Jurnal Pra-bukti

Sebuah tinjauan tentang pengaruh ayah pada perilaku makan anak dan asupan

makanan. Stephanie Rahill, Aileen Kennedy, John Kearney

PII: S0195-6663 (19) 30244-2

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.104540
Referensi: APPET 104540

Tampil di: Appetite

Diterima Tanggal: 20 Februari2019

Tanggal Revisi: 24 November 2019
Tanggal Diterima: 24 November 2019

Harap mengutip artikel ini sebagai: Rahill S., Kennedy A. & Kearney J., Tinjauan tentang pengaruh ayah terhadap
perilaku makan dan asupan makanan anak., Appetite (2019 ), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.appet.2019.104540.

Ini adalah file PDF dari artikel yang telah mengalami penyempurnaan setelah diterima, seperti penambahan halaman
sampul dan metadata, serta pemformatan agar terbaca, tetapi ini belum menjadi versi rekaman definitif. Versi ini akan
menjalani penyalinan, penyusunan huruf, dan tinjauan tambahan sebelum dipublikasikan dalam bentuk akhirnya, tetapi
kami menyediakan versi ini untuk memberikan visibilitas awal artikel. Harap dicatat bahwa, selama proses produksi,
kesalahan dapat ditemukan yang dapat mempengaruhi konten, dan semua penafian hukum yang berlaku untuk jurnal
yang bersangkutan.

© 2019 Diterbitkan oleh Elsevier Ltd.

Judul: Kajian tentang pengaruh ayah terhadap perilaku makan dan asupan makanan anak.

Penulis Nama dan afiliasi: Stephanie Rahill1, Dr Aileen Kennedy1, Professor John
Kearney1

1
Sekolah Ilmu Biologi dan Kesehatan, Universitas Teknologi Dublin, Kampus Kota, Dublin,
Irlandia

Penulis Korespondensi: Stephanie Rahill, stephanie.rahill@tudublin.ie

Alamat Sekarang: Sekolah Ilmu Biologi dan Kesehatan, Universitas Teknologi

Dublin, Kampus Kota, Dublin, Irlandia
1 1. Pendahuluan

2 Keluarga adalah sistem interaktif yang kompleks, berisi banyak individu dalam rangkaian 3

konteks, yang secara kolektif mempengaruhi hasil perkembangan anak (Mei, Chai dan 4 Burrows,

2017). Definisi keluarga telah berkembang selama bertahun-tahun karena perubahan komposisi 5
 rumah tangga dan pengaturan tempat tinggal. Pada akhir 1940-an, George Murdock mendefinisikan

6 keluarga sebagai “. . . orang dewasa dari kedua jenis kelamin setidaknya dua di antaranya

mempertahankan 7 hubungan seksual yang disetujui secara sosial dan satu atau lebih anak yang

dimiliki atau diadopsi dari 8 orang dewasa yang kumpul kebo secara seksual ”(Murdock, 1949).

Sedangkan definisi terbaru lebih digeneralisasikan: "Sebuah keluarga 9 'inti' dibentuk ketika dua

orang (dari kedua jenis kelamin) memilih untuk hidup bersama sebagaisudah menikah

10 pasangan yang, dalam kemitraan terdaftar, atau serikat suka sama suka, baik mereka atau tidak.

beranak; Sebelas orang tua tunggal dengan anak-anak juga merupakan satu kesatuan keluarga,

sedangkan orang yang tinggal sendiri tidak, 12 juga tidak kelompok orang yang tidak terkait yang

memilih untuk berbagi rumah bersama ”(eurostat, 2017). 13 Namun, meskipun definisi keluarga

menguraikan komposisi unit keluarga, 14 tidak secara eksplisit menyatakan apa peran setiap anggota

keluarga. Khususnya dari 15 anggota dewasa, yang harus dipahami untuk menentukan bagaimana

keluarga, sebagai unit kolektif, 16 mempengaruhi perkembangan anak.

17 Peran ayah dalam keluarga telah berkembang secara dramatis selama satu abad terakhir. Para

ayah yang berusia 18 tahun semakin menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu dengan anak-anak mereka

karena pekerjaan ibu yang tinggi 19 (Bianchi, 2000). Peningkatan dalam pekerjaan ibu telah

menghasilkan peningkatan tanggung jawab pengasuhan 20 ayah, yang dapat secara positif

mempengaruhi anak-anak dan keluarga (Pleck dan 21 Masciadrelli, 2004). Dengan ayah memiliki

lebih banyak tanggung jawab pengasuhan, keterlibatan ayah dalam mengasuh anak dan pola

pengasuhan bersama telah tumbuh (Feinberg, 2003). Sehingga peran ibu dan ayah yang dulunya 23

'tradisional' telah berkembang menjadi kedua orang tua yang memiliki tanggung jawab bersama atau

24 yang tumpang tindih dalam keluarga.

1
25 Studi menunjukkan bahwa kualitas hubungan co-parenting memiliki pengaruh independen 26

pada pengaruh ibu / ayah pada perkembangan anak (May, Chai dan Burrows, 2017; 27 Morgan et

al., 2017). Namun, pergeseran peran dan tanggung jawab ini masih belum sepenuhnya beralih ke
penelitian atau intervensi perubahan perilaku. Morgan et al., (2017) melakukan 29 tinjauan

sistematis uji coba kontrol acak (RCT) menilai intervensi perilaku 30 untuk mengobati atau

mencegah obesitas (Morgan et al., 2017). Temuan mengungkapkan bahwa dalam RCT yang hanya

membutuhkan satu orang tua untuk berpartisipasi, ayah hanya mewakili 6% dari orang tua (Morgan

et al., 32 2017). Selanjutnya, dalam RCT di mana kedua orang tua dapat berpartisipasi, 92% tidak 33

melaporkan temuan dari ayah (Morgan et al., 2017). Tinjauan serupa dilakukan oleh 34 Davison et

al. (2018), dengan temuan dari tinjauan sistematis ini menyoroti kurangnya 35 partisipasi ayah

dalam intervensi, terutama pada anak-anak yang lebih kecil, dan menyarankan bahwa teori 36 yang

berfokus pada keluarga sebagai satu kesatuan dapat membantu mendukung partisipasi ayah (Davison

et al., 37 2018).

Perspektif teori sistem keluarga menyiratkan bahwa perkembangan perilaku makan anak dapat

dipengaruhi oleh interaksi individu anak dengan 40 anggota keluarga lainnya dan hubungan antara

anggota keluarga lainnya (Minuchin, 1985; Pulley et al., 41 2014). Bukti hingga saat ini

menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan minimal antara kemampuan ibu dan ayah 42 dalam mengasuh

anak, atau cenderung pada kebutuhan fisik mereka, kecuali untuk menyusui 43 (Spinney, 2011).

Meskipun penelitian tentang keterlibatan dan pengaruh ayah dalam 44 domain pemberian makan

anak telah diteliti, sejauh ini penelitian tersebut belum dilakukan pada 45 ibu. Oleh karena itu, tujuan

dari tinjauan naratif ini adalah: 1) untuk mengkaji peran dan tanggung jawab ayah dalam pemberian

makan anak dan faktor-faktor yang berhubungan dengan tanggung jawab ayah dalam pemberian

makan anak; 2) untuk menetapkan bagaimana model ayah, pola makan ayah, dan 48 praktik

pemberian makan ayah berhubungan dengan perilaku makan anak dan asupan makanan; dan 3) ke

2
49 mengeksplorasi peran persepsi ibu tentang peran makan ayah, serta bagaimana perilaku ibu dan

ayah terkait dengan perilaku makan anak dan asupan makanan.

51 Tujuan tinjauan ini diilustrasikan secara lebih rinci pada Gambar 1. Bagian yang menjelaskan

tujuan pertama dan kedua diwakili oleh latar belakang kuning, jingga dan biru, sehingga banyak
faktor yang merupakan komponen dari individu ayah, rumah tangga. , dan 54 kehidupan masyarakat

(biru) mempengaruhi peran / tanggung jawab ayah (oranye) dan perilaku selama 55 waktu makan

(kuning), yang secara kolektif dapat mempengaruhi asupan makanan anak. Tujuan ketiga 56

diwakili oleh latar belakang hijau, oranye dan kuning. Pertama, mengikuti 57 panah hijau searah,

persepsi dan perilaku ibu (hijau) mempengaruhi 58 peran ayah (oranye) dan perilaku selama waktu

makan (kuning). Kedua, panah hijau dua arah 59 menunjukkan bahwa ada hubungan potensial

antara faktor ibu dan ayah yang 60 secara kolektif dapat mempengaruhi asupan makanan anak. Oleh

karena itu, untuk mengembangkan intervensi yang 61 mempromosikan keterlibatan ibu dan ayah,

penting untuk membentuk pemahaman tentang 62 peran dan tanggung jawab kedua orang tua dalam

memberi makan anak mereka dan pada akhirnya mengidentifikasi 63 perbedaan dalam bagaimana

perilaku setiap orang tua dapat mempengaruhi makanan anak mereka. pemasukan.

3
64 2. Metodologi

65 Pencarian literatur untuk artikel ilmiah peer-review yang relevan dilakukan menggunakan

Science 66 Direct, PubMed, dan Google Scholar antara Juli hingga Desember 2018. "Batasi bahasa

Inggris 67" dan "hapus duplikat" diterapkan ke semua pencarian. Kombinasi dari beberapa dari 68

istilah pencarian utama berikut (tidak eksklusif) digunakan untuk pencarian individu, dengan hanya
69 kata spesifik yang digunakan dalam kaitannya dengan setiap bagian dari tinjauan ini: ayah / ayah

/ ayah, 70 menyusui, peran, tanggung jawab, ayah / praktik pemberian makan ibu / orang tua, 71

waktu makan keluarga, konsumsi makanan, kemiripan, asupan makanan / makanan, perilaku makan

anak, 72 ibu / ibu, perbandingan. Misalnya, pencarian tentang peran ayah dalam pemberian makan

anak 73 akan berisi hal-hal berikut (ayah ATAU ayah ATAU ayah) DAN (peran ATAU tanggung

jawab ATAU keterlibatan 74) DAN (pemberian makan anak ATAU praktik pemberian makan ATAU

waktu makan keluarga). Selain itu, 75 studi lebih lanjut diidentifikasi dari daftar referensi studi yang

disertakan.

