pouches, corre- so as to avoid the inferior thyroid veins,
filled with colloid-like material—a thyro- sponding to the ultimobranchial bodies, which course just below, running longitudi-
glossal duct cyst. It rarely has a connection they are responsible for production of calci- nally over the trachea. Often bordering the
either to the skin or the tongue unless it has tonin from the parafollicular or C cells. They midline along these muscles are the ante-
been infected and drained or previously fuse with the posterior and medial aspect of rior jugular veins. These veins can be avoided
operated on. Cysts can develop anywhere each thyroid lobe. Medullary thyroid carci- but can be ligated as the need arises.
along the course of the thyroglossal duct nomas evolve from these small parts of the As the sternohyoid muscle is elevated,
but are most typically found overlying the thyroid. the underlying sternothyroid muscles are
hyoid bone in the midline just above the exposed. The fascia between these two
thyroid cartilage. Adjacent to the primary muscles can be dissected for improved
persistent thyroglossal duct remnants, ANATOMY exposure. With the sternohyoid muscles
other smaller duct and mucus-secreting An overall view of the anatomy relevant to retracted, as the sternothyroid muscle is
gland remnants are often found. thyroid and parathyroid operations is dissected from the underlying thyroid lobes,
To prevent cyst recurrence, the duct and care is taken to avoid the widely intercon-
Endocrine Surgery
VASCULAR ANATOMY
The principal arterial blood supply of the
thyroid gland comes from the paired supe-
rior and inferior thyroid arteries, and, to a
much lesser degree, the thyroidea ima
(Fig. 2). Even when all these arteries are
ligated, remnants of thyroid often survive
from other small branches derived from Fig. 2. Overall anatomic relationships of the thyroid and surrounding structures. Note the course of the
laryngeal and tracheoesophageal arteries. inferior thyroid artery, behind and perpendicular to the carotid artery. The superior thyroid artery and
The superior thyroid artery is the first external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve run in close approximation.
the subclavian artery and passes behind Fig. 3. With traction laterally on the strap muscles that have been separated in the midline, but not
the carotid artery to ascend in the trache- transected, and countertraction on the thyroid medially, the middle thyroid vein is exposed. It runs an-
oesophageal groove (Fig. 4). On the left, terior to the carotid artery and should be transected. (From Grant CS, van Heerden JA. Technical aspects
the recurrent laryngeal nerve crosses the of thyroidectomy. In: Donohue JH, van Heerden JA, Monson JRT, eds. Atlas of surgical oncology (pp. 81–6).
arch of the aorta, loops under it, adjacent Cambridge: Blackwell Science, 1995, with permission.)
Chapter 36: Surgical Anatomy of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands 457
Fig. 5. The right thyroid lobe is retracted anteriorly and medially, and the recurrent
laryngeal nerve is exposed, coursing obliquely in the tracheoesophageal groove and
surrounded by lymph nodes. The thymus lies anterior to the nerve and nodes and can
contain or point to the inferior parathyroid gland. The superior parathyroid gland is not
yet adequately exposed. The intersection of the inferior thyroid artery and the recur-
rent (rec.) laryngeal nerve is marked by branches of the artery, one crossing the nerve
that serves the inferior parathyroid gland. (From Grant CS, van Heerden JA. Technical
aspects of thyroidectomy. In: Donohue JH, van Heerden JA, Monson JRT, eds. Atlas of
surgical oncology. Cambridge: Blackwell Science, 1995, with permission.)
PARATHYROID
EMBRYOLOGY
The parathyroid glands develop from Bran-
chial Pouches III and IV. The superior para-
thyroid glands develop from Pouch IV, travel
a shorter distance than the inferior glands,
and are typically located along the posterior
border of the thyroid gland at approxi-
Fig. 10. Isolation and resection of omohyoid muscle.
mately 1 cm superior to the entrance of the
SURGICAL ANATOMY
Virtually everyone has at least four parathy-
roid glands, but at least 13% of the popula-
tion has supernumerary glands. However,
only one-half of these supernumerary glands
are proper glands; the others are tiny, rudi-
mentary bits of parathyroid tissue, usually
located near another normal gland. Supernu-
merary glands become important surgically
in four situations: (a) hyperparathyroidism
caused by multiple endocrine neoplasia, es-
pecially Type 1, and familial hyperparathy-
roidism, when all glands are abnormal;
(b) secondary hyperparathyroidism, most
typically that results from chronic renal fail-
ure, in which all glands are stimulated to
enlarge and hyperfunction; (c) sporadic
cases in which the four usual glands are nor-
mal and only the supernumerary gland is
abnormally enlarged and responsible for hy-
perfunction; and (d) cases in which the su-
pernumerary gland is enlarged in addition
to another normal gland, which represents
a double-adenoma situation.
Fig. 12. Exposure of anterior scalene muscle and phrenic nerve. CCA, common carotid artery; IJV, inter-
nal jugular vein.
Dissection of Parathyroid Glands
There are three important goals in parathy-
developing heart, these aberrant parathy- located on the surface of the thyroid gland, roid surgery: (a) recognition of normal para-
roid glands can be located adjacent to the under the capsule but in clefts of the thy- thyroid glands as well as removal of the ab-
origin of the great vessels from the aorta. roid parenchyma. This location can seem normal glands; (b) safe searches in predictable
In very rare instances, the parathyroid intrathyroidal, particularly during reopera- locations for missing parathyroid glands; and
glands can be found to be completely in- tive parathyroid surgery, when the thyroid (c) the preservation of parathyroid glands
trathyroidal. More commonly, they can be capsule is thickened with scar. during thyroidectomy or the removal of other
abnormal parathyroid glands.
The dissection of parathyroid glands
proceeds similarly to the mobilization of a
thyroid lobe, as described previously. In
contrast, when hyperparathyroidism is the
indication for operation, the arterial supply
of the thyroid is usually preserved. Once the
thyroid gland has been elevated (Fig. 4), the
inferior parathyroid gland is usually sought
first. It usually resides either on the poster-
olateral surface of the lower pole of the thy-
roid gland or at the tip of the cervical
thymus or thyrothymic ligament. In fact,
this ligament can be used to point to the
gland or conceal it within its variably atro-
phic and fat-replaced thymic substance.
Endocrine Surgery
Fig. 14. Cervical plexus (CP) and spinal accessory nerve dissection (extending to Level II). IJV, internal jugular vein.
entire parenchymal surface bleeds from firmer, not soft and pliable like normal found in the usual locations, it has almost
pinpoint capillaries (in contrast to fat with parathyroid glands. The thymus can usually universally migrated along an anterior path,
its single bleeding vessel). Thyroid nodules be distinguished by its pale, off-white color. following the course of or located within
and normal or diseased lymph nodes are If an inferior parathyroid adenoma is not the cervical or mediastinal thymus. The se-
quence of searching for inferior glands not
in the usual locations proceeds as follows:
(a) the cervical and mediastinal thymus are
drawn into the wound and searched or ex-
cised for pathologic review; (b) dissection is
carried anterior to the carotid artery at
least to its bifurcation to search for an un-
descended parathymus, as described previ-
ously; (c) the carotid sheath is opened, par-
ticularly if the cervical thymus is seen to
deviate toward it; and (d) the lower pole of
the thyroid is excised to exclude an in-
trathyroidal location.
The superior parathyroid glands are in a
more constant location but are somewhat
more difficult to expose than the inferior
glands. They are usually found within a
globule of fat located along the posterior
border of the thyroid gland, 1 to 2 cm supe-
rior to where the inferior thyroid artery en-
ters the thyroid gland (Fig. 6). Gentle dis-
section to strip thin fascial layers overlying
the gland causes it to pop out directly, or
the surrounding fat can be manipulated to
expose the parathyroid gland. Initially, to
Fig. 15. Owing to their embryologic origins, the parathyroid glands, particularly when enlarged, fol- identify probable locations for this gland,
low different, but often predictable, courses. The superior glands descend posteriorly in the contiguous gentle prodding with an instrument causes
tracheoesophageal groove or retroesophageal space, or into the posterior superior mediastinum. The the fat and contained parathyroid gland to
inferior glands are less predictable but are usually found anteriorly in association with the thymus gland, float within the fascial envelope. They often
either in the neck or in the anterior superior mediastinum. directly overlie the recurrent laryngeal
Chapter 36: Surgical Anatomy of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands 463
Minimal-Access Parathyroidectomy
Application of minimal-access techniques
that have swept across all disciplines of sur-
gery have been applied to parathyroidec-
tomy and, to a lesser degree, thyroidectomy.
Two distinct methodologies have emerged:
Endocrine Surgery
B
Fig. 16. A: The single “hot spot” is located at the inferior pole of the right lobe of the thyroid and moves
First, an open technique, which uses local
with it in oblique views, indicating a right inferior parathyroid adenoma. B: The “hot spot” is located at anesthesia and a small incision and is di-
the inferior pole of the right lobe of the thyroid, but moves into the midline in the left oblique view, indi- rected by preoperative imaging and some-
cating a right superior parathyroid adenoma (RS, left oblique view). times by intraoperative rapid parathyroid
hormone determination, and second, mi-
croendoscopic techniques. The feasibility of
both techniques has been solidly established
in the hands of experts, and the ultimate use
of either or both awaits the assessment of
the safety, cost-effectiveness, and, perhaps
most important, the demands of patients.
464 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Although perhaps only two-thirds of pa- location of a tumor (or paraganglioma) is at The left adrenal gland lies on the dia-
tients with hyperparathyroidism are actu- the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery phragm and is covered on its anterior surface
ally suitable for a limited exploration using on either side of the aorta, near the Zucker- by peritoneum superiorly and on its lower
present localization modalities, the surgeon kandl organ. Accessory adrenal tissue can be portion by the nonperitoneally covered pan-
must understand not only the anatomy of found occasionally in the connective tissue creas. The adrenal vein exists near the lower
the parathyroid glands, but also the critical adjacent to the main gland but can also oc- border of the gland, often to join with the
importance of his or her ability to interpret cur near a gonad, either ovary or testis. inferior phrenic vein to empty into the renal
localization studies accurately. vein.
ADRENAL GLANDS
EMBRYOLOGY
The adrenal glands can be separated into
two distinct areas, both histologically and
physiologically: the cortex and the medulla.
The cortex develops from mesodermic celo-
mic epithelium of the posterior abdominal
wall, at the cranial end of the mesonephros.
The medulla develops from the neural crest
in conjunction with the sympathetic ganglia.
This group of neural cells migrates along the
adrenal vein to invade the cortex and be-
comes the completed adrenal gland. Other
small masses of these cells, which stain
brown with chromic acid (thus the name Fig. 17. Overall anatomic relationships of the adrenal glands. Note the origins of the three main arteries:
chromaffin or pheochrome cells), can persist the inferior phrenic, aortic, and renal branches. Note also the single draining veins (except a small acces-
throughout the life along the sympathetic sory right adrenal vein): the right, located superior and medial; and the left, found inferior and medial.
chain as paraganglia. The most common Ao, aorta; Ce, celiac; IVC, inferior vena cava; LAd, left adrenal gland; RAd, right adrenal gland.
Chapter 36: Surgical Anatomy of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands 465
Laparoscopic (Transperitoneal)
The laparoscopic approach has rapidly
been adopted as the procedure of choice
for removing all benign tumors, both func-
tioning and nonfunctioning, with the up-
per size limit varying from 6 to 10 cm. Obvi-
Endocrine Surgery
Left Adrenalectomy
Often, only three trocars are necessary for
left adrenalectomy, because once the
spleen is mobilized, it usually does not re-
quire ongoing retraction. Trocar place-
ment is planned in mirror image to the
right side described previously. Before the
third trocar is placed, the splenic flexure
Fig. 20. A: Along the inferomedial aspect of the adrenal tumor, the adrenal vein is identified, somewhat
shorter than usual in the situation depicted. Care must be taken not to injure renal arterial branches
may need mobilization, sometimes exten-
coursing close by the vein as it is transected. B: The adrenal branches from the inferior phrenic and sively, to facilitate not only the placement
aorta can be seen in their typical locations. (From Grant CS, van Heerden JA. Technical aspects of thyroi- of the trocar, but also the “dropping” of
dectomy. In: Donohue JH, van Heerden JA, Monson JRT, eds. Atlas of surgical oncology. Cambridge: Black- the transverse colon to gain exposure to
well Science, 1995, with permission.) the left adrenal vein later. The camera is
usually placed in the lateral cannula (or
3rd cannula if 4 are used—the most lat-
eral to aid in retracting the kidney to ex-
directly anterior with the patient positioned divided to allow retraction of the liver, both pose the medial aspect where the adrenal
supine; retroperitoneal with the patient medially and anteriorly, off the retroperito- vein drains into the left renal vein), but
prone; and, most commonly, transperito- neum. The retroperitoneal attachments to placement can be switched to another
neal with the patient positioned laterally, the liver should be lysed, exposing the infe- trocar as needed for optimal visualiza-
with the side to be operated on elevated. rior vena cava (IVC). The camera is usually tion. A blunt instrument is used to tip the
“Breaking” the operating room table to best placed in the second cannula, and the spleen away from its retroperitoneal
distract and enlarge the distance from the two lateral cannulae are used for dissection attachments; these then are incised rela-
costal margin to the iliac crest allows maxi- and retraction by the surgeon. As the tively close to the spleen coursing superi-
mal space for placement of the trocars. retroperitoneal covering is incised adjacent orly, curving around the superior margin,
Moreover, the most lateral trocar should be to the IVC, lateral retraction is placed on and looking for and protecting the stom-
placed so as to avoid restriction of its infe- the adrenal gland to distract it from the ach as the dissection proceeds medially.
rior rotation by the iliac crest. The anatomic IVC. Although the space between the gland The characteristic “fuzzy” areolar tissue
considerations for a laparoscopic approach and the IVC is limited, the camera magnifi- posterolateral to the spleen that extends
are not substantially different from the cation allows precise cautery dissection of to the pancreas can be opened widely, ex-
open operations, but some deserve special the small vessels proceeding from the infe- posing a variable thickness of fat and the
emphasis. rior border of the gland superiorly. We have adrenal gland. Locating the adrenal gland
not required direct retraction of the IVC. may be the most difficult portion of the
Right Adrenalectomy The incision in the retroperitoneal covering procedure. During an operation for Cush-
is curved laterally above the superior bor- ing adrenal hyperplasia, with consider-
Although the right side is potentially more der of the adrenal gland, which allows fur- able overall obesity but particularly
dangerous of the two sides due to the short ther mobilization. Care must be taken to generous amounts of fat in the retro-
adrenal vein, the exposure is more direct avoid unintentional trauma to the adrenal peritoneum, the marginally enlarged ad-
and often easier than the left side. Four tro- vein or the moderate-sized inferior phrenic renal gland sometimes is engulfed by the
car sites are used, starting a few centime- artery, which can be transected at this fat. Along the medial border of the gland,
ters inferior to the right costal margin, stage. Gentle dissection of the adrenal vein, as noted in the open procedure, the infe-
somewhat medial to the midclavicular line, ensuring circumferential clearance, per- rior phrenic vein may prove to be a valu-
and coursing laterally. As much space as mits safe and precise control with endo- able landmark. We often initially dissect
possible should be allowed between trocar scopic clips. the medial, superior, and lateral borders
sites to prevent the camera and instru- As the dissection is carried around before visualizing and transecting the left
ments inserted through the cannulae from the inferior border of the gland, a thicker adrenal vein, which is longer and gener-
interfering with each other. The most me- layer of fat is commonly encountered, and ally more slender than its right-sided
dial cannula is used for retracting the liver, special attention must be taken, as in the counterpart, and, when dissected, is
and the right triangular ligament should be open operation, to clip and transect the easily clipped.
