Kajian Teori PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF
Kajian Teori PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF
Konsep ZPD lebih mudah dipahami dengan gambar di atas. Garis abu-abu
menggambarkan tingkat kesulitan tugas yang diberikan guru. Semakin ke kanan,
semakin sulit tugas yang diberikan dan sebaliknya. Setiap siswa memiliki area di
sebelah kiri di mana tugas yang diberikan termasuk kategori mudah yang bisa
dikerjakannya sendiri. Pembelajaran di sini tidak diperlukan karena siswa sudah tahu
cara mengerjakan tugas tersebut. Jika kita geser ke kanan, Kita sampai pada area di
mana siswa tidak bisa mengerjakan tugas sendiri, namun bisa dilakukannya dengan
coaching, bantuan, pembelajaran dan tutoring, di mana semua it disebut mediation
(mediasi). Mediation dalam ZPD dengan demikian amat bermanfaat. Bergerak
semakin ke kanan akan sampai pada area di mana tugas sedemikian sulit, sehingga
siswa tidak bisa lagi mengerjakan meskipun dengan mediasi. Di sini pembelajaran
menjadi tidak berguna karena siswa belum siap mengerjakan tugas yang
sedemikian sulit. Sebagai contoh, Saya tidak akan dapat memecahkan masalah
tentang hukum relativitas meski bagaimanapun pintarnya Anda mengajar Saya—
Saya tidak punya prasyarat pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang dibutuhkan.
Vygotsky menyebut daerah tengah , di mana pembelajaran bermanfaat, dengan
istilah ZPD. Teori Vygotsky ini memberikan sumbangan penting dalam memberikan
definisi pembelajaran. Siswa dapat memecahkan sendiri masalah yang sebelumnya
hanya bisa diatasinya dengan bantuan.
.
4. Brain-Based Learning Theory (Kagan,2009:4.13)
Studi tentang otak manusia pada saat ini sudah sedemikian maju sehingga Kita bisa
mengatakan dengan pasti bagaimana cara mengajar yang baik untuk otak dan yang
tidak baik. Ketika Kita mengajar dengan yang dapat diterima sehingga otak bisa
belajar paling baik, mengajar menjadi lebih mudah dan lebih menyenangkan, siswa
memperhatikan dengan penuh ketertarikan, mereka memperoleh hasil belajar yang
baik, lebih menyenangi pelajaran dan gurunya. Mengajar dengan cara yang
demikian ibarat berenang searah arus. Ada beberapa cara membandingkan
bagaimana pembelajaran kooperatif lebih baik dalam mengorganisasi kelas agar
otak mampu belajar yang terbaik dibandingkan pembelajaran tradisional. Semua
pakar Brain-Based Learning menyarankan implementasi pembelajaran kooperatif.
Ada lima prinsip utama dari Brain-Based Learning yang terkait dengan
pembelajaran kooperatif yaitu safety, nourishment, social interaction, emotion, and
information processing.
5. Motivation Theories (Kagan,2009:4.13)
Apa yang mendorong Kita melakukan sesuatu? Apa yang ,memotivasi Kita? Banyak
teori tentang motivasi, antara lain Teori Hirarkhi Kebutuhan Maslow, Teori Flow dari
Csikzentmihalyl, Teori Optimism Helplessness dari Seligman, dan model ASK IF dari
Hunter. Semua teori tersebut memperkuat pendapat bahwa pembelajaran kooperatif
memberikan hasil yang positif. Kita overview empat teori motivasi.
Team Jigsaw
In Team Jigsaw, each team becomes an expert on a topic, and then individuals from
that team each teach another team. For example, in a classroom with eight teams, a
textbook chapter might be divided into four parts. Teams 1 and 2 are
assigned Part 1; Teams 3 and 4 are assigned Part 2, and so on. After the teams
have mastered their portion, the teacher calls for students with Part 1 to stand. In our
example, Teams 1 and 2 stand up. Each student on these two teams is an “Expert”
on Part 1. Next, each Expert from Teams 1 and 2 goes to a different team to teach
the expert content. After teaching, Experts return
to their seats. The process is repeated so that each expert topic is covered. One
caution: There must be at least as many
Experts as teams to teach. For example, you can’t have just 3 experts and 5 teams
to teach. As you divide the content, make sure you have at least as many Experts on
each part as teams. When there are more Experts than teams to teach, some
Experts pair up to team teach. For example, with eight Experts and only six teams to
teach, four teams will be taught by one Expert and two teams will have Expert pairs.