76 Kriteria inklusi: Artikel dipertimbangkan jika tersedia dalam teks lengkap di jurnal review 77

sejawat dan dalam bahasa Inggris, hingga Desember 2018. Baik studi kuantitatif dan 78 kualitatif

disertakan dalam tinjauan naratif ini. Rentang usia penelitian termasuk 79 tahun dari lahir hingga 18

tahun. Tabel dibuat untuk memberikan gambaran umum dari 80 studi yang dibahas di setiap bagian.

Namun, beberapa penelitian digunakan di lebih dari satu penelitian dan 81 oleh karena itu

dimasukkan ke dalam tabel berdasarkan saat pertama kali muncul dalam literatur.

4
82 3. Hasil

83 Sejalan dengan tujuan tinjauan naratif ini, bagian hasil dibagi menjadi tiga 84 topik menyeluruh,

yang kesemuanya merupakan komponen penting dalam keterlibatan ayah dalam 85 pemberian

makan anak: tanggung jawab ayah dan peran dalam anak makanan; perilaku ayah selama 86 waktu

makan; dan persepsi dan perilaku ibu dalam konteks tanggung jawab dan praktik pemberian makan
dari ayah. Dalam masing-masing dari tiga bagian, topik keseluruhan 88 diuraikan, yang mengarah

pada pembuatan sub-bagian. Oleh karena itu, 89 hasil disajikan dengan garis besar dan ringkasan

studi yang disertakan, diikuti dengan tabel untuk tiga 90 bagian, yang mencakup informasi yang

relevan pada setiap studi yang disertakan.

91 3.1 Bapa'Tanggung Jawab dan Peran pada anak makan

92 Hasil studi menyelidiki ayahtanggung jawab yang dirasakan dan peran pada anak makan 93

disajikan pada Tabel1.Peran seorang ayah dalam mengasuh anaknya lebih banyak didefinisikan

secara longgar oleh masyarakat daripada peran seorang ibu, dengan persepsi ayah tentang perannya

sebagai pendorong potensial dari 95 perilakunya (Tamis-Lemonda dan Cabrera, 1999; Parke, 2008).

Jenis interaksi yang dimiliki ibu dan ayah 96 dengan anak mereka cenderung unik tetapi mungkin

juga kontras satu sama lain, sehingga perilaku ayah dapat berkontribusi pada perkembangan anak

dalam 98 cara alternatif dari ibu anak (Doherty , Kouneski dan Erickson, 1998; Pulley et 99 al.,

2014). Oleh karena itu, untuk memahami bagaimana peran ayah dalam pemberian makan anak

memengaruhi

perkembangan 100 anak, kita perlu mengeksplorasi perkembangan peran dan tanggung jawabnya 101

dari masa bayi hingga masa kanak-kanak. Selain mengeksplorasi tingkat keterlibatan dan tanggung

jawab ayah 102 dan menetapkan faktor-faktor yang mungkin berkontribusi pada tingkat keterlibatan

dan tanggung jawab 103 yang berbeda.

5
104 3.1.1 Peran Ayah dalam Enam BulanKehidupan Anak

Pertama105 Pertama, penting untuk mempertimbangkan dasar-dasar peran orang tua karena hal ini

dapat 106 membantu memahami bagaimana peran berkembang sepanjang kehidupan anak dari lahir

hingga dewasa. 107 Di seluruh dunia, salah satu dari banyak keputusan yang dihadapi orang tua baru

adalah apakah akan menyusui atau susu formula 108 memberi makan bayi mereka yang baru lahir,
dengan ibu secara alami memiliki hak suara, menurut 75-109 80% ayah (Kenosi et al., 2011 ;

Bennett, McCartney dan Kearney, 2016; Hansen, Tesch 110 dan Ayton, 2018). Oleh karena itu, sejak

awal, ayah adalah pengambil keputusan sekunder tentang asupan makanan paling awal bagi anak

mereka, yang mungkin dapat memengaruhi pengambilan keputusan praktik pemberian makan mereka

di masa depan. Ada perbedaan tanggung jawab pemberian makan antara ibu 113 dan ayah tergantung

pada apakah bayi disusui atau diberi susu formula. 114 rutinitas pemberian makan untuk bayi yang

diberi susu formula memiliki kesempatan untuk dibagi antara kedua orang tua, dengan pembagian

tanggung jawab 115 antara orang tua yang lebih sulit dengan bayi yang disusui, bahkan dengan

ketersediaan 116 pompa ASI. Oleh karena itu, peran ayah dari bayi yang disusui, dalam hal

pemberian makan, pada akhirnya adalah sebagai orang pendukung. Peran sebagai orang pendukung

sangat penting, dengan 118 bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa dukungan ayah untuk pasangan

menyusui mereka merupakan 119 komponen penting dalam memastikan pengalaman menyusui yang

positif bagi ibu dan anak 120 (Rempel dan Rempel, 2011; Brown dan Davies , 2014). Secara

keseluruhan, meskipun demikian, seringkali 121 dilaporkan oleh ayah bahwa menyusui dapat

membuat ayah merasa tersisih atau tidak penting dalam kehidupan 122 anak dan menghilangkan

waktu ikatan dengan anak mereka (Rempel dan Rempel, 2011; 123 Bennett, McCartney dan Kearney,

2016 ). Secara keseluruhan, jelas bahwa peran ayah dari 124 bayi yang disusui berbeda dengan peran

ayah dari bayi yang diberi susu formula, dalam hal memiliki 125 pilihan apakah akan terlibat secara

fisik atau tidak. Penelitian perlu menetapkan apakah peran 126 ayah terhadap bayi yang disusui

selama pemberian makanan pendamping ASI dan masa kanak-kanak selanjutnya berbeda dengan

peran 127 ayah pada bayi yang diberi susu formula.

6
128 3.1.2 Peran ayah dalam memberi makan anak di atas usia enam bulan

129 Baik studi kuantitatif maupun kualitatif telah memperoleh pemahaman tentang peran ayah dalam

130 pemberian makan anak. Namun, mengingat sifat studi kualitatif, mereka telah memberikan lebih

banyak 131 informasi yang diberikan tanggapan subjektif deskriptif. Studi kuantitatif sampai saat ini
telah 132 menggunakan subskala tanggung jawab yang dirasakan dari Kuesioner Makan Anak (CFQ)

(KM 133 Mallan et al., 2014; Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014; Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al.,

134 2015b) dan The Role of The Father Questionnaire (ROFQ) (KM Mallan et al., 2014; 135

Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015b). ROFQ selanjutnya diadaptasi oleh Vollmer dan 136

rekannya menjadi Role of The Father at Mealtimes Questionnaire (ROFMQ) 137 (Vollmer,

Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015b). ROFQ menilai keyakinan ayah tentang 138 sikap umum dan

keterlibatan mereka dalam pengasuhan anak dan oleh karena itu sulit untuk memahami keterlibatan

ayah dalam memberi makan saat menggunakan kuesioner ini secara mandiri. 140 Namun, kedua studi

yang menggunakan alat ini telah mengeksplorasi skor rata-rata ROFQ di 141 aspek pemberian makan

anak. Menurut judul makalah oleh (KM Mallan et al., 2014) dan 142 analisis selanjutnya yang

dilakukan, 'frekuensi makan dengan anak' adalah variabel dependen 143 dan dengan demikian

menunjukkan bahwa ini adalah sejauh mana peran ayah pada anak. makanan. Rata-rata skor 144

subskala dari ROFQ dan ROFMQ diperiksa dalam kaitannya dengan 145 tanggung jawab yang

dirasakan ayah dan praktik pemberian makan ayah, dengan hanya keterlibatan selama 146 waktu

makan yang secara signifikan terkait (Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015b). Temuan di 147

dalam kaitannya dengan praktik pemberian makan ayah memberikan lebih banyak wawasan tentang

peran perilaku ayah selama 148 waktu makan, sehingga keterlibatan yang lebih tinggi dikaitkan

dengan laporan yang lebih rendah untuk mengontrol 149 praktik pemberian makan, dengan Vollmer

dan rekannya menyarankan bahwa keterlibatan ayah yang tinggi 150 mungkin melindungi anak.

perilaku obesogenic (Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 151 2015b).

7
152 Persepsi tanggung jawab subskala (CFQ) digunakan dalam tiga studi kuantitatif (K. 153 M.

Mallan et al., 2014; Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014; Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 154 2015b )

dan memberikan indikasi yang jelas tentang tingkat tanggung jawab ayah pada tiga 155 komponen

penting dalam menyiapkan makanan: mengatur makanan anak mereka, menentukan 156 porsi anak

mereka dan memutuskan jenis makanan yang disajikan. Persiapan makan adalah komponen besar
dari 157 tanggung jawab memberi makan anak, yang dapat melibatkan banyak waktu dan

keterampilan, tergantung pada jenis 158 makanan yang disiapkan. Namun, sayangnya, data dari studi

kuantitatif ini tidak dapat memberikan tingkat detail seperti ini.

160 Temuan dari dua studi kualitatif agak menguraikan hal ini, dengan ayah dalam 161 studi ini

melaporkan bahwa berbagi peran melibatkan memasak dan berbelanja bahan makanan dengan 162

pasangan mereka (Khandpur, Charles dan Davison, 2016; Walsh et al., 2017). Selain itu, 163 jumlah

ayah yang sama melaporkan membagi tugas memberi makan anak dengan ibu anak, misalnya 164,

beberapa ayah melaporkan bahwa pasangan mereka bertanggung jawab untuk memasak sementara

165 mereka bertanggung jawab atas peraturan seputar waktu makan (Khandpur, Charles dan Davison,

2016 ). Temuan 166 dari studi kualitatif menunjukkan bahwa beberapa peran pemberian makan anak

dibagi di antara orang tua, dengan 167 beberapa peran berbeda yang jelas untuk kedua orang tua

ditetapkan dalam beberapa keluarga.