Chapter 36: Surgical Anatomy of the Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Glands 467
EDITOR’S COMMENT patients 39/58 (68%) served as a control. The one patient underwent only parathyroidectomy
preoperative PAS score in the hyperparathyroid with limited resection of the thyroid gland. The
group was originally 318 and decreased to 177 at en bloc resection with the parathyroid tumor
This is a wonderful chapter written by a very one year and 189 at 10 years (P < 0.05). Thyroi- was limited to ipsilateral thyroid lobectomy in
experienced surgeon and with a number of very dectomy patients’ preoperative scores were 170, the selected 10 patients. Prophylactic neck dis-
excellent “pearls.” The most important message 190 after one year, and 174 at 10 years. Despite section was performed in eight patients without
concerning thyroid cancer is that this is a real the highly elevated PAS scores in the previously recovering a single metastatic gland. Despite
cancer and that many of the practices that have hyperparathyroid group, there was no difference this, the patients had recurrent disease in the
unfortunately become ingrained in our treat- between the groups (previously hyperparathyroid neck not only in the lymph nodes but also in
ment of this disease are just plain wrong. For vs. thyroidectomy group at one and 10 years). One lung—for one patient in lung and for the other
example, in cancers of the upper lobes—the presumes that the lower PAS scores were reflec- in brain. Of the other three who did not undergo
author states that cancers of the upper lobe, in tive of the patients’ quality of life. This is an im- a lymph node dissection, one had local recur-
addition to the primary drainage into the su- portant paper as there is still slight controversy rence in a regional lymph node. After analyzing
praisthmic neck nodes, can also involve both as to whether the elderly who are hyperparathy- the genetic mutations, the authors suggest that the
anterior and lateral nodes in respect of the roid should be operated on. the HRPT2 mutation may be associated with tu-
jugular vein and extend superiorly along the Another controversy in differentiated or pap- mor recurrence.
veins to the base of the skull. Also despite what illary thyroid cancer is whether a central neck Open adrenalectomy has been the mainstay
various compartments are resected in respect to dissection should be carried out. Shen et al. (Sur- of resection of the adrenals for adrenal cortical
the node dissections are en bloc, and the “berry gery 2010, published online) separated patient carcinoma pheochromocytomas and adrenal
picking” is totally inappropriate. Again this is a undergoing thyroidectomy as to the surgeon metastases. As experience has increased with
real cancer. thought both as a result of preoperative ultra- laparoscopic adrenalectomy, there is of course a
The lower parathyroids as the author states sound and intraoperative inspection and palpa- desire on the part of both patients and surgeons
may very well be in the horns of the upper thy- tion that a central lymph node dissection should to minimize trauma to the patient and have a
mus which can be retrieved through the neck be carried out (Group 1) or that the evidence did quicker postoperative course. Mazzaglia and
with persistence. Another salient point is that not suggest concomitant central lymph node dis- Vezeridis ( J Surg Oncol 2010;101:739–44) have ex-
there may be supernumerary glands in as many section. There were 191 patients in each group. In amined the role of laparoscopy in adrenal resec-
as 13% of patients and these may be troublesome Group I 49 patients had recurrence in the local tion, particularly in incidentalomas which may
and may be the source of the adenoma when all or regional area (12% central neck and 21% lat- be malignant. In the absence of any other clues,
four glands are normal. eral neck) as opposed to only 11 out of 191 (6%) management is directly related to size of lesion,
One very excellent differential and a “pearl” is in group II (3% central neck and 3% lateral neck, with 25% of the tumors greater than 6 cm being
that when one does the biopsy of a parathyroid, P < 0.05). Finally, 84% of the patients in Group 1 adrenocortical carcinomas. They recommend ob-
“the entire surface bleeds” and not a single vessel, were free of disease at last survey compared with servation for the patients with lesions less than
as fat does. The discussion of the sestamibi scan 94% of the patients in group 2 (P < 0.05). Tran- 4 cm. For the patients with lesions between 4 and
and where the various hot spots may be should sient hypocalcemia significantly followed central 6 cm, observation between 6 and 12 months is be
especially noted as helpful, especially as a hot lymph node dissection. There was no difference in recommended, and at that time CT scan should
spot which is superior to the superior pole of the disease-specific mortality. The authors concluded be repeated.
thyroid gland is almost certainly an inferior gland that surgeon assessment of the central neck com- Laparoscopy is inappropriate for the lesions
in the “undescended parathymus.” partment with ultrasound and palpation is an in which adrenocortical carcinoma is suspected,
While many of us speak of the symptoma- accurate predictor of which patients with papil- as the cortex may be fragile and split, and in that
tology of undiagnosed hyperparathyroidism lary thyroid cancer will benefit from central neck case, cancer cells may be implanted in the area.
especially in the elderly as being a reason why node dissection and the rest do not need central Open adrenalectomy has been shown to increase
these patients should be operated on, the symp- node dissection. survival in patients with metastatic melanoma
toms of hyperparathyroidism are often vague, so Parathyroid cancer is rare and yet there is and lung cancer from three- to fourfold from an
vague that they had been grouped under “para- some controversy here as to whether en bloc average of 6 to 8 months and not operated pa-
Endocrine Surgery
thyroid assessment of symptoms” or PAS scores resection of thyroid gland with the parathyroid tient’s to 20 to 30 months. Port site recurrence
for hyperparathyroidism. Supposedly, parathy- cancer is appropriate. In addition, somatic and is rare, at least according to some authors (Kim
roidectomy decreases these PAS scores. Pasieka germ line mutations of HRPT2 and MEN 1 were et al. Cancer 1998;82:389–94; Haigh et al., Ann
et al. (Surgery 2009;146:1006–13) studied 122 hy- examined by polymerase chain reaction and au- Surg Oncol 1999;6:633–9; Luketich and Burt Ann
perparathyroid patients, of which 78 (64%) were tomated DNA sequencing. En bloc resections of Thorac Surg 1996;62:1614–6).
available for review 10 years later. Thyroidectomy thyroid tissue were performed in 10 patients and J.E.F.
468 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
ness. Recent data suggest that even moder- Fig. 1. FNA biopsy diagram with neck extended, nondominant hand on nodule, and needle in dominant
ately enlarged thyroid gland/nodules can hand.
Chapter 37: Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy of the Thyroid: Thyroid Lobectomy and Subtotal and Total Thyroidectomy 469
supine position with a pillow or towel roll 2. suspicious/indeterminate:follicularneo- follicular cancers. We generally perform a
placed behind the shoulder to extend the plasm, Hurthle cell neoplasm, suspicious diagnostic thyroid lobectomy in patients
neck and to bring the thyroid closer to the but not diagnostic of papillary thyroid without frozen section. We and others have
surface of the skin (Fig. 1). At our institu- cancer; demonstrated that intraoperative frozen
tion, the patient often has EMLA cream ap- 3. malignant: papillary thyroid cancer, med- section is misleading and does not provide
plied to the skin 20 to 30 minutes prior to ullary thyroid cancer, anaplastic thyroid any additional information >90% of the
the procedure. The skin is then prepped cancer, lymphoma, metastases; and time. Thus, we wait for permanent histology
with alcohol, and 1% lidocaine without epi- 4. inadequate/nondiagnostic. and if positive for cancer perform a comple-
nephrine can be injected into the skin for tion thyroidectomy usually within 5 days or
FNAs in the latter category should be
additional local anesthesia. The thyroid after 2 to 3 months from the original thy-
repeated as up to 80% may be diagnostic on
mass is localized with ultrasound and im- roid lobectomy. For patients with a follicular
the repeat attempt.
mobilized between the fingertips of the neoplasm, we would consider an initial total
nondominant hand. Using the dominant thyroidectomy for the following: contralat-
hand, a 23- or 25-gauge 1.5-in. needle with TREATMENT AND eral nodular disease or Hashimoto’s thy-
an attached 10-mL syringe is advanced into INDICATIONS roiditis, the patient is already taking thyroid
the lesion, with the clinician noting the hormone, or patient preference.
consistency of the nodule upon entering. Malignant FNA Hurthle cell neoplasm. Approximately
We prefer the nonsuction technique be- 70% of Hurthle cell neoplasms or lesions are
cause it results in less trauma and bleeding. Papillary thyroid cancer. For lesions <1 cm, adenoma while 30% are cancer. Similar to
If utilizing the suction technique, the sy- either thyroid lobectomy or total thyro- follicular neoplasms, the presence of capsu-
ringe is pulled back with the thumb once idectomy is acceptable. For lesions 1 cm lar and/or vascular invasion on permanent
the lesion has been entered. A syringe- or greater, total thyroidectomy is recom- histology distinguishes Hurthle cell ade-
holder aspiration device can facilitate this mended. If abnormal lymph nodes are seen nomas from cancers. Likewise, we generally
technique. Once the needle enters the le- intraoperatively or by ultrasound, level 6 cen- perform a diagnostic thyroid lobectomy in
sion, it is rapidly moved back and forth tral lymph node dissection is indicated. In patients without frozen section. If the per-
along a single track for each aspiration until patients with enlarged lateral lymph nodes, manent histology is positive for cancer, we
material is seen with the hub of the needle. FNA should be performed on the lymph node perform a completion thyroidectomy. Many
Suction (if utilized) is released before re- and if positive a compartmentalized lymph studies have shown that the rate of malig-
moval of the needle from the nodule. Firm node dissection often involving levels 2, 3, nancy for Hurthle cell neoplasms is directly
pressure is applied to the puncture site. and 4 lymph nodes should be done. related to the size of the lesion. While can-
Three to six passes are often required to Medullary thyroid cancer. Total thyroi- cer is very uncommon with Hurthle cell
obtain an adequate sample. If a cyst is en- dectomy with bilateral central (level 6) neoplasms less than 2 cm in size, the rate of
countered, the fluid is completely aspirated lymph node dissection is the minimal oper- cancer exceeds 50% in lesions of a greater
and sent for cytologic examination. The re- ation. For patients with abnormal lateral size than 4 cm. Thus, we typically recom-
gion of the cyst is then evaluated by ultra- lymph nodes by ultrasound or computed to- mend a total thyroidectomy for Hurthle cell
sound and any residual solid component mography (CT), or in patients with calci- neoplasms larger than 4 cm. We would also
reaspirated. tonin levels >1000 pg/mL, modified radical consider a total thyroidectomy in patients
The needle is then detached from the sy- neck dissection should be performed. Be- with contralateral nodular disease and
ringe, and the syringe filled with air, reat- cause of the association of medullary thyroid Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, if the patient was
tached, and the contents expelled onto a cancer with multiple endocrine neoplasia already taking thyroid hormone, or patient
glass slide. A second slide is placed on top of type 2 A (MEN 2 A), preoperative evaluation preference.
the first slide and the material is smeared by should include plasma and/or 24 urinary Suspicious, but not diagnostic, of papillary
pulling the slides in opposing horizontal di- metanephrines for pheochromocytoma, CT thyroid cancer. An aspirate “suspicious for
rections. Slides can be either immediately scans of the neck, chest, and abdomen for papillary thyroid cancer” is not the same as
placed into alcohol or sprayed with fixative staging, calcium and parathyroid hormone an aspirate “diagnostic for papillary thyroid
for Papanicolaou’s stain or air-dried for Diff- testing for hyperparathyroidism, and RET cancer” in regard to likelihood of malignancy
Quik (May-Grunwald-Giemsa) staining. The proto-oncogene testing to assess for familial and surgical management. The cytologic cri-
definition of specimen adequacy varies disease. teria for papillary thyroid cancer include
from institution to institution. Usually at Thyroid lymphoma and anaplastic thyroid large monolayer sheets of follicular epithe-
least 6 to 10 clusters of cells on two separate cancer. These types of thyroid malignancies lial cells, enlarged nuclei with powdery chro-
slides are required to make a diagnosis. On- are primarily treated with chemotherapy matin, intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions
and/or radiation therapy. Occasionally, thy-
Endocrine Surgery
site evaluation by a cytopathologist can sig- and grooves, and papillary structures with
nificantly reduce the inadequacy rate. Com- roidectomy is performed for early anaplastic or without tall columnar cells. While FNAs
plications from FNA are extremely rare but cancers, and for palliation of airway com- diagnostic of papillary thyroid cancer have
include bleeding/hematoma (<0.5%), tra- promise from thyroid lymphoma. all of these features, those FNAs that have
cheal puncture (rare), nodule infarction some but not all of the features of papillary
(<5%), and tumor seeding (<0.005%). Suspicious/Indeterminate FNA thyroid cancer are read as “suspicious for
FNAs are usually classified into four cat- papillary thyroid cancer.” Multiple reports
egories: Follicular neoplasm. Approximately 80% of have shown that FNAs suspicious for papil-
follicular neoplasms or lesions are adenoma lary thyroid cancer are malignant 50% to 60%
1. benign: nodular goiter, Hashimoto’s thy- while 20% are cancer. The presence of cap- of the time. Thus, for a thyroid nodule that
roiditis, subacute thyroiditis, cyst, and sular and/or vascular invasion on perma- is suspicious for papillary thyroid cancer, we
colloid nodule; nent histology distinguishes adenomas from would recommend a thyroid lobectomy to
470 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
resect the nodule, with intraoperative fro- usually consists of clinical follow-up with a Postoperative bleeding and subsequent
zen section analysis. We and others have repeat thyroid ultrasound in 6 months. If hematoma formation is a potential life-
demonstrated that frozen section is ex- the nodule increases in size or becomes threatening complication that must be care-
tremely useful with an FNA suspicious for worrisome in ultrasound appearance dur- fully monitored during the postoperative
papillary thyroid cancer, as it is accurate ing follow-up, repeat FNA is warranted. Our period. This occurs in <1% of cases. Wound
90% of the time. If the frozen section is pos- practice has been to follow small, asymp- infections are uncommon. The most com-
itive for papillary thyroid cancer, we would tomatic thyroid nodules at 6, 18, and 42 mon wound complication is seroma forma-
perform a total thyroidectomy at that time. months. tion that usually resolves spontaneously.
If the frozen section is negative, we would Hyperthyroidism. Kocher developed sub- Patients should be aware that after to-
terminate the operation having performed total thyroidectomy as the treatment for tal or near-total thyroidectomy they will
only a lobectomy and wait for final histo- hyperthyroidism from Graves’ disease, be required to take lifelong thyroid hor-
logic evaluation. which then became the routine form of mone replacement. In patients undergoing
therapy for the disease. After the advent of thyroid lobectomy, the vast majority
Benign FNA radioactive iodine therapy in the 1930s, sur- (>85%) will not require thyroid hormone.
gery became less commonly performed as However, we and others have described
The management of a thyroid nodule that the primary treatment. There are still a risk factors that increase the chance of hy-
is “benign” on FNA is dependent upon the number of important indications for surgi- pothyroidism after thyroid lobectomy,
size of the nodule and if the patient has cal treatment of hyperthyroidism such as which include a high-normal TSH, Hashim-
symptoms due to the nodule. Benign nod- age, sex, pregnancy, and lactation, the pres- oto’s thyroiditis, and a low T4 level. When
ules generally do not require surgery un- ence of a thyroid nodule or large goiter patients are stratified into three groups
less they are causing compressive symp- (Plummer’s), and patient preference. These based on their preoperative TSH measure-
toms (airway compromise, dysphagia, factors may guide clinicians to offer surgery ment (Š1.5, 1.51 to 2.5, and Š2.51 μIU/
etc.). Data from multiple investigators as a first-line treatment. For patients with mL), the rate of hypothyroidism after thy-
have shown that thyroidectomy in symp- Graves’ disease or Plummer’s disease, total roid lobectomy increases significantly at
tomatic patients can greatly improve qual- thyroidectomy is the operation of choice each level (13.5%, 20.5%, and 41.3%,
ity of life. Thyroidectomy should also be and has largely replaced subtotal thyroidec- respectively). Thus, preoperative TSH levels
considered in patients with thyroid nod- tomy, which is associated with a much high can be used to predict the likelihood of
ules and a history of head and neck irradi- recurrence rate and similar morbidity. For postoperative hypothyroidism.
ation because of the increased risk of patients with hyperthyroidism due to a sin- Preoperative testing. In all patients un-
developing thyroid cancer. We generally gle hot nodule, unilateral thyroid lobectomy dergoing thyroid surgery, it is our practice
advocate a total thyroidectomy in patients is the best operation. to check the preoperative calcium and
with thyroid nodules and a history of head parathyroid hormone level to rule out hy-
and neck irradiation, irrespective of biopsy PRE- AND PERIOPERATIVE perparathyroidism, and to obtain a base-
findings. PLANNING line value for comparison. In patients who
Nodule greater or equal to 4 cm in size. are diagnosed with hyperparathyroidism,
While FNA is extremely accurate in delin- Informed consent. As with any operation, the we perform parathyroidectomy at the time
eating most benign from malignant thyroid surgeon should have a thorough discussion of thyroidectomy. If the patient has a hoarse
nodules, several studies have shown that with the patient about the indications, al- voice preoperatively or if has had a previ-
FNA is less reliable with thyroid nodules Š4 ternate treatment options, and potential ous operation that placed the vagus or re-
cm. McCoy and colleagues noted that pre- complications of thyroidectomy. Complica- current laryngeal nerve at risk, he or she
operative FNA results in patients with thy- tions for thyroid lobectomy include injury to should have direct or indirect laryngoscopy
roid nodules ≥4 cm were read incorrectly the recurrent laryngeal nerve, resulting in a preoperatively to assess the status of the
as benign in 13% of patients with cancer; hoarse voice, and external branch of the su- recurrent laryngeal nerves. A paralyzed
when multifocal micropapillary carcinoma perior laryngeal nerve, leading to an inabil- nerve may alter operative plans and should
was included, this false-negative rate for ity to reach the high octaves when singing. I definitely be discussed when obtaining
preoperative FNA reached 16%. In a study typically quote a 5% to 10% rate of tempo- informed consent. A procedure planned
from our group, FNA results reported as be- rary/transient hoarseness and a 1% to 2% on the side contralateral to a nerve injury
nign turned out to be either neoplastic rate of long-term voice complications. risks bilateral nerve injury and the need for
(22/52) or malignant (4/52) on final pathol- The parathyroid glands could also be in- tracheostomy.
ogy. Among patients with nondiagnostic advertently injured. This does not pose a Hyperthyroidism. It is important to re-
FNAs, the risk of malignancy was 27%. problem with a thyroid lobectomy (since store a patient with hyperthyroidism to a
We concluded that in patients with thyroid the contralateral two parathyroids would euthyroid state prior to surgery to avoid the
nodules Š4 cm, FNA results are highly in- be sufficient), but increases the risk of hy- potential of precipitating a thyroid storm
accurate, misclassifying half of all patients poparathyroidism should future thyroid or during surgery. This can be accomplished
with reportedly benign lesions on FNA. Fur- parathyroid surgery be required since the within 6 weeks using an antithyroid drug
thermore, those patients with a nondiag- remaining parathyroid glands would be at such as PTU 100 to 300 mg three times daily
nostic FNA display a very high risk of dif- risk. In patients undergoing a total thyroi- or methimazole 10 to 30 mg three times a
ferentiated thyroid carcinoma. Therefore, we dectomy, a 10% to 20% rate of transient day. Methimazole is usually changed to a
recommend that diagnostic lobectomy, at a hypocalcemia and a 1% to 2% rate of per- single daily dose once a patient is euthyroid
minimum, be performed in patients with manent hypocalcemia required calcitriol since it has a longer duration of action com-
thyroid nodules Š4 cm regardless of FNA supplementation. We and others have pared with PTU. Propranolol in doses of 40
cytology. In patients who are asymptomatic shown that hypoparathyroidism for most to 120 mg four times a day is often added to
and have nodules <4 cm, management patients usually resolves within 1 week. control symptoms of tachycardia, tremor,
Chapter 37: Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy of the Thyroid: Thyroid Lobectomy and Subtotal and Total Thyroidectomy 471
overweighs the incidence of DVT in pa- rings just caudal to the cricoid cartilage astinum if indicated and can be cosmeti-
tients undergoing thyroidectomy. (Fig. 2). A deflated IV bag is placed under cally unappealing.