Partner Expert Group Jigsaw
Partner Expert Group Jigsaw begins like traditional Jigsaw: The curriculum is
divided into four parts. Students are in teams of four and each is assigned one
expert topic. Each student is assigned a same-topic partner from another team, and
the partners work together to master the topic. The pairs then pair up with another
pair with the same topic to check for agreement and mastery. The partners prepare
and practice their presentations. Finally each Expert returns to his/her team and
each in turn presents and tutors his/her teammates on the content.
Advantages of Partner Expert Group Jigsaw:
1. Pair work in the expert groups doubles the active engagement.
2. Students can be assigned to a partner taking into consideration language fluency,
ability level, and social skills.
3. Students practice their presentations and receive feedback before presenting to
their teammates.
Double Expert Group Jigsaw
In the traditional Jigsaw, students each went to one large expert group. With eight
teams in the class, that meant there were eight students in each expert group.
Expert groups of eight result in low levels of active engagement. The solution:
Double Expert Group Jigsaw. Double Expert Groups means there are two expert
groups for each topic. Now, instead of eight students in an expert group, there are
only four, doubling the active engagement. With two expert groups on each topic,
there is the added advantage of including a time to have “experts consult.” That is,
each student pairs up with an Expert from the other same-topic expert group to
check for completeness and accuracy before returning to their original teams to
teach their teammates.
Workstation Jigsaw
Rather than forming expert groups as in the original Jigsaw, each student on a team
may go to a different workstation to learn, returning to their teammates to report on
what they have learned. For example, one Expert may view a filmstrip, another may
work with instructional cards, a third may do an experiment, and a
fourth may go to an Internet link. Or if students all have access to the Internet, each
may explore a different informational Web site. Workstation Jigsaw breaks the
traditional set that textbooks should be the primary source of information.
Workstations can be integrated into more traditional Jigsaw formats. For example,
one or two students may become experts at workstations while others turn to more
traditional written materials.
Leapfrog Jigsaw
Many projects are best completed in a sequence of steps. Many of these sequential
step projects can be taught with Leapfrog Jigsaw.6 Student #1 teaches a skill to
teammates who are each working on their own version of the project. Then Student
#2 teaches a skill, which is applied to the project, and so on until the project is
complete. For example, in teaching very young students how to make and
test a Möbius strip, the first child learns how to rule a straight line on paper and
teaches that to teammates. The second expert shows his teammates how
to cut along the line. The third student models how to twist and tape the strip. The
last student shows teammates how to test the Möbius strip to determine if it really
has only one side. Very young students can be taught one step at a time from the
teacher, and then go back to their teams to teach their teammates. For
management, the students need a coloring task or some other sponge activity to
keep productively occupied while the teacher is teaching each expert.
Older students can learn skills in expert groups and then go back and teach them to
teammates, one at a time, to lead each other through a project.
Additional Jigsaw Variations Controversy Jigsaw
Elizabeth Coelho and Judy Winn-Bell Olsen developed a powerful Jigsaw variation
to have students view issues from different perspectives.All four Experts are given
information representing different sides of an issue. For example, a Developer wants
to cut down some trees to build homes in a very picturesque area by a lake.
Homebuilders are eager to take advantage of the opportunity. Real Estate agents
hope to make the sales. But the representative from the Environmental Protection
Agency sees the trees as a forest to protect because of the resident species. In their
expert groups the Developer, Homebuilder, Real Estate Agent, and EPA Rep are
all given information to make their case. They return to their teams to see if they can
formulate a solution to which they can all agree. Powerful topics, along with their
resources, are available for Controversy Jigsaw.7
Jigsaw Problem Solving
The Lawrence Hall of Science, a public science center on the University of
California–Berkeley, developed cooperative logic and math activities published in a
series of books.8 This problemsolving approach is a simple form of Jigsaw for
solving problems. Thus, we have dubbed the underlying structure, Jigsaw Problem
Solving. Jigsaw Problem Solving works like this: Students work in teams of four,
and each student receives one of the four clues to solve the team problem. Everyone
must share the information on their clue card because the team can only reach a
solution by connecting the information from all clues.