168 Menggali dan mendefinisikan peran ayah dalam konteks memberi makan anak memungkinkan

kita untuk memahami 169 bagaimana persepsi dan perilaku ayah dapat memengaruhi asupan

makanan anak. Namun, 170 menentukan seberapa sering ayah menjalankan peran memberi makan

anak mereka harus dieksplorasi karena tingkat tanggung jawab mereka 171 juga dapat mempengaruhi

asupan makanan anak.

172 3.1.3 Tingkat tanggung jawab ayah dalam memberi makan anak

173 Ibu merasa mereka memiliki tanggung jawab yang lebih besar dalam memberi makan anak

mereka (Daniels et al., 2013), 174 dengan penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa ayah memiliki

persepsi tanggung jawab yang jauh lebih rendah daripada 175 ibu (Blissett, Meyer dan Haycraft,

Pulley 2006;.etal, Ek 2014;.etal,2016; Harris et 2018a)..al,

8
176 Hanya lima studi sampai saat ini yang mencoba untuk mengukur dan memahami tingkat

tanggung jawab ayah 177, yang meliputi dua studi kuantitatif (KM Mallan et al., 2014; Guerrero et

178 al., 2016) dan tiga studi kualitatif (Horodynski dan Arndt, 2005 ; Khandpur, Charles dan 179
Davison, 2016; Walsh dkk., 2017). Temuan dari penelitian kuantitatif menunjukkan bahwa 180 ayah

memiliki tanggung jawab tertentu dalam memberi makan anak. Lebih dari setengah ayah (~ 50%)

daripra

anak-anaksekolah 181 dilaporkan bertanggung jawab setidaknya setengah dari waktu untuk mengatur

makanan dan 182 memutuskan kualitas dan kuantitas makanan yang ditawarkan kepada anak mereka

selama waktu makan (KM 183 Mallan et al., 2014). Dengan hanya sebagian kecil ayah (10-16%)

yang melaporkan bahwa 184 jarang bertanggung jawab untuk memberi makan anak mereka (KM

Mallan et al., 2014). Selain itu, 185 temuan dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa persepsi ayah

yang lebih tinggi dan sikap yang positif terhadap peran mereka sebagai ayah dikaitkan dengan lebih

banyak waktu makan per 187 minggu dengan anak mereka (KM Mallan et al., 2014). Temuan ini

didukung oleh 188 kelompok longitudinal kuantitatif ayah anak prasekolah Amerika (n = 2441), yang

189 menemukan bahwa 43% ayah memiliki pengaruh besar pada nutrisi anak mereka dan hampir 190

50% ayah melaporkan setiap hari. keterlibatan dalam menyiapkan makanan untuk anak mereka dan

membantu dalam 191 makan anak mereka (Guerrero et al., 2016).

192 Meskipun studi kualitatif memperoleh wawasan lebih jauh tentang persepsi dan sikap ayah 193

terhadap peran mereka dalam memberi makan anak, studi kualitatif juga menghitung tingkat tanggung

jawab yang dirasakan ayah berdasarkan tanggapan. Namun, penghitungan tingkat tanggung jawab

perlu 195 dilakukan dengan hati-hati karena ukuran sampel yang rendah dalam tiga studi (n <37)

(Horodynski 196 dan Arndt, 2005; Khandpur, Charles dan Davison, 2016; Walsh et al., 2017).

Khandpur dan 197 rekannya menemukan bahwa 62% (n = 23) ayah melaporkan berbagi tanggung

jawab dengan pasangan mereka 198 sehubungan dengan asupan makanan anak mereka, dengan 16%

ayah melaporkan tanggung jawab tunggal dan 199 sisanya 22% melaporkan bahwa pasangan mereka

semata-mata. bertanggung jawab (Khandpur, Charles dan 200 Davison, 2016). Horodynski dkk.

(2005) menemukan bahwa 84% (n = 5) ayah dalam studi mereka

9
201 dikonsumsi makan dengan anak-anak mereka setidaknya sekali sehari, dengan semua ayah

melaporkan bahwa mereka 202 berpartisipasi dalam kegiatan anak baik setiap hari atau akhir pekan,
yang meliputi persiapan 203 makanan, memasak, dan memberi makan (Horodynski dan Arndt, 2005).

Temuan dari studi oleh 204 Walsh et al. (2017) menunjukkan bahwa mayoritas ayah (n = 16/20)

berbagi tanggung jawab 205 dengan pasangannya terkait dengan perilaku diet anak-anak mereka

(Walsh et al., 206 2017). Secara keseluruhan, penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif menunjukkan bahwa

mayoritas ayah 207 memiliki semacam tanggung jawab dalam memberi makan anak mereka.

Selanjutnya, kita perlu memantapkan dan mengeksplorasi faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi peran

ayah dan tingkat tanggung jawabnya dalam memberi makan anaknya.

210 3.1.4 Faktor yang terkait dengan tanggung jawab dan peran ayah dalam memberi makan anak

211 Penelitian terbatas telah dilakukan dalam domain pemberian makan untuk menetapkan faktor

yang terkait 212 dengan tanggung jawab yang dirasakan dan / atau peran ayah, dengan hanya dua

penelitian kuantitatif Australia 213 yang membahas topik ini secara langsung (KM Mallan et al.,

2014; Kimberley M Mallan et al., 214 2014). Kedua studi tersebut dilakukan oleh Mallan dan rekan,

dengan tujuan dari satu studi 215 (Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014) untuk mengidentifikasi

karakteristik anak dan ayah 216 yang terkait dengan tanggung jawab yang dirasakan ayah (CFQ).

Tujuan pertama dari penelitian lain (K. 217 M. Mallan et al., 2014) adalah untuk menggambarkan

tanggung jawab yang dirasakan dan tingkat keterlibatan 218 ayah, dengan tujuan kedua untuk

menyelidiki prediktor seberapa sering 219 ayah makan makanan dengan anak mereka. Kedua studi

dilakukan dengan menggunakan kohort yang sama dari 220 ayah Australia dari anak-anak prasekolah

berusia 2 hingga 5 tahun (n = 436). Temuan menunjukkan bahwa 221 peran ayah dalam domain

memberi makan sangat dipengaruhi oleh jumlah jam yang mereka habiskan untuk bekerja, dengan

ayah yang menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu untuk bekerja memiliki tanggung jawab yang dirasakan

secara signifikan lebih rendah dalam memberi makan anak mereka (Kimberley M Mallan et al.,

2014). Selain 224 jam kerja, memiliki anak yang lebih tua, status sosial-ekonomi yang lebih tinggi,

dan kepedulian terhadap berat badan 225 anak mereka semua secara signifikan terkait dengan

peningkatan ayah dirasakan

10
226 tanggung jawab untuk makan, sementara jenis kelamin anak, usia ayah, ayah BMI, dan tingkat
pendidikan 227 tidak berhubungan secara signifikan (Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014). Penelitian ini

berkontribusi 228 pada penelitian terbatas yang telah dilakukan untuk mengetahui pengaruh SES

terhadap 229 peran ayah dalam memberi makan anaknya dan akibatnya, praktik pemberian makan

dimanfaatkan oleh 230 ayah (Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014). Temuan dari (KM Mallan et al.,

2014) juga 231 menemukan bahwa ayah yang menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu dalam pekerjaan

berbayar melaporkan lebih sedikit makan / minggu dengan 232 anak mereka. Sementara tingkat yang

lebih tinggi dari rasa tanggung jawab dan lebih terlibat serta melibatkan 233 ayah (ROFQ skor tinggi)

melaporkan makan lebih banyak / minggu dengan anak mereka (KM Mallan et 234 al., 2014). Umur

dan jenis kelamin anak, serta umur ayah, IMT dan pendidikan tidak 235 berhubungan dengan

frekuensi makan / minggu dengan anaknya (KM Mallan et al., 2014). 236 Meskipun bukan tujuan

utama dari studi kualitatif oleh Walsh et al. (2017), yang 237 mewawancarai dua puluh ayah Australia

anak-anak prasekolah, analisis tema menurut pendidikan / pekerjaan ayah 238 mengungkapkan tidak

ada perbedaan substansial dalam pandangan ayah, 239 dalam hal tanggung jawab bersama, teladan,

dan pengetahuan, untuk menyebutkan sedikit (Walsh et al., 240 2017). Secara keseluruhan, mengingat

temuan yang tidak konsisten dalam hal SES dan tingkat pendidikan dalam kaitannya dengan tanggung

jawab dan peran ayah 241, dan seperti yang disarankan dalam tinjauan sistematis oleh Khandpur et

242 al. (2014); studi perlu merekrut ayah dari beragam etnis / ras, sosial ekonomi, dan 243 latar

belakang geografis (Khandpur et al., 2014). Sebagai kesimpulan, temuan dari studi 244 ini

menunjukkan bahwa serangkaian faktor ayah dan anak memengaruhi tingkat tanggung jawab ayah.

245 Waktu makan keluarga adalah peluang utama agar peran dan tanggung jawab berkembang dan

berkembang. Oleh karena itu, perlu untuk menetapkan perilaku ayah selama waktu makan, yang

terutama merupakan model ayah dan praktik pemberian makan ayah.

11
248 3.2 Perilaku ayah selama waktu makan
249 Tabel 2a merangkum studi yang mengeksplorasi bagaimana ayah dapat memengaruhi asupan

makanan anak 250 selama waktu makan dalam hal model ayah dan kemiripan antara asupan makanan

ayah dan 251 anak mereka, sementara Tabel 2b merangkum studi yang berfokus pada 252 praktik

pemberian makan ayah. Waktu makan keluarga dan pentingnya waktu makan adalah tema yang

berulang dalam studi kualitatif yang menyelidiki peran ayah dalam memberi makan anak mereka.