the patient’s shoulders to extend the neck In smaller masses, we traditionally begin
and support the shoulders and lower cervi- with a 2- to 4-cm centrally placed incision,
SURGICAL TECHNIQUE cal spine. The bag is then inflated to pro- though lateral extension of this incision
Thyroid lobectomy. Following the induction duce the appropriate amount of neck ex- may be warranted based on the size of the
of general anesthesia, the patient remains tension. The head should be well supported gland. Factors that affect the size of the in-
in the supine position, arms straight and using a head ring. A headlight facilitates cision include gland size, patient body mass
tucked at their sides, and generous padding lighting and exposure through the limited index, extent of planned exploration, and
is placed at the elbows to prevent nerve in- incisions. During the operation, the table is availability of assistants to retract. The skin
jury. The patient’s neck is midline and ex- placed in a beach-chair position to decrease incision should be made with a deliberate
tended. This neck extension is performed the cervical venous pressure. sweep of the scalpel, dividing the skin and
with extreme caution and with the assis- The cricoid cartilage is then palpated subcutaneous tissue simultaneously. He-
tance of the anesthesia team to ensure that and its location noted. The skin incision is mostasis is achieved with electrocautery.
the endotracheal tube is secured and that placed in a skin crease approximately 1 cm The incision is deepened to the areolar tis-
the cervical spine is not overextended or below the cricoid cartilage (Fig. 3). The ori- sue plane just deep to the platysma muscle
Endocrine Surgery
suspended. Preoperative assessment should entation of the incision should be along the where an avascular plane is reached. Once
include asking the patient to fully extend lines of Langer, since crossing the normal the incision is made and deepened through
his or her neck, so that the person position- skin lines may lead to more prominent scar- the platysma, the superior and inferior sub-
ing the patient knows the level of natural ring. It is of paramount importance to place platysmal planes are developed. Using two
neck extension. Hyperextension of the neck the incision in a neck crease whenever pos- Allis clamps, the superior edge of the plat-
may lead to increased postoperative pain sible, as neck creases have the least amount ysma muscle or dermis is grasped and
and a slight risk of spinal cord damage. Per- of tension. An incision made too low will placed under tension (Fig. 4). This permits
fect alignment of the head and body must result in pronounced scar formation, diffi- vertical retraction of the flap while counter-
be ensured to prevent erroneous placement culty in dissecting the superior pole, or per- traction with the surgeon’s finger or Kitner
of the cervical incision. Appropriate posi- haps missing the thyroid entirely. Incisions exposes a natural bloodless plane. Ideally,
tioning ensures that the isthmus of the thy- made too high will make it difficult to re- dissection should proceed within the rela-
roid overlies the second and third tracheal move lymph nodes in the superior medi- tively avascular plane between the platysma
472 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Fig. 3. Site of incision in a skin fold about 1 cm below the cricoid. Surface anatomy with
underlying anatomy shown to demonstrate why this location is optimal for thyroid surgery.
muscle fibers and the anterior jugular veins. section should be carried down to the level be taken to avoid injury to these veins, as
Utilizing a combination of blunt and sharp of the suprasternal notch. Care should be active bleeding and danger of air embolus
dissection within this plane—alternatively, taken to not buttonhole the retracted skin have been reported with openings made
electrocautery is acceptable to raise the and to avoid the anterior jugular veins, into the anterior jugular vein. The skin flaps
skin flap—the upper skin flap is freed to the which should remain on the anterior sur- are held apart with a self-retaining Sippel or
level of the thyroid notch. The inferior edge face of the sternothyroid muscle. The ante- spring retractor (Fig. 5).
of the platysma is then grasped and an infe- rior jugular veins symmetrically flank the The sternohyoid muscles are separated
rior flap is created in a similar fashion. Dis- midline raphe of the neck. Special care must in the midline using electrocautery. With
EDITOR’S COMMENT The risks of increased malignancy in thyroid nod- reason was that Dr. Cope was very, in a sense,
ules include head and neck radiation therapy and ahead of his time and in particular somewhat un-
a familiar association of thyroid cancer. usual as far as surgery was concerned. Dr. Cope
Endocrine Surgery
The thyroid is a metabolically active gland, in Thyroid cancer is now considered a real can- was very pro-psychiatry. To a certain extent this
which 1% of the stored thyroid hormone is re- cer. This has come a long way from the 1960s, might have been because of his wife, who was a
leased per day. The half-lives of the two thyroid when Dr. Oliver Cope, one of the famous thyroid social worker, a very nice lady, with whom my
hormones that are released are 1 to 3 days for T3 and parathyroid surgeons, did not believe that wife, Karen, a social worker, had an excellent
and 7 days for T4. With an aging population and this was a real cancer and in fact thought that the relationship. Dr. Cope believed, and here he was
ready availability of thyroid ultrasonography, the major therapy for thyroid cancer was psychiatry. ahead of his time, that doing a radical mastec-
number of thyroid nodules in the general popula- To a certain extent one can believe this, for the tomy for breast cancer was mutilating to women, tion
is beginning to be a public health consider- very simple reason that papillary carcinoma of to which everybody agreed, and that it was not ation,
as 4% to 7% of the population has thyroid the thyroid was by far the most common form of necessary to do a complete axillary dissection for nodules.
It is estimated that 95% of these nodules thyroid cancer, and it was rare to see a patient die all breast carcinomas, and he also believed that are benign
and therefore do not require surgery. of papillary carcinoma of the thyroid. The other infiltration of the lymph nodes with lymphocytes
(continued)
478 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
was a good prognostic sign, for which he might the number of FNAs performed in the later time therefore, of FNA is 95% with a sensitivity of 83%,
have been correct, and a complete axillary dissec- period increased significantly by 250%. Patients a specificity of 92%, and the positive predictive
tion was unnecessary. undergoing FNA were more likely to be female value of 75%. Most authorities agree on this.
Because Dr. Cope felt strongly that carcinoma and were significantly older. With regard to the The critical issue here is the FNA’s suspicious of
the thyroid (and by this he meant papillary car- FNA diagnoses, not surprisingly, benign FNAs (indeterminate) results. Malignant disease means
cinoma of the thyroid) was not a real cancer, no increased whereas the diagnosis of malignancy that FNAs cannot be accurately excluded, and, if one
did a node dissection. The evolution of thyroid decreased in proportion regardless of whether these had been documented as follicular neo- cancer
from that particular time until now has one was dealing with papillary carcinoma of the plasms or suspicious, a diagnostic lobectomy is been a real
sea change. First of all, I think every- thyroid or follicular neoplasms. There also was a probably appropriate despite the fact that many body believes
that thyroid cancer is a real cancer. remarkable increase in the incidence of thyroidi- of them will reveal the nondisease.
Second, total thyroidectomy has become a prin- tis, whatever that is. Looking at Table 2 in this Finally, when can FNA be omitted? In the pres-
cipal operation for this disease, which in fact was article, which comes from Dr. Chen’s unit, group ence of thyroid nodules in patients with the RET not
very often carried out at the time when I was 1 had 905 patients with 1.33 FNA per patient gene mutation, strong family history of thyroid a
resident in the 1960s. Finally, lymph node dissec- whereas group 2 of 1,875 patients had 1.48 FNA cancer, endocrine neoplasia type II, or increased
tion, particularly of the central lymph nodes and per patient. Whether or not this indicates greater basal or stimulated calcitonin levels, or history
perhaps some additional nodes, is now a frequent suspicion is not clear, but in Table 3, ìDistribution of neck radiation, FNA should be omitted and at
part of operations for thyroid cancer, and patients of Diagnoses,î benign FNA diagnoses (certain) least a diagnostic lobectomy undertaken.
with thyroid cancer not only merit something increased from 68% to 76%, which was statisti- With his extensive experience of a type of thy-
close to a total thyroidectomy or at least a unilat- cally significant, whereas the follicular/Hurthle roidectomy does Professor Sakorafas suggest. The
eral lobectomy with an isthmusectomy but could cell neoplasms decreased from 9.1% to 4.1%. The lobectomy plus isthmusectomy at least guards
also undergo a resection of the central nodes. only other significant change between the two against the possibility of injuring both laryngeal
Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is the staple as groups was papillary thyroid carcinoma, which nerves. However, the significant disadvantage is
far as the further steps taken in the patient who decreased from 6.3% to 3.4%. There are some that there may be a highly significant recurrence has
a thyroid nodule between 1 and 4 cm in size. other differences as well. rate with a normal follow-up. Thus, the diagno-
As I will detail later, FNA is unequivocally benign A very nice and thorough review is offered sis in recurrent disease is something that needs in
70% of patients. For those patients who have by Dr. George H. Sakorafas from the 4th Depart- to be borne in mind. Nodule recurrence could be clearly
malignant thyroid nodule, for lesions with ment of Surgery at Athens University (Surg Oncol prevented by levothyroxine-suppressive therapy. papillary
carcinoma, with lesions that are smaller 2010;19:e130–e139), who wrote a scholarly and Other alternatives include subtotal thyroidectomy than 1 cm,
either thyroid lobectomy or total thy- erudite article on FNA and its practical consid- and total/near-total thyroidectomy, in the case of roidectomy is
acceptable as far as Dr. Chen is erations, which can be read with great profit. Dr. less than 3 g of residual thyroid. As far as lymph concerned, and
I agree. However, if abnormal Sakorafas points out that FNA is central to the di- node resection is concerned, if one believes that lymph nodes are
seen intraoperatively by ultra- agnosis of thyroid nodules. We know that. He esti- one has a malignancy in station 6 central node, this sonography, a level
6 central lymph node dissec- mates that 5% of the patients have thyroid nodules should be carried out, and as previously stated, the tion is indicated. In
patients who have enlarged found by palpation and by ultrasonography or station of unilateral node resection is appropriate. lateral lymph nodes,
FNA should be performed autopsy in 50%. The clinical significance of these Frozen section of the nodules and lymph nodes do on the lymph node, and,
if positive, level 2, 3, and nodules remains unknown, since most of them do not yield an appropriate resection. The situation 4 lymph nodes should be
dissected on that side. not progress, especially those found at autopsy. He continues in individuals wanting to get a prospec- Dr. Chen then details the
various types of cancer points out that malignant thyroid nodules should tive study with increased accuracy.
and what should be done, especially in associa- be managed aggressively by thyroidectomy and Along these lines, Mathur A, et al. (Surgery
tion with medullary thyroid cancer and multiple that more common benign thyroid nodules should 2010;148:1170–1177), from Clark’s unit in San
endocrine adenoma. I will go into more detail in be managed conservatively. He also points out Francisco, suggest that FNA may be nondiagnos-
discussing some of the articles. that there are very infrequent local compressive tic or indeterminate or suspicious in 20% to 30%
Among follicular neoplasms, 80% are ad- syndrome symptoms or thyroid dysfunction and of cases; in other words, FNA is appropriate and
enomas whereas 20% are cancer. Capsular and therefore the thyroid nodule is significant when it diagnostic in 70% of cases. This group agrees with
vascular invasion differentiates obviously ad- reveals thyroid cancer. Ninety-five percent of these the previous two individuals as to the percentage
enomas from follicular cancers, and a thyroid will be benign or be adenomas. The other inci- of definitive FNAs. They applied a series of mark-
lobectomy is indicated without a frozen section. dence that has increased is when there is a thyroid ers and found that three variables, including BRAF
This is especially true, since the frozen-section nodule that is cancerous, where it is much more V600E, NRAS, and KRAS, were among the six can-
analysis does not provide additional information likely, as Dr. Chen points out in his chapter, to be didate diagnostic markers used for univariate and
and is inaccurate. Among Hurthle cell neoplasms, accompanied by some sort of node dissection. multivariate analyses in 341 patients, but by using
70% are adenomas and 30% are cancers. Since the practice in Dr. Sakorafas’ clinic is NRAS mutation and three variables including the
As far as size is concerned, a lesion smaller frequently accompanied by ultrasonography, he tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 expression,
than 1 cm with papillary carcinoma does not merit emphasizes that varying the size of needles de- benign from malignant thyroid tumors could be
a total thyroid lobectomy. Hurthle cell neoplasms pending on the vascularity and the blood supply, accurately distinguished in 91% including 67% for
are very uncommon, unless with a lesion smaller and that three to six aspirations per nodule, is the indeterminate and 77% FNA groups.
than 2 cm, but for lesions larger than 2 cm, approx- probably good practice. He also says that it is best Ferraz C, et al., in a special review in J Clin En-
imately half are malignant neoplasms. As for the le- if there is a highly qualified pathologist present to docrinol Metab (2011;96:2016–2026), attempted
sions that are 4 cm or larger, FNA is inaccurate for immediately read the specimen, which is not likely once again to arrive at somatic mutations to re-
the most part and therefore special considerations the practice in most of the United States. The ultra- duce the number of indeterminate fine-needle
exist, and, if one is suspicious enough, a diagnostic sound-guided FNA is recommended for nodules biopsies. Not different from most of the other
lobectomy is undertaken. It is better to undertake larger than 10 mm and only if suspicious clinical or publications, this review of 20 publications gave a
somewhat lesser procedure, where cancer is not ultrasound features are present in nodules that are a mean sensitivity of 63%, which is a little low but
clear, and protect the laryngeal nerve. smaller than 10 mm. The cystic nodules are differ- nothing terribly different.
With the central status FNA of the thyroid oc- ent. They have not been discussed elsewhere, but We are left with FNA biopsy in thyroid nod-
cupies, many of the articles to which I will refer they could represent simple cysts, colloid nodules, ules that generally need to be larger than 1 cm, are
critical to understanding what we undertake hemorrhagic adenomas, or even necrotic papillary but we are warned that for thyroid nodules larger and
what we do not undertake. Coorough N, carcinomas. The malignancy rate within cystic than 4 cm, FNA tends to be unreliable. On the et al. (
J Surg Res 2011:1–4, published online) ana- thyroid nodules is approximately 10%. other hand, it has been honed to a fine skill and
lyzed FNA data from 981 consecutive patients, In his experience, the results of FNA are cat- therefore should be repeated, although with a who
underwent thyroid FNA between 2002 and egorically benign in 70%, categorically malignant number of relative differences and the outcomes, 2009.
The early time period of 2002 to 2005 and in 5%, as identified by an experienced cytopathol- perhaps, we are biopsying too much, especially in the later
time period of 2006 to 2009 were di- ogist, suspicious or indeterminate in 10%, and the elderly and in the female.
vided. The data were compared. Not surprisingly, insufficient for diagnosis in 15%. The accuracy, J.E.F.
Chapter 38: Total Thyroidectomy, Lymph Node Dissection for Cancer 479
ANATOMY nerve and the superior thyroid artery, the what variable and on occasions the glands
most common variable being that the nerve can be within the thyroid, attached to it or
The normal thyroid gland is composed of is some distance from the artery, but on oc- lying along the thyrothymic tract. Preserva-
two symmetrical lobes lying on either side casions it can again weave its way between tion of these glands and their blood supply
of the trachea and joined by an isthmus at the branches of the artery and be very close during thyroidectomy is important and
the level of the second, third, and fourth tra- to the upper pole of the thyroid. Because parathyroid dysfunction following thyroi-
cheal rings. The gland lies underneath the of the close relationship of these two nerves dectomy is the commonest complication of
strap muscles of the neck (the sternothyroid to the blood supply of the thyroid, the tech- thyroidectomy. Structures close to the thy-
and the sternohyoid muscles), each lobe on nique of capsular dissection of the thyroid, roid gland, which become relevant during
either side of the larynx and trachea. The whereby the surgeon stays close to the cap- nodal dissection include the trachea, the
gland is invested by pretracheal fascia, sule of the thyroid, will ensure the greatest esophagus, and the carotid sheath. The lat-
which is responsible for its movement dur- protection for these important nerves. Very ter contains the common carotid artery, the
ing swallowing. In some patients, there is an rarely, there can be an inferior artery of the internal jugular vein, and the vagus nerve. A
upward extension of the gland from the thyroid (the thyroid ima artery), which en- surgeon operating on the thyroid gland for
isthmus called the pyramidal lobe and this ters the lower part of the isthmus directly malignancy will need a good understanding
represents a developmental island of tissue from the brachiocephalic trunk or occa- of the lymph node territories of the neck (see
in the position of the thyroglossal duct. Ac- sionally from the arch of the aorta. Fig. 1).
cessory and separate islands of thyroid tis- The venous return from the thyroid in
sue can be found in the superior mediasti- the upper pole follows the superior thyroid CLINICAL PRESENTATION
num near the hyoid bone and beneath the artery, but for the middle part of the thyroid,
sternomastoid muscle. The thyroid gland a separate, short and wide vein, usually sin- Thyroid cancer presents most commonly as
descends into the neck embryologically, fol- gle but sometimes with several branches, a painless lump within the thyroid gland.