Managing Jigsaw
Dealing with Absences. If students meet in expert groups one day and report back to
their teams on another, there are two types of absences we need to deal with:
absences when students become experts, and absences when a member is to share
her/his expertise. Both have the same easy solution: If an Expert is absent when it is
time to report or if the Expert was absent when the expert group met, when it is time
for that Expert to report to her/his team, we simply have the team sit with another
team when that Expert topic is presented.
Jigsaw Twins.
If we have a number of very low achieving students or a number of students limited
in language ability, Jigsaw Twins offers a powerful solution. We don’t want very weak
students or students very limited in language ability to be the primary or sole source
of a quarter of the information to their teammates. The solution: Create five-person
teams and have thehighest and lowest ability students go as twins to the expert
group and return to team teach their teammates. One caution: We either need
to teach the high achiever in the twin pairs ways to include their partner in the
teaching process or structure for engagement and participation by both twins by
using turn-taking, roles, or the division of labor.
Differentiated Expert Groups.
In some situations, it can be worthwhile to assign a very difficult topic to Expert
Group 1, and to assign the highest achiever in each team to that expert
topic and/or to assign the least difficult topic to Expert Group 4 and to assign the
lowest ability student to that topic. Jigsaw lends itself to four levels of differentiation,
if desired. A caution, of course, is in order: Students know when any form of tracking
has taken place, and if done too often or in an overt way, the low students begin
to internalize lower expectations and a lower self-concept.
Jigsaw Worksheet Packets.
In my experience, the single most important determinant of the success or failure of
Jigsaw is the quality of interaction in the expert groups and the quality of the
interaction when the Experts return to their teams to teach their teammates.
Students are not born teachers, and telling is not teaching. Unstructured interaction
in the expert groups and in the teams is a prescription for failure. A powerful antidote
is the Jigsaw Worksheet Packet combined with clear steps for interaction during
the time Experts share with each other, and later when they tutor their teammates.
A Jigsaw Worksheet Packet contains four different worksheets, one on each of the
four Jigsaw topics. Each student is assigned one topic. Before they go to their
unique expert groups, they can preview the entire packet to get the big picture of
what they will be learning about. Next, team mates go to their unique expert groups
to master the content and fill in their respective worksheets. The typical sequence of
work in the expert groups is as follows: 1) Experts put their pencils in a pencil cup in
the center of the table. 2) One Expert reads the first question. (This is a rotating
role.) 3) Experts discuss their answers and/or turn to resources to find an answer. 4)
When they have reached consensus on the best answer, they take up their pencils
and each write the answer on their own worksheet in their own words. This
sequence minimizes the tendency for Expert Group Meetings to degenerate into low
level dictation with high achievers telling low achievers word for word what to write.
When the Experts return to their teams, they have a worksheet completed that helps
them teach the content to their teammate. The Experts teach and tutor their
teammates in a scripted set of steps: 1) Teammates have their pencils down while
the Expert explains the answer. 2) Teammates then ask questions for clarification. 3)
When all questions have been answered, Teammates pick up their pencils and fill in
their own worksheet in their own words. 4) The Expert then teaches the next
question. When the worksheet packets have all been filled out, the Expert
quizzes the students with their worksheet packets closed, to make sure all students
understand and can answer the questions. Depending on the content, the Expert
may engage in coaching using sample problems. The quality of the worksheets in
the packets and the structured interaction within the groups determines the quality of
learning in expert groups and also the quality of teaching by the Experts.
A good worksheet includes the target learning objectives, as well as questions
across the levels of thinking. Team Worksheets. An additional step that
can be added to many forms of Jigsaw is the Team Worksheet.9 After students have
completed the expert presentations, they are given a team worksheet. The team
worksheet includes questions that demand students integrate and synthesize
material from each of the four expert presentations. Well constructed team
worksheets push students to integrate their learning with questions like “How does X
presented by Expert 1 explain Y presented by Expert 3?” or “Create a review
question that can only be answered using information presented by two or more
Experts.”