Walsh dkk. 254 (2017) menemukan bahwa ayah Australia anak-anak prasekolah percaya bahwa waktu

makan adalah 255 bagian penting dari "jalinan sosial keluarga", yang memungkinkan mereka untuk

saling berbagi 256 dan mengembangkan tradisi keluarga (Walsh et al., 2017). Demikian pula dalam

studi kualitatif oleh 257 Horodynski et al. (2005) ayah percaya bahwa interaksi orang tua dengan

anak mereka selama 258 waktu makan adalah tanggung jawab dan mayoritas ayah merasa bahwa 259

rutinitas dan ritual makan itu penting (Horodynski dan Arndt, 2005). Dalam studi ini, rutinitas waktu

makan dan 260 ritual didefinisikan sebagai “aktivitas yang mencakup dan mengatur pemilihan,

persiapan, 261 dan makan makanan” (Horodynski dan Arndt, 2005). Waktu makan keluarga memberi

262 kesempatan kepada orang tua untuk terlibat dan berinteraksi dengan anak mereka dalam

lingkungan yang berpusat pada makanan, yang memungkinkan 263 transfer pengetahuan dan sikap

ayah terhadap makanan melalui model ayah dan 264 praktik pemberian makan ayah. Untuk tujuan

tinjauan pemodelan paternal ini dan kemiripan 265 keluarga dari asupan makanan akan dibahas secara

terpisah karena literatur saat ini mengungkapkan bahwa 266 meskipun pola makan orang tua dan anak

mereka terkait, ada bukti yang berkembang yang menyarankan 267 bahwa pola makan orang tua dan

pemodelan orang tua adalah dua konstruksi yang berbeda (Harris dan Ramsey, 268 2015; Larsen,

Roel CJ Hermans, et al., 2015).

269 3.2.1 Pemodelan ayahPemodelan

270orangtua mendorong pembelajaran observasi, di mana anak-anak menganggap 271 perilaku

makan orang tua mereka sebagai 'norma' yang dapat memengaruhi asupan makanan mereka

sehingga anak-anak 272 mengadopsi perilaku makan orang tua mereka (Bandura, 1977). Oleh

karena itu, makan orangtua

 12
273 perilaku adalah referensi untuk apa yang perilaku yang sesuai, yang dapat mempengaruhi pola

konsumsi jangka panjang 274 anak-anak dalam hal pilihan makanan dan kuantitas yang dikonsumsi

(Herman dan 275 Polivy, 2005; Larsen, Roel CJ Hermans, et al ., 2015). Model orang tua terjadi

ketika 276 orang tua dengan sengaja mendemonstrasikan pilihan makanan sehat dan perilaku makan

untuk mendorong 277 perilaku serupa pada anak; atau orang tua secara tidak sengaja menunjukkan

278 perilaku makan yang tidak sehat di depan anak (Vaughn et al., 2016). Dalam literatur saat ini,

banyak 279 studi telah berfokus pada pengaruh pemodelan yang disengaja dari kebiasaan sehat,

karena lebih sulit untuk menilai pemodelan peran yang tidak sehat karena kurangnya kesadaran akan

perilaku ini dan 281 kemungkinan bias respons yang lebih besar (Vaughn et al., 2016). Tinjauan

sistematis dan analisis meta 282 oleh Yee et al., (2017) mengungkapkan ada hubungan positif yang

kuat antara 283 model orang tua dan pola konsumsi makanan sehat dan tidak sehat anak mereka 284

(Yee et al., 2017). Namun, kita harus mempertimbangkan bahwa dalam tinjauan ini 285 pertama,

pemodelan orang tua juga mencakup perilaku konsumsi makanan orang tua sendiri 286 (Yee et al.,

2017). Kedua, dari delapan belas studi yang dimasukkan dalam meta-analisis 287 (hanya makanan

sehat yang menjadi panutan), lima studi memasukkan ayah tetapi mereka hanya mewakili 288

proporsi kecil dari keseluruhan ukuran sampel (Brown dan Ogden, 2004; Cooke et al. ., 2004; 289

Wardle, Carnell dan Cooke, 2005; Reinaerts et al., 2007; Goldman, Radnitz dan McGrath, 290 2012),

dengan hanya satu studi yang hanya berfokus pada ayah (Harris dan Ramsey, 2015). Selain 291,

hanya satu dari lima studi yang mengeksplorasi hubungan antara role model dan 292 konsumsi

makanan tidak sehat (Yee et al., 2017) memiliki sampel kecil ayah (n = 15) (Brown 293 dan Ogden,

2004).

294 Terbukti dengan kurangnya studi yang termasuk dalam tinjauan sistematis / meta-analisis oleh

(Yee et 295 al., 2017), hingga saat ini hanya dua studi yang secara langsung menilai pemodelan

ayah, dengan keduanya menggunakan 296 Kuesioner Praktik Pemberian Makan Komprehensif

(CFPQ ) (Harris dan Ramsey, 2015; 297 Watterworth et al., 2017). Penelitian oleh Harris & Ramsey

(2015) (termasuk dalam meta-analisis

 13
298 (Yee etal.,2017)) memiliki ukuran sampel yang kecil (n = 102) dari ayah Afrika-Amerika dari

anak-anak 299 berusia 3 sampai 13 tahun -old dan menemukan bahwa model ayah yang dilaporkan

tidak terkait dengan 300 asupan buah, sayuran atau minuman yang dimaniskan oleh anak-anak

(Harris dan Ramsey, 2015). 301 Studi oleh Watterworth et al., (2017) yang memiliki sampel 44

keluarga Kanada dengan setidaknya 302 anak usia prasekolah, menemukan bahwa model ayah

dikaitkan dengan skor risiko gizi 303 anak yang lebih rendah (Watterworth et al., 2017). Namun,

perbandingan tidak dapat dibuat 304 antara studi-studi ini, karena variabel hasil diet anak-anak

berbeda dan rentang usia di setiap studi juga tidak dapat dibandingkan.

306 Tiga studi kualitatif sampai saat ini telah mengeksplorasi persepsi ayah tentang pemodelan peran

dan pentingnya (Khandpur et al., 2016; Fielding-Singh, 2017; Walsh et al., 2017). Para ayah dalam

studi kualitatif 308 yang dilakukan oleh Walsh dan rekannya percaya bahwa mereka memiliki

tanggung jawab sebagai model peran pertama bagi anak mereka dalam hal perilaku makan yang

sehat. Namun, mereka merasa ada 310 informasi yang kurang untuk memandu mereka dan bahwa

informasi yang andal harus lebih mudah diakses 311 (Walsh et al., 2017). Mayoritas ayah dalam

penelitian ini percaya bahwa ada banyak 312 kesempatan untuk memberi contoh dan memengaruhi

perilaku makan anak-anak mereka, baik melalui perkataan maupun tindakan mereka di sekitar waktu

makan (Walsh et al., 2017). Lebih dari 35% ayah dalam penelitian kualitatif 314 oleh Khandpur et al.,

(2016b) melaporkan menggunakan model peran untuk mendorong 315 anak mereka yang berusia 2

hingga 10 tahun untuk mengonsumsi makanan yang seimbang (Khandpur et al., 2016). 316 Temuan

dari studi kualitatif oleh Fielding-Singh (2017) menunjukkan bahwa 317 ayah Amerika dari remaja

merasa bahwa itu bukan tanggung jawab mereka untuk memasak atau menyediakan makanan sehat

untuk 318 anak mereka; sebaliknya, bagi para ayah, makanan melalui drive-through dan makanan

olahan adalah solusi umum 319 ketika dihadapkan pada tugas-tugas yang berhubungan dengan

makanan (Fielding-Singh, 2017). Kurangnya tanggung jawab memberi makan 320 pada ayah remaja

dapat dikaitkan dengan usia anak mereka dan kemampuan potensial mereka untuk menyiapkan dan

memasak makanan sendiri.

 14
322 Secara keseluruhan, temuan dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ayah dari anak-anak yang lebih

kecil percaya bahwa peran 323 pemodelan penting untuk mempromosikan perilaku makan yang

sehat, namun, temuan menunjukkan bahwa 324 ayah perlu lebih sadar akan perilaku mereka di

sekitar makanan karena mereka dapat mempromosikan 325 anak mereka. asupan makanan sehat dan

tidak sehat. Despite these findings, it is also necessary 326 to examine the dietary intake between

fathers and their child, because as previously stated 327 paternal modelling can transfer eating

behaviours from parent to child and is not always 328 intentional (Vaughn et al., 2016).

329 3.2.2 The association between father and child dietary intake

330 Several studies to date have attempted to establish family resemblance in the dietary intake 331

patterns, including both parents and at least one child. Findings from a systematic review and 332

meta-analysis revealed that there are weak to moderate associations between parents and 333

children's dietary intake (Wang et al., 2011). Although there has been no systematic review 334 or

meta-analysis conducted with studies containing fathers only, two longitudinal studies 335 (Guerrero

et al., 2016; Walsh et al., 2016), seven cross-sectional studies (Hall et al., 2011; 336 Zuercher,

Wagstaff and Kranz, 2011; Lloyd et al., 2014; Harris and Ramsey, 2015; Vollmer, 337 Adamsons,

Gorin, et al., 2015; Walsh et al., 2015; Hebestreit et al., 2017), and one 338 randomised-control trial

(Williams et al., 2018) have investigated the potentially similarities 339 between father's and their

child's dietary intake. The two longitudinal studies have only 340 investigated the influence of fathers'

behaviours on pre-school aged children's dietary intake. 341 The large American longitudinal study

(n=2441) by Guerroro et al., (2016) found that 342 children had a lower odds ratio of consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) at 4 years of 343 age if their fathers consumed breakfast more

frequently with them when they were 2-years 344 old (Guerrero et al., 2016). Whereas, fathers who

reported eating out more often with their 345 child had children who were more likely to eat fast food

and consume SSB (Guerrero et al., 346 2016). The other longitudinal study by Walsh et al., (2016)

had a significantly smaller sample

 15
347 size of Australian fathers (n=208), irrespective of this, findings suggested that fathers' intake 348

of fruit and sweet snacks were positively associated with their child's intake of these foods 349

between 20 months and 5 years of age (Walsh et al., 2016). In addition, a father's intake 350 when the

child was 20 months old was positively associated with a change in their child's 351 sweet snack and

SSB intake at both 3.5 and 5 years of age, along with an increase in their 352 child's fruit intake at 3.5

years of age (Walsh et al., 2016).