lowing a proliferation of the cells at the drains directly into the internal jugular vein. Such swellings usually will be >1 cm in
junction of the anterior third and posterior During mobilization of the thyroid, this vein size, if clinically palpable. As the tumor
two thirds of the tongue. The importance of or series of veins needs to be secured early growth progresses, compressive symptoms
understanding this developmental pathway before traction is put on the lobe because may occur causing dysphagia or dyspnea,
is essential if a surgeon is trying to remove tearing can cause substantial hemorrhage and the patient may become aware of supr-
the whole of the thyroid tissue and on occa- and make identification of other vital struc- aclavicular swellings in the neck or swell-
sion division of the hyoid bone and tracing tures nearby extremely difficult. The third ings in the posterior triangle of the neck
the thyroglossal duct all the way toward group of veins, the inferior thyroid veins, representing involved lymph nodes. Rarely,
the base of the tongue may be required. In drains the lower poles of the thyroid form- thyroid cancer can present as disseminated
addition, embryologically, the calcitonin- ing a plexus that runs down into the bra- disease most typically with bone, lung, or
producing cells join the thyroid gland hav- chiocephalic veins. Lymphatic drainage of mediastinal tumor deposits. Differentiated
ing migrated from the neural crest. Other the thyroid follows the arteries, but there is thyroid cancers (papillary and follicular)
neural crest tissue forms part of the adrenal considerable crossover of lymphatic flow are nonsecretory tumors, so there are few, if
glands and the parathyroid glands, and this between the neck compartments in the any, systemic symptoms during tumor de-
explains the combination of multiglandular presence of malignant disease. velopment. On the other hand, medullary
disease in the syndromes known as multi- The nerve supply to the thyroid gland is thyroid cancer arising within the C cells se-
ple endocrine neoplasia type II. predominantly from the sympathetic cervi- cretes calcitonin, and this can cause sys-
The thyroid gland obtains its blood sup- cal ganglion, these fibres being vasocon- temic symptoms including blushing and
ply through the superior and the inferior strictor. diarrhoea. Undifferentiated or anaplastic
thyroid arteries. The superior thyroid artery Close to the thyroid gland and intimately thyroid cancer may present as a diffuse rap-
is the first branch from the anterior aspect associated with it and sharing its blood sup- idly growing goiter, with early compressive
of the external carotid artery and it reaches ply are the parathyroid glands. There are symptoms due to the infiltrative nature of
Endocrine Surgery
the gland as a single vessel, usually at the typically four parathyroid glands—two on the disease. If the great vessels of the neck
upper pole of the thyroid. The inferior thy- each side—and in health both glands lie are involved in this process, venous conges-
roid artery, by contrast, divides outside the within 1 cm radius of the inferior thyroid ar- tion may be clinically evident in the region
thyroid gland into four or five branches that tery as they begin to break into its branches of the face and the neck.
pierce the gland supplying the lower pole of to supply the thyroid. The gland situated su- Increasingly, thyroid cancer is being di-
it. The recurrent laryngeal nerve lies usually periorly is called parathyroid four because it agnosed as a result of an incidental finding
behind the inferior thyroid artery, but it can develops from the fourth pharyngeal pouch, as a consequence of a radiological investiga-
on occasions lie in front of it or weave its and that below the lower pole of the thyroid tion unrelated to the thyroid (the so-called
way between the branches of the artery. is called parathyroid three, developing from thyroid incidentaloma). This is further dis-
There is a variable relationship between the the third pharyngeal pouch. The anatomical cussed elsewhere in this chapter. These tu-
external branch of the superior laryngeal position of the parathyroid glands is some- mors are commonly <1 cm in size, although
480 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
ensure the accurate assessment of the pal- sound and FNA biopsy but subsequently choices and options available to the patient.
pable nodule. Difficulties can arise when turn out to be malignant, follow-up of pa- There is clear evidence that completeness of
multiple nodules are detected by ultrasound, tients with benign thyroid nodules is ad- surgical resection is an important factor in
and deciding which nodule to sample in this vised and repeat biopsy should be consid- securing a successful outcome, and recur-
setting can be challenging for the radiologist ered if the nodule grows in size, either rence within the neck remains the most
and/or clinician. Ultrasound features, which clinically or on ultrasound. There are no common site of recurrence. Nevertheless,
are suggestive of malignancy, include a hy- clear guidelines for thresholds of nodule our understanding of the biology of thyroid
poechoic nodule, increased vascularity, ir- growth or timescales for repeat assess- cancer, particularly in relation to small pri-
regular margins, the presence of microcalci- ments but the American Thyroid Associa- mary tumors and small deposits within the
fications, and hardness of the nodule tion guidelines in 2009 suggest that a 20% lymph nodes, is incomplete. Overtreatment
(elastography). Whilst no one feature is diag- increase in nodule diameter should prompt can result in considerable morbidity with
nostic, an experienced radiologist will often further biopsies. These biopsies should be no gain to the patient and undertreatment
be able to combine the above features into a performed at between 6 and 18 months af- clearly may compromise the final outcome.
sensitive diagnostic probability. When thy- ter the initial FNA biopsy. If a firm diagnosis As already mentioned in the section on
roid abnormalities picked up by cross-sec- of thyroid cancer is made or there is a strong “Diagnosis,” accurate preoperative staging
tional imaging or ultrasound for other rea- suspicion of this (Thy4 and Thy5), then care- of the disease by neck imaging is important.
sons (the incidentaloma) are <1 cm in size, ful ultrasound evaluation of the loco re- However, preoperative ultrasound does not
routine FNA biopsy is not recommended un- gional lymph nodes should be performed. identify all involved lymph nodes and is
less there are features that are suggestive of Biopsy should be undertaken of any con- somewhat operator dependent. Lymph
malignancy including the presence of lymph cerning lymph nodes, which may clarify the nodes in the neck are divided into anatomi-
nodes nearby, which are concerning. If pa- situation in a patient with Thy4 cytology cal compartments (see Fig. 1). The level 1
tients are in a higher risk category (family and will allow appropriate nodal surgery to lymph node compartment is the submental
history, previous radiation) or if the thyroid be planned at the first operation. and submandibular node compartments
nodule was picked up through a positron above the hyoid bone. Levels 2, 3, and 4
emission tomography (PET) scan, then there TREATMENT lymph nodes are aligned along the jugular
will be a greater tendency to perform biopsy veins on each side between the posterior
on subcentimeter nodules than if this was The treatment of thyroid cancer and associ- border of the sterno cleido mastoid muscle
not the case. In experienced hands, either ated involved lymph nodes needs to be care- and the anterior level 6 compartment. The
guided or freehand FNA biopsy of thyroid fully thought through and discussed as part level 5 nodes are in the posterior triangle
nodules has a good specificity and sensitivity. of a multidisciplinary approach. It is a po- lateral to the sterno mastoid muscle and
However, if the cytopathologist does not have tentially lethal disease and must be re- the level 6 nodes are central, running from
enough cellular material to make a diagno- spected as such. The treatment will often be the hyoid bone down to the suprasternal
sis, the FNA should be repeated and it should multimodal including surgery, radio iodine, notch. Superior mediastinal lymph nodes
be remembered that a small number of thy- and TSH suppression with Thyroxine. Care- above the level of the innominate artery
roid nodules (<10%), despite repeatedly re- ful plans for the postoperative management and in the upper mediastinum are referred
ported as benign or serial biopsies, will turn and monitoring of the patient, including the to as level 7 nodes. Removal of the thyroid
out to be malignant when resected. Classifi- measurement of thyroglobulin levels, inter- tumor in the neck and associated lymph
cation of thyroid FNA biopsy specimens is mittent scans, and clinical follow-up, will nodes may well be an appropriate treat-
usually based on a scale of 1 to 5. Thy1 sug- all be needed. There are several published ment even in the context of disseminated
gests insufficient cells for a diagnosis, Thy 2 is guidelines regarding the treatment of thy- disease, since once the primary and loco re-
benign, Thy3 indeterminate, Thy4 suspicious roid cancer, including those published by gional nodes have been removed, metasta-
of malignancy with around a 95% specificity, the American thyroid Association (2009), ses are more easily treated with radioactive
and Thy5 a clear case of a malignant diagno- the British Thyroid Association, and the iodine in the absence of other tissue avid for
sis. Whilst FNA biopsy can accurately diag- British Association of Endocrine and Thy- iodine. For goiters limited to the neck, ultra-
nose papillary thyroid cancer, medullary thy- roid Surgeons (2007), together with a re- sound alone is the imaging modality of
roid cancer and sometimes anaplastic cently published evidence-based review of choice in planning treatment, but in retros-
cancer, it will not differentiate nodules that surgery for thyroid cancer published in the ternal goiters or those where medullary thy-
are due to follicular thyroid cancer or lym- World Journal of Surgery (May 2007). roid cancer is thought to be present, CT or
phoma. For the latter (lymphoma), a guided The obvious central strategy for the cross-sectional imaging of the mediastinum
core biopsy will often be sufficient and open treatment of the disease is the complete re- is advised. If the preoperative investigations
surgery is seldom required. For the former, moval of the primary tumor and, wherever have fallen short of a firm diagnosis of
possible, any extensions out with the thy-
Endocrine Surgery
difficult for the surgeon. If a patient has a those nodes should be performed at the poor life expectancy. A risk-based strategy
suspicious FNA biopsy and other features, same time as total thyroidectomy. to the operation has been outlined but it is
which make it likely that they have a thyroid In any event, the surgeon should aim to not based upon prospective randomized
cancer in their history, or comorbidities complete the operation without leaving any controlled trials, rather on observational
which would make a second operation dan- macroscopic disease present in the neck. It studies and consensus meetings. Total thy-
gerous if the diagnostic lobectomy prove to should never be assumed that radio iodine roidectomy, whether with or without lymph
be malignant, then a discussion can take treatment will compensate for inadequate node dissection, is generally well tolerated
place with the patient about the validity of surgery and whilst accepting that it may and in experienced hands can be performed
proceeding immediately to a total thyroi- well have a significant role in destroying with minimal morbidity. Surgeons will need
dectomy, even when the diagnosis falls microscopic foci of thyroid cancer, the sur- to consider whether they want to have a
short of confirmed thyroid cancer. This may geon’s duty is without question to remove preoperative vocal cord check to establish
be particularly relevant when the patient all bulky disease, preferably at the first op- the integrity of the recurrent laryngeal
has a multinodular goiter, which in its own eration. Lymph node mapping techniques nerves before embarking upon the opera-
right, even if it is benign, might require total (e.g., sentinel lymph node biopsy), success- tion. Whilst a preoperative cord check will
thyroidectomy. Because of multifocality in ful in the management of other primary tu- not influence the care a surgeon takes dur-
thyroid cancer of all types, if the primary mors such as the breast and melanoma, ing the operation to protect the recurrent
tumor is >1 cm in size, then total thyroi- have not proved accurate ways of directing laryngeal nerve, it can establish accurately
dectomy is the operation of choice. For the surgeon to the relevant lymph node ba- whether or not the nerves are compromised
a small subcentimeter low-risk thyroid sin for resection in the neck, almost cer- before surgery and prevent any debates
cancer with no predisposing risks for fur- tainly due to the considerable crossover of about the role of the operative procedure
ther disease (e.g., radiation or family history) lymphatic channels between the anatomi- itself in causing cord palsy. In a patient with
or evidence of disseminated disease (en- cal compartments of the neck. a history of voice change and/or in cases or
larged lymph nodes on ultrasound), a uni- It can be seen, therefore, that the preop- revisional surgery, preoperative cord checks
lateral lobectomy may be sufficient. Never- erative planning of the thyroidectomy and are advised. Nerve-monitoring devices are
theless, the patient should be counselled lymph node dissection is vital so that the available for use but a large meta-analysis
that although metastasis and multifocality surgeon can advise the patient about the of this technique has not demonstrated a
are unlikely with subcentimeter differenti- reasonable options available and a com- significantly reduced nerve palsy rate in pa-
ated thyroid cancers, follow-up by using bined agreement can be made regarding tients, in whom nerve monitoring was car-
thyroglobulin measurements in patients the extent of primary surgical treatment to- ried out versus those that were not (NICE
with residual thyroid tissue and imaging gether with lymph node resection. This may Guidelines 2008). It is an option, therefore,
the thyroid gland with radionuclide scans is include the need for preoperative vocal cord for the surgeon to consider nerve monitor-
more difficult when a normal lobe or part of checks. A combination of personal factors ing, but it should not be stated that nerve-
a normal lobe has been left in situ. relevant only to a particular patient, biopsy monitoring devices and their use imply a
Whilst the evidence base for dealing results, blood tests, and scan information is more careful surgeon or will lead to a re-
with the primary thyroid tumors is rela- likely to be unique for each person with op- duced risk of nerve palsy. The patient
tively robust, there is less certainty and erable thyroid cancer; hence the impor- should be placed in the supine position
agreement about the optimal treatment for tance of a multidisciplinary approach to with their arms alongside the trunk. Some
the lymph node basin. Lymph node metas- this disease. Thyroid cancer by and large is form of soft object should be placed be-
tases are present in a significant number of a slow-growing cancer. The exception is tween the scapulae behind the vertebral
patients who present with differentiated anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid, a con- column so that the shoulders can fall away
papillary thyroid cancer; yet, the clinical dition best treated by external beam radio- from the operative field thus exposing the
significance and effect of this on overall therapy, surgery being reserved only for get- neck optimally. In addition, the neck should
survival is less clear. Accepting that, as ting control of the airway. There is, therefore, be extended and the table tilted to 30 de-
stated above, ultrasound does not detect all enough time to make appropriate decisions grees from the horizontal. Before any
involved lymph nodes and nor will palpa- and carry out investigations without the drapes or cleaning of the patient are under-
tion at surgery, a strategy is required to need to rush into an ill-judged and ill- taken, the routine preoperative checks will
achieve accurate staging of the patient’s prepared operation. be made to confirm the site of the lesion to
disease without unnecessary complications be removed and the personal details of the
or morbidity. If the lymph nodes are known patient. Care must also be taken to ensure
to be involved by preoperative ultrasound SURGICAL TECHNIQUE that all anesthetic tubes and lines are se-
and FNA, then a therapeutic central com- Differentiated thyroid carcinoma is an un- cured and cannot be loosened or leaned on
partment dissection should be carried out common condition but its incidence is in- during the operation by the surgical team.
at the time of total thyroidectomy. In antici- creasing. Approximately 30,000 patients The skin of the neck and upper chest will be
pation of the nodes being involved in the will be diagnosed with this in the United prepared with cleansing solutions and ster-
absence of a preoperative staging confirma- States each year, the vast majority will be ile towels draped around the operative
tory test, in large primary tumors (T3 or T4) papillary thyroid cancers (60%) and 20% field. Meticulous attention to hemostasis
the same dissection should be performed. will be follicular thyroid cancers. The re- must be given from the very beginning. A
In follicular thyroid cancer or small primary mainder will be medullary and anaplastic transverse skin incision placed midway be-
thyroid cancers (T1 or T2), prophylactic carcinomas. As mentioned earlier, there is tween the thyroid cartilage and the sternal
central neck dissection may be omitted. If variability in the progression rate of these notch and extending no further than the
the lateral lymph node compartments (lev- cancers, the differentiated tumors being medial border of the sternomastoid on ei-
els 2 to 5) are proven to be involved preop- slow growing, but the anaplastic carcinoma ther side will give adequate exposure to
eratively, then compartmental excision of being a rapidly progressive disease with a most goiters. The skin incision should be
Chapter 38: Total Thyroidectomy, Lymph Node Dissection for Cancer 483
placed in a skin crease if possible and is subclavian artery on the right and comes surgeon will proceed to carry out a comple-
deepened through the subcutaneous tis- off as a direct branch from the vagus nerve. tion thyroidectomy on the remaining lobe.
sues and the platysma muscle. Superior The vascular pedicles to the thyroid gland If there is no tumor in this lobe, this may be
and inferior flaps can then be raised by a (the superior thyroid artery and vein and a more straightforward procedure, but if
variety of surgical techniques, either with the inferior thyroid artery and vein) can be the disease is multifocal then care must be
the knife or electrocautery. Once the flaps identified and cleaned up using a combina- taken to remove entire thyroid and associ-
have been developed, a self-retaining re- tion of pledget dissection and a mosquito ated tumor deposits as with the first side. If
tractor is placed in the wound and the strap clip. Where the vessels branch to enter the the integrity of the parathyroid glands is
muscles are separated in the midline from capsule of the gland they can be divided questionable at the end of the total thyroi-
the thyroid cartilage down to the sternal either with a combination of liga clips and dectomy, then autografting of one or more
notch. Occasionally, it will be necessary to ties or using the harmonic scalpel. The of these can be considered. To achieve this,
divide the strap muscles to gain access to order in which the vessels are taken will the normal parathyroid can either be sliced
the thyroid gland, but more commonly they depend somewhat on the anatomy of the into 1-mm slices and inserted into small
can be easily retracted to allow adequate individual patient, but it is the author’s pockets in the sternomastoid muscle, or al-
exposure of the whole gland and lymph practice to take the superior pole vessels ternatively it can be morselated, suspended
node basin. The side of the neck, which in- first allowing greater mobilization of the in lactate ringers or plasma, and injected
volves the thyroid primary tumor, should lobe before securing the inferior thyroid ar- into the muscle.
be operated on first. If the thyroid tumor is tery and vein at a capsular level, and then,
invading a strap muscle or adherent to last of all, the inferior thyroid veins. Care LYMPH NODE DISSECTION
muscle, then a portion of that muscle can must be taken not to injure the external
be excised to ensure adequate margins branch of the superior laryngeal nerve as This will be appropriate in patients with
around the tumor. Retraction of the thyroid the upper pole vessels are taken. The thy- papillary thyroid cancer and medullary thy-
lobe upwards into the wound and medially roid gland can readily be grasped with a roid cancer. In follicular carcinoma, the tu-
is the first step of the operation and this Babcock type of tissue forceps, which does mor rarely metastasizes to the regional
will allow the middle thyroid vein to be not traumatize the gland or tear it. The last lymph nodes, spread being more commonly
seen. This vessel should be secured and di- bit of dissection of the lobe before it can be hematogenous. As previously stated, if a de-
vided. Techniques to do this include the freed off the front of the trachea involves cision has been taken preoperatively to
placement of ties in continuity or small the division of the Berry ligament. Small carry out a level 6 lymph node dissection,
metal clips. In addition, the use of hemo- vessels run in this ligament and there is a this will require removing all the lymph
static devices such as the harmonic scalpel very close relationship between it and the node basin from the hyoid bone down to
(Johnson & Johnson) can be employed. recurrent laryngeal nerve as the nerve ap- the sternal notch in the craniocaudal plane
Once the lobe has been lifted upwards us- proaches the cricothyroid membrane. and medially to laterally all the lymphoid
ing pledget dissection, the hilum of the Failure to deal with this ligament ade- tissue between the two carotid arteries.