Partners (Kagan, 17.7)
Partners is like Jigsaw, but in pairs. Student partners work together to master some
content and then to present it to another pair. The box on the previous page
summarizes the ten steps of Partners. Partners lessons can be quite elaborate with
time for students to do independent research in preparation for their presentation, or
Partners lessons can be quite simple as when each pair reads and interprets a
different poem. Partners lends itself to a wide range of content: Different sides of a
controversial issue, different experiments to conduct, different problems to solve,
different inventions to describe, different characters to analyze.
Steps of Partners (Kagan, 17.6)
1. Partners are formed within teams. Often the high and low achievers are partners,
as are the two middle achievers.
2. Class divides: partners sit together. Topic 1 partners are all on one side of the
class; Topic 2 partners on the other. (We have pairs physically move so they can
consult with same-topic partners in Step 5.)
3. Topics are assigned and/or materials distributed. Topic may be different sides of
debate (e.g., pro or con on capital punishment). Materials may consist of reading
and a worksheet to stimulate higher-level thinking.
4. Students master topics. Students may master materials given, or may do
independent research. For example, research the arguments pro or con on an
issue.
5. Partners consult with same-topic partners. Partners consult with like-topic
partners sitting next to them, checking for correctness, and completeness.
6. Partners prepare to present & tutor. Partners analyze critical features and decide
on a teaching strategy. Students are encouraged to make visuals and other
teaching aids. Partners must evaluate what is important to teach and how to
determine if learning has occurred in their teammates.
7. Teams reunite; partners present. Partners work as a team, dividing the labor as
they teach the other pair in their team. For Partners Debate, each side presents
their arguments on the issue.
8. Partners tutor. After presenting the skill or information, partners check for
understanding and tutor their teammates.
9. Individual assessment. An individual quiz, essay, or a structure (Showdown)
assesses individual mastery.
10. Team processing. Teammates reflect back over the process: How did we do as
teachers? As learners? How could we do better next time? What social skills did
we use? Which should we use more next time?
Cooperative Investigations
Magic happens when teams engage in intrinsically interesting investigations.
Learning becomes far more relevant and exciting when students work together first
to understand a concept, then team up to apply their knowledge to create a project
or presentation. With cooperative investigations, the class becomes an investigative
community. When we unleash the powers of cooperation and curiosity, sometimes
all we have to do is get out of the way!
Macam-macam Cooperative Investigations
• Group Investigation
• Co-op Co-op
• Co-op Jigsaw Experts Present
• Co-op Jigsaw Team Projects
• Complex Instruction
Indeed, inquiry coupled with cooperative projects is a powerful force for in-depth
learning. We communicate a powerful message to studentswhen the outcome of the
inquiry rests in the hands of the investigating students. True inquiry is not a canned
exploration, leading to an outcome predetermined by the teacher. When students
are unfettered and allowed to follow theirown interests, they bring their own strengths
to light and there is no limit to their creativity, innovation, and ability to create
meaningful projects and learning.
Case in point: Let us explore an example of authentic cooperation.10 In Lee
County, Florida, a mixed group of gifted and at-risk students gathered to work
individually and collectively on environmental topics of their choice. They were
enrolled in grades 10 through 12 and were given each Monday to meet and attempt
to accomplish their chosen inquiry. After several sessions, the students decided to
cooperate collectively in a single effort. They chose to try to save a pristine cypress
swamp that was destined for destruction by
developers and a projected highway. Once the decision was made, they enrolled the
assistance of scientists, politicians, conservation groups, the park authority, garden
clubs, school officials, the sheriff ’s department, and dozens of other groups. They
created highly accurate maps, conducted a plant and wildlife census, and took their
results to present at city council and county commissioners meetings. They led field
trips by the dozens into the swamp and spoke before and lobbied developers
ceaselessly. Finally, their efforts got the proposal on a referendum ballot. They then
canvassed residents of the county and helped convince people to increase their own
taxes by voting yes on the swamp. The results were totally unprecedented,
as the vote passed by the largest margin in the history of Lee County. Today
the Six-Mile Cyprus is a wildlife sanctuary in the midst of one of the
fastest growing communities in the nation.