353 The cross-sectional studies included had a low to large sample size ranging from 50 to 566 354

fathers, with two studies focusing on preschool-aged children (Vollmer, Adamsons, Gorin, et 355 al.,

2015; Walsh et al., 2015), two on primary school-aged children (Hall et al., 2011; Lloyd 356 et al.,

2014), two on both age groups (Zuercher, Wagstaff and Kranz, 2011; Harris and 357 Ramsey, 2015)

and one study in children aged six to sixteen years old (Hebestreit et al., 358 2017). The studies were

conducted in primarily Australian (Hall et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 359 2014; Walsh et al., 2015) or

American (Zuercher, Wagstaff and Kranz, 2011; Harris and 360 Ramsey, 2015; Vollmer, Adamsons,

Gorin, et al., 2015) samples of fathers, with one study 361 conducted in a European sample of fathers

(Hebestreit et al., 2017). Findings from cross 362 sectional studies revealed that fathers' intake of fruit

(Hall et al., 2011; Zuercher, Wagstaff 363 and Kranz, 2011; Harris and Ramsey, 2015; Vollmer,

Adamsons, Gorin, et al., 2015; Walsh 364 et al., 2015) and vegetables (Zuercher, Wagstaff and Kranz,

2011; Harris and Ramsey, 2015; 365 Vollmer, Adamsons, Gorin, et al., 2015; Walsh et al., 2015) were

moderately to strongly 366 positively associated with their child's intake of these food groups, with

both positive (Hall et 367 al., 2011; Walsh et al., 2015) and inverse (Harris and Ramsey, 2015)

associations observed 368 with a child's and fathers' intakes of energy-dense foods.

369 Alternative methods to identify family resemblance have been conducted in cross-sectional 370

studies in recent years to look beyond food group resemblance and take into consideration 371 energy

consumption (Lloyd et al., 2014), nutritional adequacy (Zuercher, Wagstaff and

16
372 Kranz, 2011), and dietary patterns (Hebestreit et al., 2017). Lloyd et al., (2014) found a 373
significant bivariate association between paternal and child percentage energy from core 374 foods (ie

foods providing essential nutrients for health) (Lloyd et al., 2014). The study by 375 Zuercher et al.,

(2011) found significant correlations between fathers' and children's nutrient 376 intake and if a

father's intake was on course to meet their recommended nutrient intake, this 377 doubled the odds

for their child's diets to also meet recommendations (Zuercher, Wagstaff 378 and Kranz, 2011).

Finally, in terms of dietary patterns a large (n=566) cross-sectional 379 European study found that

children's “Sweet & Fat” dietary pattern was associated with 380 fathers' “Sweet & Fat” dietary

patterns when they shared at least one meal a day with them 381 (Hebestreit et al., 2017). In addition,

the same dietary pattern correlation was evident 382 between children and their fathers when soft

drinks were available in the home (Hebestreit et 383 al., 2017). The RCT called Healthy Dads,

Healthy Kids was implemented in Southern 384 Australian in 93 overweight or obese fathers with

primary school-aged children to help 385 fathers achieve their weight loss goals and educate them on

how to be a role model of 386 positive health behaviours for their children (Williams et al., 2018).

Findings from 3 months 387 post-RCT suggest that there was significant correlations between

changes in fathers' and their 388 child's intakes of carbohydrates, fruits, vegetarian sources of protein

and the frequency of 389 meals eaten with vegetables (Williams et al., 2018).

390 It should be noted that when evaluating these type of studies, it is important to take into 391

consideration the reporter-bias of the child's dietary intake. Findings from a recent study 392 revealed

that there were significant parent-respondent interactions, such that there was a 393 stronger

parent-child association with the diet of parent reporting child's intake than the other 394 parent

(Vepsäläinen et al., 2018). In relation to the seven studies discussed, it is difficult to 395 determine if

reporter-bias influences these observed findings; as the child's intake was 396 reported by mothers in

three studies (both studies by Walsh and colleagues use the same

17
397 sample cohort) (Hall et al., 2011; Walsh et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2018), by fathers in two 398

studies (Harris and Ramsey, 2015; Vollmer, Adamsons, Gorin, et al., 2015), unclear in three 399

studies (Lloyd et al., 2014; Guerrero et al., 2016; Hebestreit et al., 2017), and one study also 400
unclear for younger children (<6 years old) but self-reported by older children (Zuercher, 401

Wagstaff and Kranz, 2011).

402 Overall, current research illustrates the positive and negative influence of paternal intake on 403

child's food preference and subsequent food intake. Future studies should promote children's 404

self-reported dietary intake (in children ≥ 8 years old (Burrows et al., 2013)) or use more 405

advanced methods of dietary assessment (eg biochemical sample analysis) to eliminate 406 reporter's

bias. All of the longitudinal studies reported in this review were in younger 407 children (<

5-years-old) and therefore it is difficult to determine if observed father-child 408 correlations track

into later childhood when the child becomes more autonomous and is 409 subjected to numerous

social and environmental factors. In addition, more research is 410 required to determine the potential

mechanisms that explain the associations between parent 411 and a child's dietary intakes.

412 Family mealtimes also allow fathers to enforce rules around food and to encourage children 413

to consume their dinner through paternal feeding practices. Therefore, it is important to 414 establish

the association between paternal feeding practices and children's eating behaviours 415 and dietary

intake.

416 3.2.3 Paternal Feeding Practices

417 Parenting practices relate to the behaviours or actions of parents for child-rearing purposes 418

that may impact their child's beliefs, behaviours, and attitudes (Vaughn et al., 2016). 419 Parenting

behaviours can be domain-specific and parenting practices can vary based on the 420 context in which

they are used and therefore should be assessed individually ie parental

18
421 feeding practices (Vaughn et al., 2016). Within the last two decades, there has been an 422

increase in the quantity of research on paternal feeding practices and their association with 423

various child outcomes. To understand these associations, the child and paternal 424 characteristics

must be taken into consideration first.

425 3.2.3.1 Paternal feeding practices in relation to child and paternal characteristics 426 Most of

the studies exploring this association are primarily cross-sectional quantitative 427 studies, except for

one longitudinal study (Matton et al., 2013). Four studies found no 428 differences in paternal feeding

practices based on child's gender (Blissett, Meyer and 429 Haycraft, 2006; EL Haycraft and JM

Blissett, 2008a; Payne, Galloway and Webb, 2011; 430 Haycraft and Blissett, 2012), with three

studies illustrating that fathers reported more pressure 431 to eat with their sons than their daughters

(Orrell-Valente et al., 2007; Loth et al., 2013; 432 Pulley et al., 2014). Findings from the longitudinal

study suggest that more paternal 433 monitoring led a reduction in overeating in only boys over the 6

month follow-up period, 434 with these results marginally significant (Matton et al., 2013). In terms

of a child's age, 435 fathers of older children reported more feeding responsibilities (Kimberley M

Mallan et al., 436 2014) and restriction if concerned about their child's weight (Musher-Eizenman et

al., 2009; 437 Payne, Galloway and Webb, 2011) than fathers of younger children. However, two

studies 438 found no association between a child's age and paternal controlling feeding practices 439

(Blissett, Meyer and Haycraft, 2006; Haycraft and Blissett, 2012). The review by Khandpur 440 et al.,

(2014) stated that there are inconsistent findings in terms of a child's gender and that 441 fathers

report using food to regulate emotions in younger children more so than older children 442

(Khandpur et al., 2014). Therefore, more longitudinal research is required to establish how 443 the

temporality and stability of paternal feeding practices change as children get older.

444 In terms of paternal characteristics, five studies in the review by Khandpur et al., (2014) 445

focused on paternal weight status or father's perception of his weight status (Khandpur et al.,

19
446 2014). Findings from these studies suggest that higher body dissatisfaction was associated 447

with higher paternal reports of monitoring with their sons (Blissett, Meyer and Haycraft, 448 2006)

and higher reports of pressure to eat with both their sons and daughters (Blissett and 449 Haycraft,

2011). Only one cross-sectional observational study to date has shown an 450 association between

fathers self-reported BMI and paternal use of pressure to eat during 451 feeding (EL Haycraft and JM

Blissett, 2008b), with three other cross-sectional studies 452 finding no associations (Blissett, Meyer
and Haycraft, 2006; Musher-Eizenman et al., 2009; 453 Kimberley M Mallan et al., 2014). Only two

quantitative cross-sectional studies have 454 examined a possible association between paternal

socio-economic status (SES) and paternal 455 feeding practices, with one study suggesting that

fathers from lower SES use more pressure 456 to eat with their children (Kimberley M Mallan et al.,

2014), while the study found no 457 significant associations between SES and paternal controlling

feeding practices (Haycraft and 458 Blissett, 2012). A qualitative study by Khandpur and colleagues

have also explored the 459 influence of fathers' education level and residency status on paternal

feeding practices 460 (Khandpur et al., 2016). Twenty individual feeding practices were identified

within this 461 sample of American fathers, with fathers with higher education levels reporting more

feeding 462 on schedule (75% vs. 50%), modelling eating practices (50% vs. 29%) and using a

distraction 463 to feed (37% vs. 4%) than fathers with lower education levels (Khandpur et al., 2016).

464 Whereas fathers with lower education levels reported higher levels of letting their child 465

dictate food preferences (92% vs. 37%) and using food to bond with their children (29% vs. 466 6%)

than fathers with higher education levels (Khandpur et al., 2016).