gland can be identified and by sweeping quately leads to bleeding from those vessels Care will need to be taken to preserve the
away the tissue in the region of the hilum of in it, which then retract onto the surface recurrent laryngeal nerves during this dis-
the gland, the inferior thyroid artery can of the nerve and can be troublesome to con- section and also, wherever possible, the
usually be readily identified. This is an im- trol. Great care is therefore required as parathyroid glands. An almost inevitable
portant landmark early in the operation as Berry’s ligament is dissected, not to tear or consequence of increased numbers of level
it has a reasonably constant relationship damage the vessels within it. Its proximity 6 dissections is going to be the uninten-
with the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the to the nerve will often preclude the use of tioned loss of the inferior parathyroid
parathyroid glands all of which need to be cautery or the placement of even mosquito glands in a greater number of patients. If
preserved and protected. Within a 1- to clips around it, so the use of fine liga clips any of the lateral compartments need re-
2-cm radius of the inferior thyroid artery may be the only method of securing this secting, then this should be planned preop-
both parathyroid glands will normally be structure before it is divided. The gland can eratively as a result of risk stratification on
found. In addition, the recurrent laryngeal then be freed from the surface of the tra- the basis of tumor size, lymph node, and
nerve will be running typically behind the chea using cautery and if a single lobectomy FNA assessment. There is no need to resect
inferior thyroid artery from the root of the is to be performed, the isthmus can be di- radically, so structures such as the sterno-
neck laterally, up towards the insertion into vided and sutured or if the harmonic scal- mastoid muscle and the jugular vein can be
the cricothyroid membrane. The recurrent pel is used, no suturing will be needed. Fro- left in situ. It may be necessary to extend
laryngeal nerve is readily identified by the zen section examination of Thy4 lesions is the collar incision in the neck if an exten-
presence of the vasa nervorum, which run carried out in some centers and in certain sive lymph node dissection is planned, for
Endocrine Surgery
on the front of the nerve seen as a fine red circumstances can be helpful. It may be example, to level 5. In medullary thyroid
line. Early identification of the nerve should possible for the pathologist to give a firm cancer, it may be necessary to do a thymec-
be undertaken before any further major diagnosis of papillary thyroid cancer dur- tomy and remove level 7 nodes, particularly
structures are divided. Occasionally, the ing the operation in an indeterminate le- if the preoperative cross-sectional imaging
nerve can divide low in the neck into one or sion, but it is unlikely that a diagnosis of suggests that disease is there. In the course
more branches and these branches can be follicular cancer will ever be achieved by of removing tissues low in the neck, how-
fine and difficult to identify close to the lar- frozen section since careful examination of ever, care must be taken not to damage the
ynx, and therefore full tracing of the nerve the entire nodule capsule and blood vessels thoracic duct on the left and the right lym-
from the neck upwards is helpful. Very is necessary to reach this diagnosis. The phatic duct. The thoracic duct on the left
rarely, there can be anomalous recurrent time available perioperatively for this will arises from the thorax and extends above
laryngeal nerves, the so-called direct laryn- not permit this to be carried out adequately. the left clavicle before inserting into the
geal nerve, which does not loop around the If a total thyroidectomy is performed the internal jugular vein at its junction with the
484 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
subclavian vein. The duct is thin walled, charged to home on the first postoperative advised. Low-risk patients, by definition, will
flat, and not easily seen and injury to this day. Postoperative bleeding is uncommon, have no local or distant metastasis, complete
structure is usually suspected because of but must be watched for and if it occurs, the resection of the tumor, and a more bland his-
the presence of significant amounts of neck must be reopened immediately to per- tology. Intermediate risk patients will have
white lymph in the operating field. If injury mit relief of laryngeal edema and tracheal evidence of microscopic invasion of tumor
does occur, the duct should be identified compression by blood clot. Cord palsy is outside the thyroid, cervical lymph node me-
and ligated since lymphatic fluid will other- uncommon (<1% in most registries and tastasis, aggressive histology, or evidence of
wise continue to drain in the postoperative audits). If it is unilateral, the patient will vascular invasion. High-risk patients are de-
period. Before closing the neck, a careful have a hoarse and less powerful voice; if it is fined as those having macroscopic tumor
check must be made of all the primary vas- bilateral, there may be a need for an urgent invasion of local structures, incomplete tu-
cular pedicles that have been secured, to- tracheostomy to secure the airway. Checks mor resection, distant metastasis, and evi-
gether with a check on the viability of the must be made to detect hypoparathyroid- dence of high markers of persistent thyroid
parathyroid glands and the integrity of the ism. Early symptoms of this include tingling tissue (thyroglobulin or calcitonin).
recurrent laryngeal nerves. If nerve damage around the mouth and in the toes and the The use of radioactive iodine treatment
has occurred, then primary repair should fingers. Muscle cramps can ensue if this is after total thyroidectomy for papillary or
be considered, as the results of this are opti- not promptly treated and it is therefore a follicular cancer is to eliminate any small
mal if carried out at the time of injury. If the routine practice to measure the calcium amount of thyroid tissue that has been left
operating surgeon does not have the neces- level postoperatively for some period of in the neck, though this should be uncom-
sary skills to do this, then he should con- time within 12 hours of completion of the mon if a total thyroidectomy has been per-
sider calling in an experienced colleague. operation. Predicting hypoparathyroidism formed. Alternatively, small deposits of mi-
Typically, 7 or 8-O interrupted nylon sutures and preemptively treating it has occupied croscopic metastasis in lymph nodes will
are used to approximate the ends of the cut many endocrine surgical units over the also take up radio iodine and, especially in
nerve or if a segment of the nerve has been years. A combination of an early drop in the lateral compartment of the neck, can
resected and the ends cannot be approxi- parathyroid hormone level and an early facilitate destruction of all the thyroid tu-
mated, then some form of nerve graft may drop in calcium levels within 6 hours of sur- mor. Radio iodine ablation, therefore, is
be needed. If autotransplantation of the gery predicts the need for calcium supple- recommended for all patients with known
parathyroids has been undertaken and ments. Practice for monitoring hypopara- metastasis, gross extrathyroidal extension
there is parathyroid malfunction, it will thyroidism postoperatively varies around of the tumor or a primary tumor size of >4
take 6 to 8 weeks for the grafts to get their the world; some units starting all patients cm. In smaller thyroid cancers, if there are
blood supply and during this time the pa- on supplements preemptively with the in- proven lymph node metastases or other
tient’s calcium will need to be supported tention of weaning them off in the early high-risk features when the staging criteria
with oral supplements of calcium and/or postoperative period, other units monitor- are assessed, then the selective use of radio
vitamin D. If there is a significant dead ing the levels of calcium and prescribing as iodine ablation should be considered. Small
space, then drainage may be needed, but it needed. In any event, it would appear that primary thyroid cancers <1 cm with no
is the practice of the author not to drain ap- approximately 30% of patients after total risk features do not need radio iodine abla-
proximately 90% of total thyroidectomies. thyroidectomy will develop transient hy- tion and in addition, when there are multi-
Reapproximation of the strap muscles us- pocalcemia and require at least calcium sup- focal changes within the gland but all foci
ing continuous 3-O Vicryl and subcuticular plements. In extreme cases where hypocalce- <1 cm, radio iodine is also not needed. In
closure of the neck skin using 4-O absorb- mia is resistant, intravenous solutions may preparation for radio iodine ablation, pa-
able sutures produces a good cosmetic re- be required to correct it and a check should tients should have adequate TSH stimula-
sult. It is the author’s practice to spray the be made of the patient’s magnesium level, tion to ensure that any thyroid cells present
wound after final suturing with a clear since low magnesium levels can exacerbate are iodine avid. This can be achieved either
transparent wound dressing such as Opsite the effects of hypocalcemia, as can preopera- by withdrawing thyroid hormone supple-
Spray. No bandaging is placed over the neck tive vitamin D deficiency. ments to induce a rise in endogenous TSH
and this allows staff in the recovery unit or by giving recombinant human TSH. Thy-
and in the ward in the early postoperative POSTOPERATIVE roglobulin is a useful marker of persistent
period to see promptly if there is any neck MANAGEMENT or recurrent thyroid disease. However, the
swelling. Before leaving the theater, pa- presence of antithyroglobulin antibodies in
tients who have undergone a total thyroi- Once the surgical pathology specimen is some patients makes this assay difficult to
dectomy should have their thyroid replace- available, accurate staging of the patient by interpret. Early after surgery, the thyroglob-
ment therapy prescribed. If it is anticipated TNM staging or a variety of other classifica- ulin level remains elevated for some weeks.
that the patient will need postoperative ra- tions can be achieved. The importance of So it should not be relied upon in the initial
dio iodine or imaging using radio iodine staging is to enable an accurate prognosis assessment of recurrent disease.
isotopes, then T3 should be prescribed. This for a given patient with differentiated thy- Follow up of patients following treatment
of course will not be applicable to medul- roid cancer and to inform decisions regard- for differentiated thyroid cancer should be
lary thyroid cancer in which radio iodine ing postoperative adjuvant treatment in- lifelong. Patients with a high risk of recur-
has no role to play. These patients can there- cluding radio iodine therapy. Whichever of rence should be monitored more closely be-
fore be started directly on the normal re- the staging systems is used, the vast majority cause the early detection of recurrent dis-
placement dose of T4. of patients will be found to have a low risk ease may offer the opportunity to eradicate
Patients make a rapid recovery follow- of mortality with a need for less intensive that disease. In addition, it is recognized
ing total thyroidectomy and are typically follow-up and treatment. Focusing adjuvant that TSH suppression by the use of exoge-
able to eat and drink on the day of surgery treatments and closer scrutiny on those nous thyroxine is important in minimizing
and are self-caring. They can usually be dis- patients at the highest risk of recurrence is the risks of recurrence and regular checking
Chapter 38: Total Thyroidectomy, Lymph Node Dissection for Cancer 485
of thyroid function tests in the postoperative SUGGESTED READINGS Lim YC, Choi EC, Yoon YH, et al. Central lymph
node metastasis in unilateral papillary micro-
period to ensure a TSH of <1 ng/mL is im-
portant. American Thyroid Association Guidelines 2009. carcinoma. Br J Surg 2009;96:253–7.
British Thyroid Association & British Associa- Lundgren CI, Hall P,Dickman PW, Zedenius J. The
The investigation and management of tion of Endocrine Surgeons Guidelines 2007. influence of surgical and post-operative treat-
recurrent disease is beyond the scope of Barbaro D, Boni G. Radio iodine ablation of post ment on survival in differentiated thyroid can-
this chapter, but it will include imaging in surgical thyroid remnants after preparation cer. Br J Surg 2007;94:571–7.
the form of cervical ultrasound, PET scan- with recombinant human TSH, why, how and Machens A, Hauptmann S, Dralle H. Prediction
ning, and biopsy of any suspicious nodules. when. Eur J Surg Oncol 2007;33:535–40. of lateral lymph node metastasis in medullary
Wherever possible, further surgery to resect Evidence based endocrine surgery: Thyroid can- thyroid cancer. Br J Surg 2008;95:586–91.
cer. World J Surg 2007;31(5). Maclen SA. Niccoli-Sire P. Hoegel J, et al. Early
recurrent disease is advisable, even in the Foreman E, Aspinall S, Bliss RD, Lennard TWJ. The malignant progression of hereditary medullary
presence of metastasis, in order to optimize use of the harmonic scalpel in thyroidectomy thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1517–25.
the subsequent use of radioactive iodine to beyond the learning curve. Ann R Coll Surg Engl National Institute for Clinical Excellence (UK) report
treat those metastases. 2009;91(3):214–16. on the use of nerve monitoring in thyroid surgery.
EDITOR’S COMMENT There is some interest in trying to be more (World J Surg 2007;31[suppl]:877–8). Forty-two selective
as to the role of central compartment papillary and three medullary cancers were
lymphadenectomy and whether one could select found in Group I and 75 papillary, two follicular,
It is interesting to remember that during my such patients who would benefit (Anand SM et al. and 17 medullary cancers were found in Group
resident days at the Massachusetts General Hos- Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2009;135:1199– II. Transient hypocalcemia was a more frequent
pital, Dr. Oliver Cope, the resident expert and 204). Sentinel lymph node biopsies in 98 patients problem with 16 patients with bilateral thymec-
well-known thyroid surgeon, talked about and who underwent total thyroidectomy and also un- tomy (Group I, 35.5%) versus 10 (Group II, 10.7%).
believed that differentiated thyroid cancer or derwent sentinel lymph node biopsy by means of They concluded that bilateral thymectomy was
papillary carcinoma of the thyroid was a different methylene blue dye, 1% was injected into the peri- more dangerous than worthwhile.
disease and really did not have to be treated ag- tumor. They then underwent central lymph node With the frequency of metastases now be-
gressively. At one point in his career, he espoused dissection. Fifteen out of 70 patients had metas- coming more widespread, or at least being recog-
psychotherapy for patients with thyroid carci- tasis-positive sentinel lymph node biopsies while nized to a greater extent, radioactive iodine ther-
noma. Lymph node dissection was forbidden— the remaining 55 did not. The take-home message apy is becoming more aggressive. An exhaustive
after all, some of these patients lived for 30 years is that if the sentinel lymph node was negative, approach is given in Best Practices and Research
and were treated with radioactive iodine. 100% of the central compartment nodes were ( J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;22:989–1007). Rein-
How the situation has changed! Lymph node negative when they were resected. The authors ers C et al followed up with an exhaustive review
dissection and total thyroidectomy are now be- state that when the sentinel lymph nodes are of the appropriate approach to radiation therapy.
ing routinely carried out for a disease, which was negative, no central lymph node dissection should At the same time, Barbaro D and Boni G (Eur J
thought not to be real cancer. There is a great deal be carried out. Patients can undergo radioactive Surg Oncol 2007;33:535–40) advocate the use of
of activity in the literature, which is complemen- iodine treatment, but dissection is not necessary. recombinative TSH in association with radiation
tary to this very fine chapter. Much of it is an on- A less optimistic viewpoint is expressed by ablation.
going discussion concerning the extent of lymph Koo BS et al. ( J Am Coll Surg 2010;210:895–900), The use of the harmonic scalpel is presented node
dissection, how aggressive it should be, and who analyzed records of 70 papillary thyroid by Prof. Lennard and his group in its use dur- what
we should do with the central lymph nodes carcinoma with total thyroidectomy and com- ing thyroidectomy (Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2009; under
different circumstances: when ipsilateral prehensive neck dissection (central lymph node 91:214–16). They find that after a learning curve, lymph
nodes are positive, when bilateral nodes metastases were present in 82.9%; 34.3% had bi- the use of the harmonic scalpel during thyroidec- are
positive, and deciding whether central lymph lateral and central neck involvement; and 48.6% tomy reduces operative time and postoperative node
dissections should be carried out. These had unilateral, ipsilateral central neck involve- hypocalcemia.
are questions that would not have been asked ment). Isolated contralateral central LN metas- Finally, there is considerable interest in
10 years ago and as time goes on, it appears that tases were not found without ipsilateral central medullary thyroid cancer. One group led by
differentiated thyroid cancer is not looked upon neck involvement. This group, I suspect, would Andreas Machens has tried to use abnormal
any longer as a nice, well-behaved cancer, but is a perform central neck dissection in many cases in carcinoembryonic antigen levels in 150 patients
cancer, which needs to be treated like any other. which others might not. with a diagnosis of medullary thyroid cancer.
Yet, there are variations in the treatment of Another somewhat gloomy prognosis was pre- Although the breakdown of the various levels is
cancer of the thyroid, and these were evaluated by sented by Lim YC et al. (Br J Surg 2009 96;253–7) in detailed, suffice it to say that CEA levels higher
Famakinwa OM et al. (Am J Surg 2010;199:189–98), which 27 of 86 patients with ipsilateral papillary than 30 ng/mL indicate central and ipsilateral
who compared the practices in a total of 52,964 thyroid microcarcinoma had metastatic central lymph node metastases, while CEA levels higher
patients with differentiated thyroid cancer and lymph nodes. Eighteen of these were ipsilateral than 100 ng/mL signify contralateral lymph
whether they were treated in accordance with and nine bilateral. I would suspect that this group node and distant metastases (Arch Surg 2007;
the American Thyroid Association guidelines for would also be much more aggressive in pursuing 142:289–93).
Endocrine Surgery
this disease. They found that 71% was treated central compartment node dissection. Khatib ZL Machens A et al. try to clarify the need for in
accordance with the recommendations for et al. (World J Surg 2010;34:1181–6) would extend lymph node dissection in patients with medul-
surgery: 15% underwent central lymphadenec- the dissection to partial thymectomy in associa- lary thyroid cancers (Ann Surg 2009;250:305–10).
tomy, 31% had radioactive iodine without lymph- tion with central lymph node dissection. Lymph They conclude that in the absence of clinical evi-
adenectomy, and 25% had radioactive iodine and node metastasis on the ipsilateral side of the pri- dence to the contrary, such patients with normal
lymphadenectomy. Patients older than 65, and mary tumor was present in 45 patients in whom bi- basal calcitonin levels may avoid lymph node dis-
especially African-Americans, were at the widest lateral thymectomy was carried out (Group I) and section.
deviation from the guidelines. unilateral thymectomy in 93 patients (Group II) J.E.F.