Of course, not all cooperative investigation shave such dramatic effects, but almost
without exception, they result in important, multifaceted learning. Cooperative
investigations embody the democratic, cooperative philosophy of John Dewey:
The way is, first, for the teacher to be intelligently aware of the capacities, needs,
and past experiences of those under instruction and, secondly, to allow the
suggestion made to develop into a plan and project by means of the further
suggestions contributed and organized into a whole by the members of the group.
The plan, in other words, is a cooperative enterprise, not a dictation. The teacher’s
suggestion is not a mold for a cast-iron result but is a starting point to be developed
into a plan through contributions from the experience of all engaged in the learning
process. The development occurs through reciprocal give-andtake, the teacher
taking but not being afraid also to give. The essential point is that the
purpose grow and take shape through the process of social intelligence. …what we
have been struggling with in the microcosm of the classroom is part and parcel of the
struggle for survival of the society of men on earth. We are, whether we
like it or not, increasingly interdependent with all other men, and our survival is
going to be decided by our ability, together, to develop a sense of common cause
that expresses and reflects our common human aspirations. This sense
of common cause will have to emerge from our experience in working together, and
the quality of these experiences will in turn depend upon our ability to kindle and
capture the flame of individual inspiration and insight. Life in these times is a social
process of inquiry, of seeking to establish a way of life to which all can contribute, in
which all can participate, and through which each may achieve self-realization
simultaneously as a member of the emerging common society and of the human
species. And the extent to which our boys and girls shall be effective in this quest is
being decided right now by the quality of inquiry in the classroom.
Ada dua macam Co-op Jigsaw: Co-op Jigsaw Experts Present dan Co-op Jigsaw
Team Projects. Keduanya mengkombinasikan elemen-elemen Co-op Co-op dan
Jigsaw, dengan maksud menggenggam dua dunia: Kita menginspirasi inkuiri kreatif
dan berbagi diantara siswa via Co-op Co-op, namun pada saat yang sama via
Jigsaw meyakinkan siswa menguasai informasi penting yang telah dikaji ulang.
STAD telah melalui berbagai riset yang intensif. Teknik ini sesuai untuk penguasaan
fakta, konsep dan informasi. Riset terhadap STAD juga menunjukkan dampak yang
positif terhadap relasi antar etnis dan berbagai hal terkait perkembangan sikap
sosial. Implementasi STAD mencakup eksistensi tim yang cukup lama (misal enam
minggu) dan sistem penskoran tim, yang memacu siswa menguasai berbagai level
kompetensi.Deskripsi STAD berikut ini sudah diijinkan oleh Robert E. Slavin namun
hanya dengan sedikit perubahan (Kagan,2009:17.20).
STAD terdiri dari lima komponen yang terkait erat satu sama lain: Presentasi kelas,
kegiatan tim, kuis, skoring peningkatan prestasi individual, dan laporan performa tim.
Berikut rinciannya:
1. Presentasi kelas. Materi untuk STAD terlebih dahulu diperkenalkan di presentasi
kelas ini. Biasanya bentuknya ceramah oleh guru, namun tetap lebih bagus jika
memakai tayangan yang dilengkapi dengan audio visual.Presentasi kelas dalam
STAD berbeda dengan presentasi lain hanya dalam hal harus fokus pada unit
STAD. Dengan demikian, siswa harus memusatkan seluruh perhatiannya selama
kegiatan presentasi kelas karena akan membantu ia dalam tahapan kuis, dan skor
individualnya akan menentukan skor timnya.
2. Kegiatan tim. Setiap tim terdiri dari empat sampai lima siswa yang
merepresentasikan berbagai capaian akademis, jenis kelamin, ras atau etnis.Fungsi
utama dari kegiatan tim adalah mempersiapkan anggotanya untuk berprestasi
maksimal dalam tahap kuis. Setelah tahap presentasi kelas oleh guru, tim bertemu
untuk memperdalam materi diktat atau bahan ajar lain.Diktat bisa dibuat guru.