467 3.2.3.2 Paternal feeding practices and children's eating behaviours 468 Limited research has

been conducted to establish the association between paternal feeding 469 practices and children's

eating behaviours, with the majority of research conducted in 470 mother-child dyads. However, there

have been four cross-sectional quantitative studies

20
471 (Haycraft and Blissett, 2012; Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015a; Powell et al., 2017; 472

Harris et al., 2018b) and one longitudinal (Matton et al., 2013) quantitative study conducted 473 to

explore this research question. The four cross-sectional studies included fathers of 474 preschool

children (Haycraft and Blissett, 2012; Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015a; 475 Powell et al.,

2017; Harris et al., 2018b) and the longitudinal study included fathers of 476 school-aged children

(Matton et al., 2013). Studies suggest that paternal reports of restriction 477 and pressure to eat are

associated with higher levels of avoidant eating (Haycraft and Blissett, 478 2012; Vollmer, Adamsons,

Foster, et al., 2015a; Harris et al., 2018b) and decreased ability of 479 the child to self-regulate in the
context of eating (Powell et al., 2017). In contrast Vollmer 480 and colleagues found that paternal

restriction was associated with higher food approach 481 eating behaviours and pressure to eat was

associated with lower food approach eating 482 behaviours (Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al.,

2015a). Finally, as previously mentioned, 483 Matton et al., (2014) found that more paternal

monitoring led a reduction in overeating in 484 only boys over a 6 month follow-up period (Matton et

al., 2013), with Haycraft & Blissett 485 finding that higher paternal monitoring was associated with

decreased emotional under-eating 486 in all children (Haycraft and Blissett, 2012). No qualitative

studies to date have explicitly 487 investigated fathers' behaviours around mealtimes in relation to

their child's eating 488 behaviours. Therefore, more research is required to understand fathers'

attitudes and beliefs 489 in relation to their child's eating behaviours, such as how they respond to

them, while 490 longitudinal studies would allow us to examine the direction of the relationship.

491 3.2.3.3 Paternal feeding practices and child's dietary intake

492 Following on from this, we need to establish direct associations between paternal feeding 493

practices and child's dietary intake. As illustrated by the systematic review and meta-analysis 494 by

Yee et al., (2017) there is a large body of research investigating the association between 495 parental

feeding practices and their child's 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' dietary intake. However,

21
496 unfortunately, the majority of studies do not include fathers at all or if fathers are included in 497

the study, they only represent a small proportion of the sample and the results report mothers 498 and

fathers collectively (Yee et al., 2017). To date, only three cross-sectional studies directly 499 explored

the association between paternal feeding practices and a measure of their preschool 500 child's dietary

intake (Vollmer, Adamsons, Gorin, et al., 2015; Lora et al., 2016; 501 Watterworth et al., 2017).

Vollmer and colleagues found no significant association between 502 paternal feeding practices and

their child's dietary quality score (Vollmer, Adamsons, Gorin, 503 et al., 2015). The study by

Watterworth and colleagues used a child's nutrition risk score as 504 an outcome measure of the

child's dietary intake and found that a father's use of coercive 505 feeding practices were associated

with a higher children's nutrition risk score (Watterworth et 506 al., 2017). With fathers' reports of
role modelling, involving children in meal preparation and 507 providing a healthy home, associated

with a reduced children's nutritional risk score in 508 preschool Canadian children (Watterworth et

al., 2017). The cross-sectional study by Lora et 509 al., (2017) found that paternal use of food as a

reward or to calm the child was associated 510 with increased SSB intake in Hispanic but not African

American preschool children (Lora et 511 al., 2016). Therefore, no clear conclusion can be made

given the range of outcome variables 512 used to assess children's dietary intakes. While the potential

long-term influence needs to 513 establish by recruiting a sample of older children or ideally

conducting longitudinal studies.

514 It should also be noted that two longitudinal studies have explored associations between 515

parenting styles and their child's food intake, with parenting styles representing the emotional 516

condition of the parent-child relationship (Alsharairi and Somerset, 2015). The study by 517

Alsharairi & Somerset (2015) found that fathers, who reported a permissive parenting style 518 when

child was aged 4 to 5-years-old, had children with higher odds of consuming >1 portion 519 of fruit

and vegetable two years later, compared to fathers who reported a disengaged 520 parenting style

(Alsharairi and Somerset, 2015). While fathers who reported an authoritative

22
521 parenting style when child was aged 4 to 5-years-old, had children with higher odds of 522

consuming >1 portion of fruit and vegetable two years later (in girls only) and four years later 523 (in

boys only), compared to fathers who reported a disengaged parenting style (Alsharairi and 524

Somerset, 2015). The longitudinal study by Berge and colleagues in American adolescents 525 found

that paternal permissive feeding style predicted their daughter's fruit and vegetable 526 intake five

years later when compared to authoritarian fathers (Berge et al., 2010). More 527 research is required

to establish how the emotional climate in relation to feeding can 528 influence paternal feedings

practices and children's dietary intake.

529 Overall, findings suggest that fathers play an important role in the development of eating 530

behaviours. The context and type of paternal behaviour around mealtimes can determine 531 whether

paternal presence and influence will have a positive or negative influence on a 532 child's eating
behaviours and dietary intake. However, as research predominately focuses on 533 mothers in relation

to child feeding, this review needs to address maternal perceptions of 534 fathers feeding

responsibilities and explore the differences in maternal and paternal 535 behaviours during family

mealtimes.

23
536 3.3 Maternal perceptions and behaviours in the context of paternal feeding responsibilities

537 and feeding practices

538 Mothers are predominately the primary caregiver and according to Townsend are referred to 539

as the 'default parent' (Townsend, 2002). This statement is supported by most studies and 540

interventions that include children as they primarily include mothers as the primary care 541 giver

(Morgan et al., 2017; Davison et al., 2018). As research suggests that mothers are more 542

responsible for feeding their children than fathers, it is necessary to understand their 543 perceptions

in relation to their partners' involvement in feeding their child as this may give 544 insight to the

factors influencing the roles and responsibilities of fathers (Blissett, Meyer and 545 Haycraft, 2006;

Pulley et al., 2014; Ek et al., 2016; Harris et al., 2018a). In addition, 546 children's dietary intake

can be influenced by their mothers' and fathers' attitudes and 547 behaviours, and therefore the

associations between mothers' and fathers' behaviours during 548 mealtimes need to be examined
collectively to determine if similarities or differences exist.

549 3.3.1 Maternal perceptions of fathers feeding roles & responsibilities 550 To establish how

mothers perceive fathers' role in feeding, we need to determine how 551 mothers view their

responsibilities in comparison to fathers. Two qualitative studies 552 addressed this question in

mothers of preschool children (Tanner, Petersen and Fraser, 2014) 553 and adolescents

(Fielding-Singh, 2017). Findings from Tanner and colleagues suggest that all 554 the women (n=24

mothers, n=6 social care providers) participating in the study viewed 555 themselves the primary, or

in some cases the only person responsible for managing their 556 family's diet (Tanner, Petersen and

Fraser, 2014). Women in this study said fathers lack of 557 cooking skills were the most common

reason for fathers not preparing or cooking meals, with 558 many mothers believing they had to cook

in order to provide 'fresh' and healthy family 559 meals. However, the women interviewed were

accepting of their partners lack of 560 involvement, as although fathers were often willing to cook,

mothers knew they were the

24
561 superior cook and in addition had a greater interest in cooking than fathers (Tanner, Petersen 562

and Fraser, 2014). The study by Fielding-Singh (2017) consisted of in-depth interviews of 563

American middle- and upper-class families, with at least one parent and one adolescent 564

interviewed (Fielding-Singh, 2017). Findings suggest that mothers were concerned about 565 fathers

detachment or disinterest in a healthy diet, with mothers worried about fathers 566 modelling of

unhealthy dietary behaviours to adolescents, and fathers feeding adolescents 567 unhealthy foods

(Fielding-Singh, 2017). Mothers in this study did not see food-work or 568 healthy eating as part of

their partners' duties and only a few mothers thought that the 569 unequitable division of labour

around mealtimes was unjust (Fielding-Singh, 2017).

570 In terms of general paternal roles, studies have found that maternal perception of a father's 571

responsibility as a carer for their child is a strong predictor of father involvement, regardless 572 of a

father's perception of his role (Grossman, Pollack and Golding, 1988; McBride and 573 Rane, 1997;

McBride et al., 2005). Limited research within a feeding context has been 574 conducted and
therefore it is not fully understood how this psychological concept may 575 influence paternal feeding

practices. A quantitative study in American fathers (n=150) 576 somewhat investigated this concept,

with a father's perception of his partner's views of both 577 his role as a father in general and during

mealtimes not differing from his own perceptions 578 (Vollmer, Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015b).

These findings suggest that fathers believe that 579 their partner identifies the father as an important

figure within the family and during 580 mealtimes. However, as stated by Vollmer and colleagues in

the limitations of the study, it is 581 difficult to determine if fathers reported their partner's

perceptions of the role of the father 582 accurately and ideally the father's partner should have

completed this questionnaire (Vollmer, 583 Adamsons, Foster, et al., 2015b).

584 It is necessary to explore parental perceptions of feeding roles, as they can influence parental 585

behaviours during mealtimes and can be directly interpreted by children. Therefore, the

25
586 similarities or differences between mothers and fathers behaviours during mealtimes need to 587

be examined and subsequently how their behaviours are associated with their child's eating 588

behaviours and dietary intake.

589 3.3.2 The influence of maternal behaviours during family mealtimes in comparison to

590 paternal behaviours

591 There is some conflicting evidence within the literature in terms of which parent has the 592

greatest influence on a child's diet, with some studies reporting greater mother-child 593 correlations

(Oliveria et al., 1992; Beydoun and Wang, 2009; Vanhala et al., 2011; Robinson 594 et al., 2015;

Vepsäläinen et al., 2018) and others reporting greater father-child correlations 595 (Vauthier et al.,

1996; Thorsdottir et al., 2006) for food and nutrient intake. The studies that 596 found greater

mother-child dietary associations were generally more recent, and were larger 597 cross-sectional

studies with a larger age range (1-18 years old) (Beydoun and Wang, 2009; 598 Vanhala et al., 2011;

Robinson et al., 2015; Bogl et al., 2017; Vepsäläinen et al., 2018) 599 compared to those who

reported greater father-child correlations (Vauthier et al., 1996; 600 Thorsdottir et al., 2006).

However, in the majority of studies, it is unclear whether the mother 601 or father reported their
child's dietary intake, which may result in reporters-bias and parent 602 respondent interactions, such

that there may be a stronger parent-child association with the 603 diet of parent reporting the child's

intake compared to the other parent (Vepsäläinen et al., 604 2018).