486 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
INTRODUCTION dectomy, a term we have designated to mean ation between parathyroids and severe
examination of all parathyroid glands bilat- bone disease was noted, although the origi-
The modern era of parathyroid disease erally with appropriate resection of diseased nal misconception was that osteitis fibrosa
management is characterized by three fun- glands. It is imperative to recognize that cystica caused parathyroid problems, rather
damentally new and important features. “conventional” or “bilateral” parathyroid than the reverse. Felix Mandl performed
First is the evolution of primary hyperpara- procedures are not obsolete but in fact re- the first successful parathyroidectomy in
thyroidism (PHPT) from a rare endocrine main essential. Comprehensive parathyroi- 1925 in Vienna. Oliver Cope and his col-
disorder to the most common cause of hy- dectomy will remain integral to the surgical leagues at the Massachusetts General Hos-
percalcemia in the outpatient population, treatment of PHPT and, for appropriate pa- pital then contributed significantly to the
with estimated prevalence of 1 in 500 tients, is the ideal initial operation. Compre- knowledge of parathyroid anatomical dis-
women and 1 in 2,000 men. A second and hensive parathyroid examination can be tribution and challenges of ectopic and me-
related feature is higher prevalence of as- performed in a minimally invasive way. This diastinal parathyroids. Exemplifying this is
ymptomatic PHPT, where the clear bio- approach requires a thorough understand- the well-known case history of their pa-
chemical diagnosis of parathyroid disease ing of parathyroid gland anatomy and em- tient, Captain Charles Martell, who under-
exists without noticeable symptoms or clin- bryology and of specific indications based went his seventh parathyroid exploration
ically detectable consequences, such as on clinical presentation, parathyroid imag- in 1932. From that time period until about
bone density loss or kidney stones. More ing, and intraoperative findings. In this chap- 2003, bilateral, comprehensive parathyroid
patients are being diagnosed in such an as- ter, we review the key roles of comprehensive exploration was the dominant surgical ap-
ymptomatic phase of the disease because parathyroidectomy as part of the spectrum proach for the treatment of parathyroid
calcium has become a routine component of available parathyroid operations. disease.
of automated chemistry panels, thus lead- The key aspects of parathyroid anatomy
ing to incidental detection of hypercalce- ANATOMY AND and embryology to adapt to comprehensive
mia. Conversely, more practitioners are also EMBRYOLOGY parathyroidectomy are illustrated in Figs. 1
recognizing the need to screen patients to 3. The appearance of parathyroids can be
with osteoporosis, osteopenia, and kidney There are typically four parathyroid glands variable even when they are biochemically
stones for underlying PHPT utilizing not in most individuals. A large autopsy study functioning normally. When diseased, para-
just calcium, but a panel that includes cal- identified four parathyroid glands in 84% of thyroid glands may display variable mor-
cium, intact parathyroid hormone (PTH), human cadavers, five or more glands in 13%, phological changes in size, shape, texture,
and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. and only three parathyroids in 3%. Supranu- and firmness. Abnormal parathyroids are
In response to these evolving presenta- merary parathyroids are most often located generally fuller in all dimensions, have a
tions of parathyroid disease, several multi- in the thymus. The possibility of having an darker brown or reddish-brown color, and
disciplinary publications have offered unusual number or location of parathyroid do not compress easily or are significantly
guidelines for the indications and timing of glands has direct impact on the success of firm when gently probed. They may have an
parathyroid surgery. Despite these guide- parathyroid surgery and the potential need irregular and knobby shape, more promi-
lines, patients with PHPT remain, as a for comprehensive parathyroidectomy. nent vascular pedicles, or a plexus of vascu-
group, underreferred and undertreated sur- A brief survey of the history of parathy- lature. Glands of patients with secondary
gically. Surgical therapy remains the only roid surgery illustrates the importance of and tertiary hyperparathyroidism may be
definite and durable treatment for PHPT. applying the knowledge of parathyroid sclerotic and light in color from this fibro-
What was once designated “conventional,” anatomy and embryology during parathy- sis. In cases of borderline abnormal appear-
“traditional,” or “bilateral” parathyroidec- roidectomy. Normal parathyroid glands are ance, it is helpful to determine in vivo para-
tomy, however, may not be the most suit- approximately 5 to 6 mm in greatest dimen- thyroid weight prior to excision of the
able terminology for present-day and future sion, weigh 15 to 35 mg, and can be incon- parathyroid. This can be readily done by
surgeons. The third important feature of spicuous with their orange-tan color em- measuring parathyroid length (L), width
current surgical management of parathy- bedded or flattened within a surrounding (W), and height (H) using a small ruler or
roid disease is, therefore, that there has yellow fatty tissue envelope. Thus, they were micrometer device without removing the
been a clear paradigm shift toward focused only first identified in a large mammal, the gland. Since most glands are oval, calculat-
parathyroid surgery: the exploration of a Indian Rhinoceros. Following this discov- ing the volume of an ellipsoid using sizes in
single site of suspected parathyroid gland ery by Sir Richard Owen during an autopsy millimeters estimates parathyroid gland
abnormality. Most parathyroid surgeons of the rhinoceros in the London Zoo in 1852 weight in milligrams (weight [mg] = L ×
have adapted this as the favored initial and publication as a minor comment about W × H × ½) [mm3]). There is ongoing in-
approach to parathyroid surgery, guided by parathyroids in 1862, it was Swedish medi- terest and some controversy in defining
radiologic studies and intraoperative PTH cal student Ivar Viktor Sandstrom who first what truly constitutes an abnormal para-
measurement. identified parathyroids in man in 1875. In thyroid, and whether this is a matter of
This chapter, however, is devoted to the the early 1900s, biochemical measurement purely morphological form, biochemical
approach of a comprehensive parathyroi- of calcium became possible and the associ- function, or a combination of both.
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 487
Fig. 1. Parathyroid anatomy can be variable. Even normal parathyroid glands can assume irregular shapes
(A) that should not be mistaken for adenomas or hyperplasia. Asymmetry or variable degrees of parathyroid
enlargement furthermore exists even in multigland hyperplasia (B). The intraoperative photo illustrates
three variably abnormal parathyroids in morphology; all were histologically hypercellular. Despite the find-
ing of one significantly large parathyroid at first, there can be additional abnormalities in the remaining
parathyroid glands. Average parathyroid gland sizes vary by underlying pathology (C): 700 mg single for
adenomas, 150 mg for each hyperplastic gland in PHPT, and 1,000 mg for each gland in secondary HPT.
Embryologically, the upper parathyroids ithyroidal fat posterior to the superior pole roid locations in the left and right sides of
develop from the fourth branchial pouch of the thyroid gland and near the path of the the neck. Additional clues for parathyroid
and migrate caudally with the thyroid, recurrent laryngeal nerve as it enters the location can come from observing the pat-
while the lower parathyroid glands derive cricothyroid muscle. In contrast, the lower terns of vasculature in and around the ex-
from the third branchial pouch and migrate parathyroids are more widespread around pected parathyroid region. Both parathy-
with the thymus. The upper parathyroid the lower pole of the thyroid gland, thyro- roids typically derive some blood supply
glands have a narrow area of distribution thymic ligament, and pretracheal fat. Sym- from the inferior thyroid artery. In relation
and are fairly reliably positioned in the per- metry is usually present between parathy- to the path of the main trunk of this artery as
it nears the thyroid, upper parathyroids are
cranial and deeper, and lower parathyroids
are caudal, anterior, and medial. Unusually
curved or extra branching patterns of the ar-
tery may alert to abnormal parathyroids
found hanging at the ends of those branches,
sometimes several centimeters away from
the thyroid capsule. Within their fatty enve-
lope, a normal parathyroid will have a leaf-
like branching pattern of their vascular pedi-
cle. This is a helpful contrast to lymph nodes,
fat or thymic tissues that have no visible vas-
cular pattern, and abnormal parathyroids
whose vascular pedicle may be exaggerated.
Migratory distribution of the parathy-
roids can lead to ectopic locations within
the thymus, within the sheath encompass-
Endocrine Surgery
DIAGNOSIS
Traditionally, the diagnosis of PHPT has
rested on the demonstration of simultane-
ously elevated serum total and/or ionized
calcium with elevated intact PTH, in the
setting of normal or high calcium excre-
tion in the urine. With this combination of
findings, the diagnosis of PHPT is practi-
cally definitive. In part, this is because
modern measurements of PTH detect the
intact molecule, reflecting the entire pro-
tein derived from the parathyroid glands,
and essentially eliminating confounding
diagnoses from ectopic sources of PTH,
such as tumors producing PTH-related
peptide (PTHrp). The rare hereditary con-
dition of benign familial hypercalcemic
hypocalciurea (BFHH) is excluded by the
finding of normal or high levels of calcium
in a 24-hour urine collection.
Approximately 10% of patients will have
unusual biochemical presentations that do
not fit these classical diagnostic criteria,
but are nonetheless found to have PHPT.
There are at least two atypical versions of
the disease. Normocalcemic PHPT mani-
fests with normal total serum calcium but
Fig. 3. Distribution of ectopic parathyroid glands (see Ritter and Milas in Suggested Readings for addi- high PTH and has been relatively well ap-
tional references).
proven PHPT are the following: phonates, and calcimimetic agents have cal locations, and the appropriate resection
been described as nonoperative treatment of those that appear abnormal.
1. Achieve a normocalcemic state and nor-
mal long-term PTH. options. These medications reduce calcium
and PTH levels while administered, but
2. Avoid injury to the laryngeal nerves.
their long-term impact on improving sys- PREOPERATIVE
3. Engender minimal postoperative mor-
bidity and negligible mortality. temic consequences of hyperparathyroid- PLANNING: PARATHYROID
4. Achieve cosmetic scar appearance ac- ism is unclear. Frequent monitoring of LOCALIZATION STUDIES
ceptable to the patient. changes in laboratory values, recommenda-
tions to avoid dehydration and excess cal- The thoughtful, step-wise assessment of the
Surgery remains the most clearly dem- cium intake, and periodic reassessment for patient to reach a diagnosis of PHPT and
onstrated mechanism for durable cure of surgery are important components of non- identify the need for surgery is the most im-
PHPT and symptomatic improvement, par- operative management. portant part of preoperative planning. The
490 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
ar e localization techniques used for reopera- Most surgeons currently perform parathy-
Table 2 Indications for Compre- tit ve rather than initial preoperative evalua- roid surgery with general anesthesia, and
hensive Parathyroidec-
tomy as the Initial Surgery t . Neck ultrasound, and particularly sur-
tion some use local anesthetics supplemented
for PHPT: the Systematic ge on-performed ultrasound, provides the by deep cervical nerve block and sedation.
Examination of all Para- a dded advantage of identifying concomitant No antibiotics are needed except in reoper-
thyroid Glands in their tht yroid disease that may need to be ad- ative cases. Prophylaxis for deep vein
Usual Anatomic Location dr essed during parathyroid surgery. Thyroid thrombosis is left to the judgment of the
and Appropriate Resection no dular disease is seen in as many as 30% of surgeon and tailored to patient need, but in
of Diseased Parathyroids p atients, while 4% will have previously undi- general, sequential compression stockings
a gnosed thyroid cancer detected during have the least of risk of neck hematoma
Absolute indications evaluation for PHPT. while providing DVT prophylaxis.
Known or suspected multiple endocrine It is valid to consider whether patients Comprehensive parathyroid exploration
neoplasia syndromes se ected for comprehensive parathyroid ex- can also be performed without the use of
Intraoperative PTH fails to drop after lploration require any preoperative imaging. intraoperative adjuncts, although these
resection of suspected single adenoma IIn principle, this imaging is not essential be- may be helpful depending on the complex-
Failure to find diseased gland at location cause the risk of mediastinal or cervical ecto- ity of surgical findings, assessment of use-
indicated by imaging studies pic parathyroid disease is rare. It is justifiable fulness by the individual surgeon, or experi-
Finding more than one abnormal parathyroid
during intended focal or unilateral neck
t to conduct comprehensive parathyroidec- ence of the surgeon. Numerous intraop
exploration t y without imaging studies, and this strat-
tom erative adjuncts have been described. Most
Negative imaging studies eg y has a decades-long successful track re- notably, intraoperative PTH measurement
Imaging studies suggesting multiple sites of cor d. Conversely, if no preoperative imaging has become a fundamental part of modern
disease s tudies are available or if they are entirely parathyroid surgical practice. It is used to
Coexisting thyroid cancer or bilateral goiter n egative, comprehensive rather than focal confirm complete excision of hyperfunc-
requiring total thyroidectomy p arathyroid exploration is advisable. Preop- tioning glands and is discussed in detail in
Advisable indications er ative imaging is valuable, nevertheless, the subsequent chapter. Intraoperative
wi th comprehensive parathyroidectomy as it PTH, however, is least accurate in predict-
Discordant parathyroid imaging studies
Unavailability of intraoperative PTH can facilitate the conduct and speed of the ing multigland parathyroid hyperplasia.
measurement op eration by focusing early dissection on the Other adjuncts include frozen section his-
Inability to obtain preoperative imaging r
Lithium-induced PHPT region of greatest suspected abnormality. tology and needle aspiration of excised tis-
Non-MEN familial hyperparathyroidism sue for measurement of PTH as means of
Coexisting thyroid pathology that may SURGICAL TECHNIQUE distinguishing parathyroid from non-para-
require operative intervention thyroid tissue. It is useful to recall that nei-
Surgeon preference or experience Co mprehensive parathyroidectomy can be ther frozen section examination nor per-
ac complished with minimal invasiveness manent histology can distinguish between
and morbidity, gentle dissection, and the single adenomas, hyperplasia, or various
use of few delicate instruments (Fig. 4). underlying parathyroid disease states
nous sampling, and occasionally PET scans Fig. 4. Instrumentation useful for comprehensive parathyroidectomy.
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 491
(primary, secondary, or familial hyperpara- this midline and require ligation, although brown) of the parathyroid. A normal para-
thyroidism). Intraoperative gamma probe electrocautery is sufficient for dividing thyroid will appear flattened and have a
has been applied to in vivo localization of most of these tiny branches. The sternothy- leaf-like vascular pattern absent in simple
abnormal parathyroids and ex vivo mea- roid muscle is bluntly separated from the fat or thymus. It can be gently coaxed out of
surement of radiotracer counts as markers undersurface of the sternohyoid muscle for the areolar or fatty covering to determine its
of normal versus abnormal parathyroids. a short distance, again to aid mobility in entire size and that it does not hide an en-
Intraoperative ultrasound has been sug- lateral retraction. The loose areolar tissue larged segment (a “cap of normal” disguis-
gested to facilitate incision placement. between the sternothyroid muscle and thy- ing an underlying parathyroid tumor). An
There is extensive literature on the clinical roid is taken down with cautery at low set- abnormal or enlarged parathyroid will often
efficacy of these adjuncts. Their ultimate tings or blunt dissection. It is important to appear as a mass bulging below thicker tis-
application remains surgeon dependent separate these tissues or any pretracheal fat sue, or have a sliding motion back and forth
and some are more essential for focal rather at the very edge of the sternothyroid mus- beneath a film of thin areolar cover. The ab-
than comprehensive parathyroidectomy. cle, to avoid unintentionally displacing normal parathyroid should also be sepa-
Once anesthetized, the patient is posi- parathyroid tissue laterally. Traction is ex- rated from the encasing thin areolar tissue
tioned with arms tucked at the side and erted on the thyroid lobe by using a peanut so that its only attachment is the vascular
head gently hyperextended, facilitated by or manually with 4 × 4 sponges, in order to pedicle. This can sometimes be facilitated
placement of a roll or bean bag between the elevate and medially rotate the lobe. This by using a #3 Penfield instrument, whose
scapulae. Care to have vertical alignment of exposes the lateral and posterior thyroid curvature can gently scoop out a parathy-
the patient’s chin, suprasternal notch, and surface, and brings the middle thyroid vein roid. Ideally, the dissection should free the
center of the thyroid cartilage aids a sym- into view. This vein is always above the enlarged parathyroid along its lateral and
metric incision. Likewise, to optimize cos- plane of the carotid artery, which should posterior aspects first, leaving the medially
metic results, it is helpful to mark potential now be visible or palpable. The vein courses located pedicle along the thyroid last.
incision sites while the patient is awake and in a medial to lateral direction, similar and We have designated the search for para-
sitting upright, as this best reveals natural often parallel to the inferior thyroid artery, thyroid glands along the usual anatomical
skin creases, which can move or become which in contrast, is always situated deep distribution of upper and lower parathy-
less visible in supine position. The authors to the carotid artery. The middle thyroid roids as the “primary parathyroid survey.”
prefer chlorhexidine for sterile prep be- vein can be isolated, ligated, and divided to It takes into consideration exploring all
cause it is nonflammable and avoids poten- facilitate exposure. the regions shown in Fig. 2, until the remain-
tial irritation and staining of the face and Comprehensive parathyroid exploration ing three parathyroids have been identified.
neck. begins by identifying the abnormal para- It is useful to develop a systematic order of
A transversely oriented incision is made thyroid gland in the area suggested by pre- exploration and practice it routinely. A con-
according to the optimal site marked. In operative imaging. Very fine instruments venient strategy is to target exposure of the
most patients, this is 1.5 to 2 fingerbreadths are used for these maneuvers and the im- most abnormal parathyroid first, then the
above the suprasternal notch. The length of portance of maintaining a bloodless field ipsilateral parathyroid, and finally explore
the incision varies with surgeon preference, cannot be overemphasized. Blood staining the contralateral side. When all parathyroids
and usually does not need to be longer than discolors the adjacent tissue and can make have been indentified, assessment about the
4 to 6 cm. Comprehensive parathyroid ex- parathyroids less noticeable. If parathyroid disease process (single adenoma, double ad-
ploration can be performed via incisions as imaging is negative, the area of the lower enoma, or hyperplasia) can be made and a
small as 2.5 cm positioned in the midline at parathyroid is exposed first because it is decision about which parathyroids to re-
the thyroid isthmus. The incision is carried more accessible. Exposure of the upper move and in what order can be determined.
down by electrocautery through the plat- parathyroid area requires an even greater Treatment of single adenomas is simple
ysma muscle that is about 2 to 3 mm thick degree of medial rotation of the thyroid excision of the abnormal gland. Multigland
(more visible in men) and relatively free of lobe. The strategy is to identify fatty-appear- hyperplasia is ideally treated with subtotal
blood vessels. Deep to the platysma is an ing tissue along the edges of the thyroid or parathyroidectomy and parathyroid cryo-
avascular plane just above the anterior jug- adjacent to the space where branches of the preservation. If only two or three of the four
ular veins that can be developed to aid ex- inferior and superior thyroid artery enter glands are abnormal, the abnormal para-
posure, using a combination of electrocau- the thyroid gland. Purposeful observation thyroids are excised while the normal para-
tery and blunt dissection. This subplatysmal of the operative field is more effective than thyroids can be left in situ without resec-
plane is developed until the thyroid carti- blind dissection. Care should be taken to tion, marking their location with a clip. If all
lage is palpable superiorly and the sternal stay close to the thyroid to avoid injury to four glands are abnormal, the remnant
notch inferiorly, but can be dissected less in the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The nerve should be fashioned first, resecting all but a
Endocrine Surgery
thin patients. Mobilizing these flaps offers does not have to be exposed or skeletonized segment measuring approximately 6 × 4
optimal exposure through small incisions by as part of comprehensive parathyroidec- mm or the size of a normal parathyroid
increasing the ease of retraction. Anterior tomy. Its presence in the vicinity and orien- (around 25 mg). This segment remains at-
jugular veins are preserved as a potential tation relative to enlarged parathyroids tached to the vascular pedicle and is marked
source of blood sampling for intraoperative should always be considered, and its path with a clip across the transected surface.