Seringkali, cara belajar siswa saling bertukar dan bertanya jawab kuis sampai
mereka benar-benar menguasai konten materi, atau mengerjakan pemecahan
masalah bersama dan melakukan koreksi bila ada anggota tim yang miskonsep. Tim
ini merupakan fitur utama dalam STAD. Pada setiap point, perlu ditekankan pada
setiap anggota tim untuk mengerahkan kemampuan terbaik tim untuk membantu
anggotanya. Tim memberikan bantuan meningkatkan capaian akademis semua
anggotanya, dan tim memfasilitasi rasa saling percaya dan saling menghormati yang
menjadi amat penting dan ikut menentukan outcome berupa relasi dalam kelompok,
rasa percaya diri, dan saling menerima seluruh rekannya.
3. Kuis. Setelah satu periode presentasi guru dan satu periode kegiatan siswa, siswa
mengerjakan kuis individual.Kuis berupa soal sesuai konten materi yang harus
dijawab siswa secara individual. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengukur capaian
pengetahuan siswa selama presentasi kelas dan kegiatan kelompok. Siswa dilarang
membantu siswa lain selama kuis. Hal ini untuk meyakinkan bahwa siswa
bertanggung jawab terhadap diri masing-masing dalam memahami konten materi.
4. Skoring peningkatan capaian individual. Setiap siswa menerima skor peningkatan
capaian setiap minggu, mengindikasikan seberapa baik performa mereka
dibandingkan biasanya.
5. Laporan performa Tim. Setiap minggu, tim menerima laporan berupa angka
peningkatan skor dari semua anggota tim. Laporan ini merupakan sarana utama
untuk memberi pengharagaan pada tim maupun pada anggotanya untuk performa
mereka. Setiap minggu, guru mempersiapkan lembaran untuk mengumumkan skor
setiap tim. Lembaran juga menginformasikan siswa mana yang menunjukkan
peningkatan tertinggi atau membuat laporan terbaik, dan angka capaian kumulatif
kelompok. Di samping bentuk lembaran, Guru juga bisa menggunakan papan
buletin, bingkisan hadiah, parcel atau bentuk hadiah lain untuk menekankan bahwa
performa terbaik amatlah penting dalam kehidupan.
TGT merupakan teknik pembelajaaran paling awal dari Johns Hopkins University,
dan dikembangkan oleh David DeVries dan Keith Edwards. TGT identik dengan
STAD dengan perbedaan pada penggunaan game turnamen akademis
menggantikan kuis, dan penskoran peningkatan tim diganti akumulasi capaian
penilaian autentik. Detail TGT tidak dideskripsikan (dalam buku Kagan) karena hasil
penelitian Saya (Kagan) teknik ini menyebabkan dampak negatif pada siswa
minoritas sebagai konsekuensi kompetisi turnamen yang ketat. Meskipun siswa tidak
diberitahu turnamen mana yang untuk siswa berkemampuan tinggi dan turnamen
mana untuk siwa berkemampuan rendah, namun siswa dengan sendirinya tahu, dan
bentuk tracking dalam kelas kemungkinan menyebabkan rasa percaya diri turun.
Inilah elemen kritis yang membedaakan TGT dengan STAD.
. Based.
1 AllWrite Consensus
2 AllWrite RoundRobin
3 Carousel Feedback
4 Fan-N-Pick
5 Find Someone Who
6 Find-the-Fiction
7 Flashcard Game
8 Inside-Outside Circle
9 Jot Thoughts
10 Match Mine
11 Mix-Freeze-Group
12 Mix-Pair-Share
13 Numbered Heads Together
14 One Stray
15 Pairs Compare
16 Pass-N-Praise
17 Poems for Two Voices
18 Quiz-Quiz-Trade
19 RallyCoach
20 RallyRobin
21 RallyTable
22 RoundRobin
23 RoundTable
24 RoundTable Consensus
25 Showdown
26 Simultaneous RoundTable
27 Spend-A-Buck
28 StandUp–HandUp–PairUp
29 Stir-the-Class
30 Talking Chips
31 Team Stand-N-Share
32 Telephone
33 Think-Write-RoundRobin
34 Three-Step Interview
35 Timed Pair Share
36 Traveling Heads Together