605 In terms of parental feeding practices findings from the comprehensive review by Khandpur 606

et al., (2014) illustrate that nine out of twelve studies found significant differences between 607 the

meal-time feeding practices of mothers and fathers, which will be elaborated on below 608

(Khandpur et al., 2014). The three studies that found no significant differences were cross

609 sectional in design and had small sample sizes (two had 23 fathers and one had 107 fathers) 610

(EL Haycraft and JM Blissett, 2008b,a, Blissett and Haycraft, 2011). Khandpur et al.,

26
611 (2014) suggest that in comparison to mothers, fathers reported lower levels of monitoring 612

(Blissett, Meyer and Haycraft, 2006; Blissett and Haycraft, 2008) and frequency of meals 613 with

their child (Haycraft and Blissett, 2012). Fathers were also less likely to monitor 614 children's snack

food intake (Zhang and McIntosh, 2011), place limit on snack foods or 615 ensure availability of fruit

and vegetables (Hendy et al., 2009). In contrast, fathers had a 616 higher level of control in the

amount of food consumed by the child (Hendy et al., 2009), 617 restrictive feeding practices

(Musher-Eizenman et al., 2009) and greater use of pressure to eat 618 (Hendy et al., 2009; Loth et al.,

2013; Tschann et al., 2013) than mothers. While the 619 observational study by Orrell-Valente et al.,

(2007) found that fathers were less likely to use 620 neutral prompts, reasoning, or praise and used

fewer feeding strategies in general per meal 621 than mothers (Orrell-Valente et al., 2007).

622 The studies that have been conducted in the years after Khandpur and colleagues 623

comprehensive review in 2014 also illustrate conflicting evidence between maternal and 624 paternal

feeding practices. The six cross-sectional quantitative studies are primarily in 625 parents of

preschool-aged children (Adamson and Blight, 2014; Powell, Frankel and 626 Hernandez, 2017; Pratt

et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2018b; Jansen et al., 2018). Half of the 627 studies conducted with both

parents (Adamson and Blight, 2014; Pulley et al., 2014; Harris et 628 al., 2018b; Jansen et al., 2018)

and half using the same measurement tool to assess parental 629 feeding practices (Feeding Practices
and Structure Questionnaire) (Powell, Frankel and 630 Hernandez, 2017; Harris et al., 2018b; Jansen

et al., 2018). Out of the six studies, three were 631 in Australian samples (Adamson and Blight, 2014;

Harris et al., 2018b; Jansen et al., 2018) 632 and three were in American samples (Pulley et al., 2014;

Powell, Frankel and Hernandez, 633 2017; Pratt et al., 2017). One study found no significant

difference between mothers and 634 fathers and how they respond to mealtime issues (Adamson and

Blight, 2014). While another 635 study assessed the parental feeding practices of 77 American

families (children aged 6 to 12

27
636 years) and found that fathers reported greater pressure to eat with their children than mothers 637

did, with no differences reported between mothers and fathers use of restrictive feeding 638 practices

(Pulley et al., 2014). Two studies conducted secondary analyses on the same study 639 sample: Mums

and Dads (MAD) for mealtimes (Harris et al., 2018b; Jansen et al., 2018). The 640 study by Jansen

and colleagues included all mothers (n=279) and fathers (n=335) from the 641 MAD for mealtimes

study (Jansen et al., 2018), whereas Harris and colleagues only included 642 mother-father pairs

(n=208) (Harris et al., 2018b). Both studies found that fathers endorsed 643 using food as a reward

for good behaviour more so than mothers (Harris et al., 2018b; Jansen 644 et al., 2018), with no

significant difference observed between mother and father reports of 645 persuasive feeding and

reward for eating (Harris et al., 2018b). In contrast, Jansen and 646 colleagues found that fathers

reported more reward for eating and less covert restriction and 647 structured meal timing than

mothers (Jansen et al., 2018). Differences may exist between 648 studies due to the set of subjects

selected within the sample. Similarly, Powell et al., (2017) 649 found that fathers endorse using food

as a reward for good behaviour more so than mothers 650 (Powell, Frankel and Hernandez, 2017),

and Pratt et al., (2017) also found that fathers used 651 more coercive food parenting strategies and

less structure-based parenting strategies than 652 mothers (Pratt et al., 2017).

653 Findings from two qualitative studies support those from quantitative studies (Tanner, 654

Petersen and Fraser, 2014; Khandpur, Charles and Davison, 2016). Tanner and colleagues 655 suggest

that mothers believe that fathers were 'tougher' or 'harder' with their children than 656 they were and
displayed a more authoritarian role in relation to feeding routines, especially 657 when the father

expressed concern over their child's weight (Tanner, Petersen and Fraser, 658 2014). Khandpur and

colleagues conducted a study investigating fathers perceptions on 659 feeding practices and

responsibilities utilised by them and their partners (Khandpur, Charles 660 and Davison, 2016).

Findings revealed that approximately half (46%) of fathers reported

28
661 cooperative food parenting practices with their partner, whereas 40% stated that there were 662

conflicting food parenting practices. Fathers reported that conflict arose around access to 663

energy-dense foods and introducing variety to the diet. Dissimilarities in practices were due 664 to

differences in parental eating habits and feeding philosophies as well as concern for their 665 child's

health/weight, which fathers reported often resulted in the child refusing to eat 666 (Khandpur,

Charles and Davison, 2016).

667 Overall, it is clear that there are some differences between maternal and paternal feeding 668

practices. In general, it appears that fathers utilise more coercive feeding practices, which 669

suggests they adopt a more authoritarian figure during mealtimes than mothers. In addition, 670

further research is required to establish both the individual and common predictors of 671 maternal

and paternal feeding practices.

672 4. Conclusion

673 The literature to date suggests that while mothers still view themselves as the primary 674

caregiver, fathers have some form of responsibility in some aspect of feeding their child, 675 from

deciding food availability in the home (grocery shopping) to interacting with their child 676 during

mealtimes. However, as with research in mother-child dyads, the interactions during 677 mealtimes

between fathers and their children can both positively and negatively influence 678 children's

long-term eating behaviour. These interactions include the types of foods fathers 679 choose to eat in

the presence of their children, which can consequently encourage role 680 modelling and influence

children to adopt a similar eating patterns to their fathers if they 681 frequently engage in mealtimes

with one another. Another interaction during mealtimes and a 682 recurrent theme in the literature is
fathers' greater use of coercive feeding practices in 683 comparison to mothers and its association

with food avoidant eating behaviours in children. 684 Overall, research to date highlights the

importance of including fathers in research relating to 685 children's dietary intakes. Studies to date

that have touched on various aspects of fathers'

29
686 attitude and behaviour in relation to child feeding and have significantly contributed to the 687

literature. However, future research needs to investigate family meals as a broader construct 688 and

include children from infancy to adolescence. The entire family context needs to be taken 689 into

consideration, with both quantitative and qualitative studies necessary to gain a fuller 690

understanding of the differential influence on children's dietary intake from the numerous 691

individuals involved in the child's daily routine.

 30
692 Financial Support

693 This work was supported by the Department of Agriculture Food and Marine, under the 694

National Development Plan 2000–2006. Department of Agriculture Food and Marine had no 695 role

in the design, analysis or writing of this article.

696 Conflict of Interest – “None”

697 Authorship
698 S. Rahill was involved in compiling the relevant articles and writing the narrative review. A. 699

Kennedy and J. Kearney were responsible for reviewing article.

31
700 5. References

701 Adamson, M. and Blight, EJ (2014) 'Bringing dads to the table: Comparing mother and 702
father reports of child behaviour and parenting at mealtimes', Journal of Family Studies. 703
Routledge, 20(2), pp. 118–127. doi: 10.1080/13229400.2014.11082001.

704 Alsharairi, NA and Somerset, SM (2015) 'Associations between Parenting Styles and 705
Children's Fruit and Vegetable Intake', Ecology of Food and Nutrition. Routledge, 54(1), pp. 706
93–113. doi: 10.1080/03670244.2014.953248.

707 Bandura, A. (1977) 'Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.', 708
Psychological Review, 84(2), pp. 191–215. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.
709 Bennett, AE, McCartney, D. and Kearney, JM (2016) 'Views of fathers in Ireland on the 710
experience and challenges of having a breast-feeding partner.', Midwifery. Elsevier, 40, pp. 711
169–76. doi: 10.1016/j.midw.2016.07.004.

712 Berge, JM et al. (2010) 'Parenting Style as a Predictor of Adolescent Weight and Weight 713
Related Behaviors', J Adolesc Health, 46(4), pp. 331–338. doi:
714 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.08.004.

715 Beydoun, MA and Wang, Y. (2009) 'Parent–child dietary intake resemblance in the United 716
States: Evidence from a large representative survey', Social Science & Medicine. Pergamon, 717
68(12), pp. 2137–2144. doi: 10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2009.03.029.

718 Bianchi, SM (2000) 'Maternal Employment and Time with Children: Dramatic Change or 719
Surprising Continuity?', Demography. Springer-Verlag, 37(4), pp. 401–414. doi: 720
10.1353/dem.2000.0001.

721 Blissett, J. and Haycraft, E. (2008) 'Are parenting style and controlling feeding practices 722
related?', Appetite, 50(2–3), pp. 477–485. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.10.003.

723 Blissett, J. and Haycraft, E. (2011) 'Parental eating disorder symptoms and observations of 724
mealtime interactions with children', Journal of Psychosomatic Research. Elsevier, 70(4), pp. 725
368–371. doi: 10.1016/J.JPSYCHORES.2010.07.006.

726 Blissett, J., Meyer, C. and Haycraft, E. (2006) 'Maternal and paternal controlling feeding 727
practices with male and female children', Appetite, 47(2), pp. 212–219. doi: 728
10.1016/j.appet.2006.04.002.

32
729 Bogl, L. et al. (2017) 'Familial Resemblance in Dietary Intakes of Children, Adolescents, and 730
Parents: Does Dietary Quality Play a Role?', Nutrients, 9(8), p. 892. doi: 731 10.3390/nu9080892.

732 Brown, A. and Davies, R. (2014) 'Fathers' experiences of supporting breastfeeding: 733
challenges for breastfeeding promotion and education.', Maternal & child nutrition. Wiley 734
Blackwell, 10(4), pp. 510–26. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12129.

735 Brown, R. and Ogden, J. (2004) 'Children's eating attitudes and behaviour: A study of the 736
modelling and control theories of parental influence', Health Education Research, 19(3), pp. 737
261–271. doi: 10.1093/her/cyg040.