PTH. revealed just enough, if necessary, to ensure Parathyroids with discrete or long vascular
Once the subplatysmal flaps are created, its safety during subsequent dissection. pedicles and those with oval rather than
a self-retaining retractor is placed. The When an area of likely parathyroid ab- globular or knobby shape are easier to fash-
avascular midline raphe of the strap mus- normality is seen, careful blunt dissection is ion into remnants. Inferior parathyroids are
cles is opened vertically along the midline done using a fine curved hemostat to sepa- more suitable to use as remnants because
to separate the muscles and expose the thy- rate the overlying fatty tissue looking for they are easier to approach in event of fu-
roid. Occasionally, small vessels can cross subtle color changes (darker orange to ture reoperation.
492 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Fig. 5. Secondary parathyroid survey examines areas of atypical or ectopic parathyroid location when POSTOPERATIVE
initial exploration fails to reveal all pathologic glands. MANAGEMENT
Short-term postoperative management
A “secondary parathyroid survey” refers ies (Fig. 6). The secondary survey should varies according to surgeon preference. Fol-
to exploration of cervical regions when not be performed just to locate a normal lowing parathyroidectomy, most surgeons
parathyroid position is more unusual or ec- parathyroid, but a missing pathologic elect to observe their patients for 23 hours,
topic, and when the above primary survey gland. The thymus should be retracted out but many use outpatient care. Long-term
has not led to conclusive findings. Impor- of the mediastinum as far as possible with- management relies on diligent monitoring
tant areas to examine are summarized in out avulsion, carefully examined, palpated, of calcium and PTH levels to observe dura-
Fig. 5. The most commonly missed location and removed. The middle thyroid vein ble cure of hyperparathyroidism. Ideally, a
is a retroesophageal parathyroid that has should be ligated and divided, if not already full biochemical panel that includes cal-
sunken into the deep posterior space be- done, as this provides greater exposure of cium, PTH, and vitamin D should be
hind the tracheoesophageal groove, often the trachea and esophagus. Mobilizing the checked at 2 weeks after surgery during the
lying on the anterior surface of the spine upper thyroid pole as during thyroidectomy first postoperative visit, then at 6 months,
and below the main trunk of the inferior can occasionally disclose ectopic parathy- and then annually for the remainder of the
thyroid artery. This parathyroid is embryo- roids without devascularizing the thyroid patient’s lifetime. The impact of vitamin D
logically derived from the upper gland, al- gland. Thyroid lobectomy on the side of the deficiency in causing transient secondary
though it often appears to have a position missing abnormal parathyroid may be jus- hyperparathyroidism postoperatively in an
more inferior than the actual lower gland, tifiable even when no palpable abnormali- otherwise cured patient is well recognized.
both intraoperatively and on imaging stud- ties exist, but this circumstance can poten- This can be seen in up to 20% to 30% of
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 493
Endocrine Surgery
COMPLICATIONS
Infections occur exceptionally rarely. Neck
hematomas requiring operative evacuation
and permanent hoarseness from recurrent
laryngeal nerve injury should likewise be
minimal (0.5% to 1%). There must be deli-
cate tissue handling to avoid damage to
normal parathyroids or disruption of ab-
normal glands. The actual tissue of these
structures should never be grasped itself;
rather, forceps and instruments should
handle the surrounding fatty tissue, filmy Fig. 8. A: Subtotal or near-total parathyroidectomy with parathyroid cryopreservation. B: The small
adventitia, or vessels. Hypocalcemia be- parathyroid fragments are drawn up into the syringe as a convenient way of transportation in sterile
comes a greater risk with subtotal or near- fashion to the cryopreservation facility.
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 495
usually becomes evident within 6 months a decade of change. J Am Coll Surg 2009;209: 7. Phitayakorn R, McHenry CR. Parathyroidec-
of surgery if the cervical remnants become 332–43. tomy: overview of the anatomic basis and
nonfunctional. 3. Mazzaglia PJ, Berber E, Kovach A, et al. surgical strategies for parathyroid operations.
The changing presentation of hyperpara- Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2007;5:89–102.
The potential for missed ectopic or su- thyroidism over three decades. Arch Surg 8. Ritter H, Milas M. Parathyroidectomy: bilater-
pranumerary parathyroids and persistent 2008;143:260–6. al neck exploration. In: Terris D, ed. Operative
or recurrent hyperparathyroidism should 4. Moalem J, Guerrero M, Kebebew E. Bilat- Techniques in Otolaryngology. St. Louis, MO:
be discussed with patients prior to sur- eral neck exploration in PHPT – when is it se- Elsevier; 2009.
gery to properly inform expectations of lected and how is it performed? World J Surg 9. Siperstein A, Berber E, Barbosa G, et al. Pre-
surgery. 2009;33:2282–91. dicting success of limited exploration for 1°
5. Pasieka JL, Parsons LL, Demeure MJ, et al. hyperparathyroidism using ultrasound, ses-
Patient-based surgical outcome tool demon- tamibi scan, and intraoperative PTH: analysis
SUGGESTED READINGS strating alleviation of symptoms following of 1,055 cases. Ann Surg 2008;248(3):420–8.
parathyroidectomy in patients with PHPT. 10. Yip L, Ogilvie JB, Challinor SM, et al. Identifi-
1. AACE/AAES Task Force on PHPT. Position World J Surg 2002;26(8):942–9. cation of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
statement on the diagnosis and management 6. Perrier ND, Edeiken B, Nunez R, et al. A novel in patients with apparent sporadic PHPT. Sur-
of PHPT. Endocr Pract 2005;11:49–54. nomenclature to classify parathyroid ade- gery 2008;144(6):1002–6; discussion 1006–7.
2. Greene A, Mitchell J, Davis R, et al. National nomas. World J Surg 2009;33(3):412–6.
trends in parathyroid surgery from 1997–2007:
EDITOR’S COMMENT and 100%. This is not a merely hypothetical fig- tional parathyroid exploration has become some- ure;
there are real decreases in cognitive function, what rare and only occurs when there is failure as we
shall see in this commentary, especially in of a minimally invasive approach to parathyroi-
As Professor Siperstein states, parathyroidectomy patients who are older than 75 and patients with dectomy, whatever minimally invasive approach
has become one of the most common operations, higher calcium, the more rapid the decline in cog- is, since many individuals do not define what they
particularly as or near an outpatient in the sur- nition, so success is important. A redo explora- do, and then a conventional bilateral neck explo-
geon’s armentarium. While it is tempting to say tion of the neck, in an attempt to find the missing ration parathyroidectomy becomes necessary.
that all groups have the same approach, that is gland, is sometimes a difficult procedure, so it is The field of parathyroid surgery has changed
clearly not so. I believe that Dr. Siperstein uses a best avoided. considerably in the past 5 years, and the contro-
bilateral approach in all cases, and believes that in The minimally invasive parathyroidectomy versy of intraoperative PTH has been somewhat
all cases all four glands, or all normal glands and following the improvement in Tc99m-sestamibi ameliorated since, as one will see in the chapter
all abnormal glands should be identified. I do not scan and ultrasonography has made, as the au- devoted to this by Dr. Solerzano (Chapter 38) is
think that this is the case with Professor Moley, who thors point out, minimally invasive parathyroi- not absolute, but is helpful. It is widely used, but
indicates that the “conventional parathyroidec- dectomy the standard in some, but not all units. not accepted as the absolute sine qua non of suc-
tomy” should only occur in the minority of cases. Unfortunately, however, there is no good defini- cess. Perhaps it should be and perhaps surgeons
A big difference between the two chapters may be tion, at least in the papers I have reviewed, as to should persist until there is a 50% decrease in
the fact that intraoperative parathyroid hormone what a minimally invasive parathyroidectomy is, intraoperative parathyroid assay. The difference
(PTH) measurement is not mentioned by Dr. Siper- unless what it means, as seems likely, that when is that different individuals use a different sam-
stein and therefore it is necessary to have a visual focus is on an enlarged parathyroid gland, which ple technique. When originally described by Dr.
verification of which glands are what. Not that the seems to show increased uptake of the sestamibi George “Bucky” Irvin, the standard was to have a
intraoperative PTH measurement is the sine qua scan or an enlarged single gland on ultrasound preincision figure and then, a sample drawn after
non. In the 5 years between the editions, it would and does not bother to do either a unilateral or the parathyroid gland had been dissected free,
appear as if most parathyroid surgeons believe that a bilateral neck exploration. In addition, it does thereby elevating the level of PTH, and then two
the PTH is helpful in about 60% of the cases, but is appear that the accepted success rate, unfortu- postexcision samples: one variable between 5 and
not the sine qua non. I believe the reason for this nately, in minimally invasive parathyroidectomy 10 minutes and the other at 15 minutes to half an
is that the confusion between the initial samples in the absence of a bilateral neck exploration hour. In this case, the evolution of parathyroidec-
that is preincision and whether or not one also has has yielded an acceptance of 89% to 95% success tomy has been a moving target. Many surgeons
preexcision sample after the offending parathyroid rate in the “cure” of hyperparathyroidism. There ask me whether it is worthwhile doing a new edi-
gland has been identified and dissected out so that does appear to be, and I hope this is not correct; tion approximately every 5 years. The answer is
the PTH measurement immediately before exci- a difference in acceptance of what success is in yes, and as one can see in this volume, not only
sion is perhaps artificially elevated. operation on primary hypercalcemic hyperpara- parathyroid and hernia, but also gastrectomy
There also seems to be a difference in the ap- thyroidism between specialties. In the endocrine and Roux-en-Y, and a number of other areas that
proach to diagnosis. I am not trying to pigeon- surgical groups descended from general surgeons, have been real changes in what various surgeons
hole everybody but it seems to me that in Prof. it does appear that the higher figure of success of around the world think.
Siperstein’s chapter he argues that the surgeon at least 99% to 100% is not only the standard, but In trying to define what the standard is for
should be very much involved in the diagno- is achievable, especially if one pursues finally, parathyroidectomy, there are at least four areas
sis. I do not know what Prof. Moley thinks as to bilateral neck exploration in the failure of, for which we need to be cognizant of. They are the
whether or not someone else does the diagnosis example, intraoperative PTH decreases of 50% following:
and the surgeon passes on it, or whether the sur- or more. However, in the otolaryngological lit-
Endocrine Surgery
geon is actively involved in the diagnosis. erature, several papers of which will be quoted in 1. The appropriate diagnostic procedures.
These may be subtle differences in the two this commentary, it does appear that 95% to 96%, 2. The role of minimally invasive parathyroi-
chapters in a disease that has become very com- is thought of as a good result. I cannot accept this. dectomy, and wherever possible, to define it mon
and in which patients undergo different The cognitive decreases in function, especially in and what it means. It clearly means different
procedures by different individuals all of whom the elderly, as well as the difficulty in redo neck things to different surgeons.
have significant experience in practice and re- exploration, make it imperative that individuals 3. The role of intraoperative PTH measurements:
section. who are performing parathyroid surgery will ac- How and when performed and the interpreta-
In the introduction to the section on parathy- cept no less than a 99% to 100% success rate in tion thereof.
roid surgery in the fifth edition, I made the point the first try in single gland hyperparathyroidism. 4. How strongly does one feel about hyperpara- that
in good units the standard of care, perhaps, is As Professor Moley points out in the first thyroidism in the elderly (over 75 years old), to
“cure” primary hyperthyroidism between 99% paragraph of this very nice chapter, the conven- and should they be operated on.
(continued)
496 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Those are at least the minimum expectations tween 2004 and 2008. Unfortunately, the mean plained that the additional benefit of intraopera-
that we should have concerning this disease. Yet, age of the patients was 60, not the group that, I tive parathyroid therapy is marginal, especially
apparently, not all believe that these should be believe, we would be much more interested in, given the longer duration of surgery. I violently
our standards. Ruda JM et al., Otolaryngol Head since that is a group that is still controversial, to disagree with this conclusion. The purpose of the Neck
Surg (2005) 132:359–72 reviewed 20,225 some extent. Their success rate was 99% using a operation is not to set speed records, but to have a cases of
primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) re- minimally invasive approach, which they did not successful parathyroidectomy, which ameliorates ported.
Of these, the distribution of the etiology describe, on an ambulatory basis. The difference or cures hypercalcemia and hyperparathyroid- of the
disease was somewhat different than what between the previously, seemingly accepted 95% ism. A success rate of 96% is no longer acceptable. we had
previously been led to believe. There were and 99%, while perhaps, not significantly statis- This, unfortunately, is from another otolaryngol- single
adenomas in 88.9%, multiple gland hyper- tically, is significant, biologically, since 99%, at ogy unit. I hope that they do not believe that a plasic
disease in 5.7% was somewhat lower than least to me, is the standard to which various success rate of 96% is appropriate.
previously, 4.1% in double adenomas, and 0.74% surgeons should aspire. There was a significant From the UK and the Hull Royal Hospital, of
parathyroid carcinomas. The two standard pre- reduction in mood and anxiety symptoms and Charlotte SD et al., in Journal of Laryngology and
operative tests, which were the Tc99m-sestamibi improvement in spatial working memory in Otology, published online, July, quite frankly gave and
ultrasound were 88.4% and 78.79% sensi- patients with PHPT who underwent successful me a pause. Their failure rate in PHPT, they de- tive,
respectively, for single adenoma, and 44.7% parathyroidectomy. However, the elderly were fined in 220 primary procedures over 4.5 years, and
35% for multiple gland hyperplasic disease not selected out in this group, but Tram MR was 6.4%, thus a success rate of 93.5%. I have not in 29%,
30%, and 16.2% for double adenomas, et al. (J Am Geriatr Soc 2007;55:1786–92) found read such a low figure for success in a literature respectively.
The results of operation, initially that high serum calcium levels were associated over the past 10 years. Also, one wonders how offered minimally
invasive radioguided parathy- with a rapid decline in cognitive function, espe- careful the recordkeeping was. Of the 220 pa- roidectomy and the
initial operation of unilateral cially for people older than 75 years. This find- tients, apparently, 16 did not have postoperative exploration, and then
finally, bilateral neck explo- ing of improvement in a cognitive function was calcium, and they would not exclude them. The ration were 96.66%,
95.25%, and 97.69%, respec- present, even if patients with an abnormally high authors do not state what else was not excluded tively. Intraoperative
parathyroid assays were calcium level were excluded from this study. or what was not available. Table 1 is quite reveal- not considered sine qua
non, but “were helpful” Another chapter, which apparently did not ing, in which, of the 13 patients that they group, in ~60% of bilateral neck
exploration conver- seem to accept the necessity for a 99% remission the solitary adenoma was missed in four of six of sion surgeries. They also stated
that intraopera- rate in hypercalcemia and hyperparathyroidism Group I, the other two were familial hypercalce- tive PTH was helpful, but not
foolproof adjunct (Bach G et al., published online, 2011 in Head and mic hypocalcuria. In Group 2, undertreated mul- in parathyroid exploration
surgery. However, in Neck), in which a relatively small number of pa- tiglandular hyperplasia was present in four; the Table 3, the results are given as
stated previously tients, 240, were divided in three groups between second adenoma was missed in a fifth; a prob- with bilateral neck exploration as
97.69%, but bi- January 2002 and January 2006. The first group, able missed adenoma, again, in the sixth; and lateral neck exploration conversion,
when what- 109 patients, underwent Tc99m-sestamibi scan- three adenomas in the seventh patient. Intraoper- ever the previous minimally invasive
parathyroid ning and ultrasonography, and intraoperative ative parathyroid tact only utilized three samples; technique was unsuccessful, was
99.08%. The parathyroid measurement. The second group of the first, before incision; the second, after removal; author’s conclusion that these
results support a 102 underwent only ultrasonography and sesta- and the third, after 15 minutes. There was no greater role for the treatment of
primary hyper- mibi scanning, and the third group, ultrasonog- preexcision sample, which, it seems to me, is es- thyroidism using less invasive
approaches is not raphy and intraoperative PTH monitoring. The sential, if one is going to use intraoperative PTH correct in my view, for the above-
mentioned rea- technique was not described before the surgery, measurement after a gland has been isolated sons. One should not accept 96.66%
or 95.25%, but intraoperative parathyroid samples were and just before removal. I realize that the gland or even 97.69%; the only thing that is
acceptable four; I assume that one was preincision, one was has been stimulated, and the PTH may be in- is a 99% success rate for the reasons
mentioned preexcision, and then there were two postexci- creased, but that is what most individuals have above, and if it takes a conversion to
a bilateral sion samples, although this is not described. Of practiced.
neck exploration, so be it, unless, of course, the the group that had Tc99m-sestamibi scanning and Taking together, I have to agree with the au-
surgeon is unfamiliar and hesitant about using ultrasound, preoperatively, followed by intraop- thors of some of the papers, particularly Clive
this approach. erative parathyroid determination, the success Grant, John Van Heerdon, and also Robert Udels-
What is the goal of hypercalcemia in the rate increased from 97% to 99%. The ultrasonog- man’s unit at Yale, that the acceptable standard is
cognitive impairment that supposedly occurs in raphy and sestamibi scanning were successful in the 99% to 100% cure rate of PHPT. Anything less
patients with hyperparathyroidism? Roman SA 96% of the cases, and in Group 3, a small group, in may border on practice below the standard. The
et al. (Ann Surg 2011;253:131–7) carried out psy- which there was only ultrasound, the use of intra- acceptance of 96% as a routine is not acceptable
chological evaluations in 212 patients who were operative PTH in these 29 patients increased the in 2011.
referred to a large tertiary referral center be- success rate from 89% to 96%. The authors com- J.E.F.
INTRODUCTION is the result of autonomous hypersecretion There are currently two major operative ap-
of PTH by one or more parathyroid glands. proaches: traditional parathyroidectomy
The ability to quickly measure parathyroid Surgical treatment of SPHPT continues to and focused parathyroidectomy. The major-
hormone (PTH) in plasma and tissue has be based on the identification and removal ity of high-volume parathyroid surgeons
changed the understanding and surgical of all hypersecreting parathyroid tissue perform focused parathyroidectomy guided
management of sporadic primary hyper- while preserving normally functioning by preoperative localization studies and in-
parathyroidism (SPHPT). This disease entity glands that maintain calcium homeostasis. traoperative parathyroid monitoring (IPM).
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 497
In this chapter, the use of IPM as an adjunct HISTORY OF IPM Currently, hypersecretion of PTH by abnor-
during parathyroidectomy in patients with mal gland(s) is measured by a nonradioac-
SPHPT is discussed. Reiss and Canterbury first described an anti- tive two-site immunochemiluminescent
Traditional parathyroidectomy requires body with good affinity for PTH in humans antibody that captures and quantifies the
bilateral neck exploration (BNE) that in- using an immunoradiometric assay. The util- unknown amount of hormone in a sample
volves the identification of usually four ity of this assay, however, was limited as it of plasma. Rapid results are essential if the
parathyroid glands, and based on the sur- recognized only part of the PTH molecule. In surgeon is to use hormone dynamics to
geon’s judgment, the excision of all grossly 1987, Nussbaum and colleagues described a guide parathyroidectomy. Most intraopera-
enlarged glands. All normal-sized parathy- new method for measuring the intact (1–84) tive assays provide results on an average of
roid glands are left in situ. A problem with PTH molecule by using a two-site antibody 8 to 20 minutes, and the PTH dynamic
this approach is that the size of a parathy- technique that proved more sensitive and changes shown by these rapid assays corre-
roid gland does not always directly correlate specific than previous PTH assays. Since late well with standard diagnostic assays
to its secretory function. If any hypersecret- PTH has a rapid rate of decay (half-life, 3 to 5 with respective normal ranges. Since sur-
ing gland(s) is left behind, hypercalcemia minutes), these authors suggested that in- geons need a short turnaround time, point-
will persist, resulting in a failed parathyroi- traoperative measurement of PTH might of-care capability with the assay equipment
dectomy. Conversely, if too many normally prove useful to the surgeon performing para- placed in, or in close vicinity to, the operat-
functioning parathyroid glands are excised thyroidectomy. The impetus for developing a ing room is of utmost importance.
or their blood supply compromised during quick quantitative method to determine the
extensive dissection, postoperative hy- removal of all abnormal parathyroid tissue HOW IPM IS USED
poparathyroidism with resultant hypocalce- was a hypersecreting parathyroid gland that
mia and tetany may occur. Large series have was missed after excision of a single enlarged IPM only measures the circulating amount of
shown that this operative approach yields gland during BNE. In 1990, Irvin and col- hormone at the time and from the location
success rates of 95% to 99% when performed leagues refined and applied this assay to where the sample is obtained. The surgeon
by experienced parathyroid surgeons. How- routine clinical practice in the surgical man- must be attentive, understand, and direct the
ever, these curative rates may fall to 70% agement of SPHPT at the University of Mi- sampling times related to the stages of the
when traditional parathyroidectomy is per- ami. By heating and shaking the antibodies operative procedure. There are several intra-
formed by inexperienced surgeons. with the patient’s blood sample to speed re- operative criteria published that predict
In the early 1990s, imaging studies were action times using this assay, intraoperative postoperative calcium levels using changes
increasingly being used by surgeons to PTH monitoring (IPM) was shown to predict in hormone dynamics following excision of
localize and guide parathyroidectomy. postoperative normocalcemia in patients hyperfunctioning glands. The initially de-
Unfortunately, these localization studies after parathyroidectomy. With the later scribed criterion used to predict postopera-
frequently missed multiple gland disease transition from radionuclear to immuno- tive eucalcemia in patients with SPHPT is a
(MGD) making them unreliable as the sole chemiluminescent technology, this PTH as- “>50% PTH drop” 10 minutes after complete
adjunct to focused parathyroidectomy. say became a practical test for intraopera- resection of all hyperfunctioning tissues
Around this time, IPM was introduced pre- tive, point-of-care use. Since 1996, rapid PTH (Table 1). This protocol developed at the Uni-
cisely to avoid missed MGD and to assure assays have become commercially available versity of Miami by George L. Irvin III requires
complete excision of all hypersecreting for intraoperative use, and such surgical ad- peripheral venous or arterial access for blood
glands before leaving the operating room. juncts are now used worldwide. collection at specific times during parathy-
Since its introduction more than a decade roidectomy. This intravenous access is kept
ago, IPM has transformed the surgical HOW IPM WORKS open with a slow infusion of saline, which
management of SPHPT from traditional must be discarded from the line before any
BNE to a more focused, less invasive para- IPM is used by surgeons to confirm the com- blood sample is measured to prevent dilu-
thyroidectomy requiring minimal neck plete excision of all hyperfunctioning para- tion. During the procedure, the anesthesiolo-
dissection. thyroid tissue. The surgical adjunct also gist collects 4 mL of whole blood in an EDTA
alerts the surgeon of an incomplete removal tube at specific times: (a) a “preincision” level
of abnormal parathyroid tissue, thereby in- before skin incision, (b) a “preexcision” level
CANDIDATES FOR IPM-GUIDED dicating the need for further exploration. collected after dissection and just before
PARATHYROIDECTOMY
docrine neoplasia. Excellent operative suc- gland excision calcium for Š6 mo) PTH <6 mo) cri
cess can be achieved in most patients with
symptoms associated with hypercalcemia True positive Yes Yes No
E
or in those patients with no apparent symp- True negative No No Yes
toms and surgical indications as detailed False positive Yes No Yes
by the Summary Statement from the Third
International Workshop on the Manage- False negative No Yes No
ment of Asymptomatic Primary Hyperpara- PTH, parathyroid hormone.
thyroidism in 2008.
498 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Timed operative blood samples rion was not met 10 minutes after gland
Fig. 1. Demonstration of intraoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH) dynamics after successful excision excision or if the decline dynamics are
of a single hyperfunctioning gland. With a drop at the 10-minute postexcision interval of 79% from the not as expected. In the majority of these
highest PTH level, this hormone dynamic predicts a postoperative return to eucalcemia and successful patients, the IPM criterion is met with
parathyroidectomy. Without further exploration of the remaining glands, the operation is completed. this additional 20-minute level and ac-
Dotted line shows time of gland excision. curately predicts postoperative success.
Ultimately, the surgeon should rely on
his/her best judgment to continue ex-
ploration.
clamping the abnormal gland’s blood supply, random time or in the operating room 4. The site of blood sampling can have po-
(c) a 5-minute level, and (d) 10-minute level when either preincision or preexcision tentially important implications. Jugu-
after excision of the suspected abnormal level is obtained. If only a preincision lar venous sampling during parathy-
gland. When peripheral PTH values drop baseline PTH sample is collected before roidectomy usually results in higher
more than 50% from the highest either prein- neck incision, the surgeon may miss the overall absolute PTH values when
cision or preexcision level 10 minutes after peak of the hormone elevation due to compared to peripheral samples and
the excision of all abnormal parathyroid parathyroid gland manipulation. A “pre- may take longer to fall into the normal
gland(s), this criterion predicts normal or excision” sample collected just before the range leading to potential unnecessary
low calcium levels postoperatively with an gland’s blood supply is ligated will avoid neck explorations for surgeons who
overall accuracy of 98%. After this sufficient missing this peak of PTH level. In other require normal range PTH levels at 10
decrease occurs, the observed hormone dy- words, the PTH level will appear not to minutes to meet curative criteria. Fur-
namic guides the surgeon to terminate the drop sufficiently at 10 minutes (<50%) thermore, centrally obtained samples
procedure without further exploration or because it was in fact much higher after are more likely to be spuriously elevat-
identification of the remaining normally se- the preincision blood was drawn. Preinci- ed making interpretation of the results
creting parathyroid glands. An example of sion and preexcision samples should both occasionally difficult and prolonging
IPM used in a patient after excision of a single be obtained in every procedure to accu- the operation.
hypersecreting gland is shown in Figure 1.
With an adequate PTH drop at the 10-minute
INTRAOPERATIVE PEARLS
1. The accuracy of the IPM criterion de-
creases when only one “baseline” sample,
Chapter 39: Comprehensive Parathyroidectomy for the Treatment of PHPT 499
Fig. 2. Intraoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH)
dynamics during successful parathyroidectomy in a
pa-
tient presenting with multiglandular disease
(MGD). An intraoperative preincision level of
102 pg/mL, care- ful dissection of an
abnormal right inferior parathyroid gland
led to a rise of PTH level to 180 pg/mL. After
excision of this hypersecreting gland, the
PTH assay showed no decrease at 5 minutes
(110 pg/mL) and 10 minutes (100 pg/mL).
Reexploration of the neck revealed two
additional abnormal hypersecreting glands.
The fourth gland appeared grossly normal.
This graph shows that the expected hormone
level did not decrease significantly until
excision of the third hyperfunctioning
parathyroid gland. With a 77% de- crease in
the 10-minute sample (22 pg/mL) compared
with the third preexcision plasma sample (99
pg/mL), no remaining hypersecreting
parathyroid tissue was present.
500 Part IV: Endocrine Surgery
Fig. 3. This graph demonstrates the need for a preexcision measurement to achieve an adequate para- tomical location of a hypersecreting and/or
thyroid hormone (PTH) drop to correctly predict operative success. Lack of a preexcision sample in this enlarged gland. The most reliable and fre-
case would lead to unnecessary bilateral neck exploration. Insufficient PTH drop in 10 minutes from the quently used modalities are the sestamibi
preincision level (46%). Dotted line shows time of gland excision. (MIBI) scan and cervical ultrasonography.
When a suspected abnormal gland is local-
ized preoperatively, it allows the surgeon to
perform minimal dissection of the targeted
ADDITIONAL USES FOR IPM venous sampling has been successfully per-
area for excision of an abnormal gland. IPM
formed in the office setting for preoperative
is then used to determine whether all hy-
Differential Internal Jugular localization of parathyroid glands in pa-
persecreting tissue has been removed and
Venous Sampling tients with equivocal localization studies.
the need to continue exploration for more
abnormal tissue. When small incisions are
Many surgeons perform standard BNE for
patients with negative preoperative localiza-
Biochemical Fine Needle Aspiration used, and other parathyroid glands are not
routinely visualized, the operating surgeon
tion studies. Differential jugular venous Fine needle aspiration of tissue for PTH
depends on IPM for the assurance of com-
sampling has been used in these patients to measurement differentiates parathyroid
plete excision of all hypersecreting para-
lateralize the side of the neck harboring glands from other neck structures with
thyroid tissue.
the hyperfunctioning parathyroid gland(s). 100% specificity. A 25-gauge needle at-
When localization studies are incorrect
When performed intraoperatively, samples tached to a syringe is used to collect the tis-
or do not recognize the presence of MGD
from the most inferior portion of each sue sample. The content aspirated in the
that can occur in up to 20% of patients, IPM
internal jugular vein, preferably guided by needle is diluted with 1 cc of saline solu-
is essential for operative success. If the sur-
ultrasound, are taken before skin incision tion, centrifuged, and the supernatant is
geon concentrates on excising only the
for rapid PTH measurement. This technique, used for PTH measurement with the rapid
identified abnormality on a nuclear scan or
which can be positive in 70% to 80% of cases, PTH assay. This technique provides quick
ultrasound, failure is unavoidable. MIBI
guides the surgeon to the side of the neck tissue identification without frozen section,
scans can be completely negative, have a
containing the highest PTH level (10% higher and it can be helpful when gland localiza-
single wrong focus, show multiple foci both
than the opposite side), leading to successful tion is challenging, especially when an in-
correct and incorrect, and miss multiple
unilateral neck exploration in most patients trathyroidal parathyroid, indeterminate
gland involvement. IPM used as an adjunct
when used in conjunction with IPM. Re- exophytic thyroid nodule or enlarged lymph
to parathyroidectomy can prevent failure
cently, ultrasound guided differential jugular nodes are also present.
when localization studies are incorrect,
which is not always evident until in the op-
erating room or at completion of the proce-
% drop from the highest PTH level
instances where there are discordant stud- leading to unnecessary further neck explo- MGD, and thus operative failure, may actu-
ies, IPM has been shown to minimize missed rations and lowering its overall accuracy. ally be removing various sized, but normally
abnormal parathyroid glands. Complicating the interpretation of IPM functioning, parathyroid glands not con-
Excellent outcomes for focused parathy- results reported in the literature is the ever- tributing to SPHPT.
roidectomy with IPM have been confirmed changing definition of MGD. Surgeons us-
by several studies showing operative suc- ing the least strict intraoperative criterion SUGGESTED READINGS
cess and complication rates comparable to report MGD rates as low as 3% to 5%, which
traditional BNE. In one study of 656 consec- are much lower than the rates reported Berger AC, Libutti SK, Bartlett DL, et al. Het-
erogeneous gland size in sporadic multiple
utive patients over 11 years where 255 un- when surgeons use stricter criteria or bilat- gland parathyroid hyperplasia. J Am Coll Surg
derwent focused parathyroidectomy and eral neck exploration (14% to 30%). This has 1999;188:382.
401 conventional BNE, the cure rates were led to the belief that the “>50% PTH drop” Beyer TD, Chen E, Ata A, et al. A prospective evalu-
99% and 97% with complication rates of criterion misses MGD leading to unaccept- ation of the effect of sample collection site on in-
1.2% and 3% respectively. Focused parathy- able operative failure rates as high as 16%. traoperative parathormone monitoring during
roidectomy also had a reduced operating Multiple series of parathyroidectomy guided parathyroidectomy. Surgery 2008;144(4):504.
time (1.3 hours vs. 2.4 hours), and a reduc- by this “>50% PTH drop” criterion report Bilezikian JP, Khan AA, Potts JT, et al. Guidelines
for the management of asymptomatic primary
tion in length of hospitalization (0.24 days operative success rates of 97% to 99%, and hyperparathyroidism: summary statement
vs. 1.64 days) when compared to BNE. In an- fail to show these hypothetical high failure from the third international workshop. J Clin
other subsequent study of 718 patients over rates. At the authors’ institution, operative Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:335.
34 years, the cure rates for focused parathy- success was 98% in treated patients with a Carneiro DM, Solorzano CC, Nader MC, et al. Com-
roidectomy and BNE were 97% and 94% re- 2% failure and 3% recurrence rate 10 years parison of intraoperative iPTH assay (QPTH) cri-
spectively. Finally, in a 5-year follow-up of a after undergoing focused parathyroidec- teria in guiding parathyroidectomy: which crite-
rion is the most accurate? Surgery 2003;134:973.
randomized controlled trial, focused para- tomy guided by IPM. This long-term study Carneiro-Pla D. Effectiveness of “office”-based, ultra-
thyroidectomy provided the same long-term indicates that there may be an overestima- sound-guided differential jugular venous sampling
results as traditional BNE in patients with tion of the predicted incidence for MGD; if (DJVS) of parathormone in patients with primary
primary hyperparathyroidism. The afore- such higher rates of missed MGD were cor- hyperparathyroidism. Surgery 2009;146(6):1014.
mentioned studies all concluded that focused rect, a 16% or greater operative failure rate Carneiro-Pla DM, Solorzano CC, Lew JI, et al.
parathyroidectomy was an attractive alter- would have been appreciated. Long-term outcome of patients with intraop-
When stricter criteria are used or bilat- erative parathyroid level remaining above the
native to BNE for most patients with pri- normal range during parathyroidectomy. Sur-
mary hyperparathyroidism. eral neck exploration is performed after the gery 2008;144(6):989.
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pared to traditional BNE results in less neck enlarged glands may be found as previously thyroid surgery: a cost-benefit analysis of local-
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cost associated with the need of additional and histology does not always correlate with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism: a
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There is evidence to suggest that modifica- dectomy guided by IPM (11.1%) despite sue identification. World J Surg 2000;24:1319.
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