738 Burrows, TL et al. (2013) 'A comparison and validation of child versus parent reporting of 739
children's energy intake using food frequency questionnaires versus food records: Who's an 740
accurate reporter?', Clinical Nutrition, 32(4), pp. 613–618. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.11.006.

741 Cooke, LJ et al. (2004) 'Demographic, familial and trait predictors of fruit and vegetable 742
consumption by pre-school children', Public Health Nutrition, 7(02), pp. 295–302. doi: 743
10.1079/PHN2003527.

744 Daniels, LA et al. (2013) 'Outcomes of an Early Feeding Practices Intervention to Prevent 745
Childhood Obesity', PEDIATRICS, 132(1), pp. e109–e118. doi: 10.1542/peds.2012-2882.

746 Davison, KK et al. (2018) 'The forgotten parent: Fathers' representation in family 747
interventions to prevent childhood obesity', Preventive Medicine, 111, pp. 170–176. doi: 748
10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.02.029.

749 Doherty, WJ, Kouneski, EF and Erickson, MF (1998) 'Responsible Fathering: An 750
Overview and Conceptual Framework', Journal of Marriage and the Family. National 751
Council on Family Relations, 60(2), p. 277. doi: 10.2307/353848.

752 Ek, A. et al. (2016) 'Associations between Parental Concerns about Preschoolers' Weight 753 and
Eating and Parental Feeding Practices: Results from Analyses of the Child Eating 754 Behavior
Questionnaire, the Child Feeding Questionnaire, and the Lifestyle Behavior 755 Checklist', PLOS
ONE. Edited by Y.-C. Chen. Public Library of Science, 11(1), p. e0147257. 756 doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0147257.

757 eurostat (2017) People in the EU - statistics on household and family structures - Statistics
758 Explained. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-

33
759 explained/index.php?title=People_in_the_EU_-
760 _statistics_on_household_and_family_structures#Single
761 person_households:_differences_between_EU_Member_States (Accessed: 4 December
762 2018).

763 Feinberg, ME (2003) 'The Internal Structure and Ecological Context of Coparenting: A 764
Framework for Research and Intervention.', Parenting, science and practice. NIH Public 765
Access, 3(2), pp. 95–131. doi: 10.1207/S15327922PAR0302_01.

766 Fielding-Singh, P. (2017) 'Dining with dad: Fathers' influences on family food practices', 767
Appetite. Academic Press, 117, pp. 98–108. doi: 10.1016/J.APPET.2017.06.013.

768 Goldman, RL, Radnitz, CL and McGrath, RE (2012) 'The role of family variables in 769 fruit
and vegetable consumption in preschool children', Journal of Public Health Research, 770 1(2), p.
22. doi: 10.4081/jphr.2012.e22.
771 Grossman, F., Pollack, W. and Golding, E. (1988) 'Fathers and children: Predicting the 772
quality and quantity of fathering.', Developmental Psychology, 24, pp. 82–91.

773 Guerrero, AD et al. (2016) 'Father Involvement in Feeding Interactions with Their Young 774
Children.', American journal of health behavior. NIH Public Access, 40(2), pp. 221–30. doi: 775
10.5993/AJHB.40.2.7.

776 Hall, L. et al. (2011) 'Children's Intake of Fruit and Selected Energy-Dense Nutrient-Poor 777
Foods Is Associated with Fathers' Intake', Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 778
111(7), pp. 1039–1044. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2011.04.008.

779 Hansen, E., Tesch, L. and Ayton, J. (2018) ''They're born to get breastfed'- how fathers view 780
breastfeeding: a mixed method study', BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. BioMed Central, 781 18(1),
p. 238. doi: 10.1186/s12884-018-1827-9.

782 Harris, HA et al. (2018a) 'Concern Explaining Nonresponsive Feeding: A Study of 783 Mothers'
and Fathers' Response to Their Child's Fussy Eating', Journal of Nutrition 784 Education and
Behavior. Elsevier Inc., 50(8), pp. 757–764. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2018.05.021.

785 Harris, HA et al. (2018b) 'Do dads make a difference? Family feeding dynamics and child 786
fussy eating', Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 39(5), pp. 415–423. doi: 787
10.1097/DBP.0000000000000566.

788 Harris, TS and Ramsey, M. (2015) 'Paternal modeling, household availability, and paternal

34
789 intake as predictors of fruit, vegetable, and sweetened beverage consumption among African
790 American children', Appetite. Academic Press, 85, pp. 171–177. doi: 791
10.1016/J.APPET.2014.11.008.

792 Haycraft, E. and Blissett, J. (2012) 'Predictors of Paternal and Maternal Controlling Feeding 793
Practices with 2- to 5-year-old Children', Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 794 44(5),
pp. 390–397. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2010.03.001.

795 Haycraft, EL and Blissett, JM (2008a) 'Controlling feeding practices and 796
psychopathology in a non-clinical sample of mothers and fathers', Eating Behaviors. 797
Pergamon, 9(4), pp. 484–492. doi: 10.1016/J.EATBEH.2008.07.007.

798 Haycraft, EL and Blissett, JM (2008b) 'Maternal and Paternal Controlling Feeding 799
Practices: Reliability and Relationships With BMI', Obesity, 16(7), pp. 1552–1558. doi: 800
10.1038/oby.2008.238.
801 Hebestreit, A. et al. (2017) 'Dietary Patterns of European Children and Their Parents in 802
Association with Family Food Environment: Results from the I.Family Study', Nutrients. 803
Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), 9(2), p. 126. doi: 10.3390/nu9020126.

804 Hendy, HM et al. (2009) 'The Parent Mealtime Action Scale (PMAS). Development and 805
association with children's diet and weight', Appetite, 52(2), pp. 328–339. doi: 806
10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.003.

807 Herman, C. and Polivy, J. (2005) 'Normative influences on food intake', Physiology & 808
Behavior, 86(5), pp. 762–772. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.08.064.

809 Horodynski, M. and Arndt, MJ (2005) '“Eating-together” mealtimes with African 810
American fathers and their toddlers.', Applied nursing research : ANR. WB Saunders Ltd, 811
18(2), pp. 106–9. doi: 10.1016/j.apnr.2004.05.002.

812 Jansen, E. et al. (2018) 'Measurement invariance of the Feeding Practices and Structure 813
Questionnaire-28 among a community of socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers and 814
fathers', Appetite, 120, pp. 115–122. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.08.030.

815 Kenosi, M. et al. (2011) 'Are fathers underused advocates for breastfeeding?', Irish medical
816 journal, 104(10), pp. 313–5. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22256447 817
(Accessed: 7 November 2018).

818 Khandpur, N. et al. (2014) 'Fathers' child feeding practices: A review of the evidence',

35
819 Appetite, 78, pp. 110–121. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.015.

820 Khandpur, N. et al. (2016) 'Diversity in fathers ' food parenting practices : A qualitative 821
exploration within a heterogeneous sample', Appetite. Elsevier Ltd, 101, pp. 134–145. doi: 822
10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.161.

823 Khandpur, N., Charles, J. and Davison, KK (2016) 'Fathers' Perspectives on Coparenting 824
in the Context of Child Feeding', Childhood Obesity, 12(6), pp. 455–462. doi: 825
10.1089/chi.2016.0118.

826 Larsen, JK, Hermans, Roel CJ, et al. (2015) 'How parental dietary behavior and food 827
parenting practices affect children's dietary behavior. Interacting sources of influence?', 828
Appetite. Elsevier Ltd, 89, pp. 246–257. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.012.

829 Larsen, JK, Hermans, Roel CJ, et al. (2015) 'How parental dietary behavior and food 830
parenting practices affect children's dietary behavior. Interacting sources of influence?', 831
Appetite, 89, pp. 246–257. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.012.
832 Lloyd, AB et al. (2014) 'Maternal and paternal parenting practices and their influence on 833
children's adiposity, screen-time, diet and physical activity', Appetite. Elsevier Ltd, 79, pp. 834
149–157. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.04.010.

835 Lora, KR et al. (2016) 'African-American and Hispanic children's beverage intake: 836
Differences in associations with desire to drink, fathers' feeding practices, and weight 837
concerns.', Appetite. NIH Public Access, 107, pp. 558–567. doi:
838 10.1016/j.appet.2016.09.012.

839 Loth, KA et al. (2013) 'Food-related parenting practices and adolescent weight status: a 840
population-based study.', Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics, 131(5), pp. e1443-50. 841 doi:
10.1542/peds.2012-3073.

842 Mallan, Kimberley M et al. (2014) 'Dads at the dinner table. A cross-sectional study of 843
Australian fathers' child feeding perceptions and practices.', Appetite, 73, pp. 40–4. 844
Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24511617 (Accessed: 22 June 2018).

845 Mallan, KM et al. (2014) 'The role of fathers in child feeding: perceived responsibility and 846
predictors of participation', Child Care, Health and Development. Wiley/Blackwell 847 (10.1111),
40(5), pp. 715–22. doi: 10.1111/cch.12088.

848 Matton, A. et al. (2013) 'Continuity in Primary School Children's Eating Problems and the

36
849 Influence of Parental Feeding Strategies', Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Springer US, 850
42(1), pp. 52–66. doi: 10.1007/s10964-012-9794-3.

851 May, C., Chai, LK and Burrows, T. (2017) 'Parent, partner, co-parent or partnership? The 852
need for clarity as family systems thinking takes hold in the quest to motivate behavioural 853
change.', Children (Basel, Switzerland). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute 854 (MDPI),
4(4), p. 29. doi: 10.3390/children4040029.

855 McBride, B. et al. (2005) 'Parental identity, maternal gatekeeping, and father involvement', 856
Family Relations, 54, pp. 360–372.

857 McBride, BA and Rane, TR (1997) 'Role identity, role investments, and paternal 858
involvement: Implications for parenting programs for men.', Early Childhood Research 859
Quarterly, 12, pp. 173–197.

860 Minuchin, P. (1985) 'Families and Individual Development: Provocations from the Field of 861
Family Therapy', Child Development. WileySociety for Research in Child Development, 862 56(2),
p. 289. doi: 10.2307/1129720.
863 Morgan, PJ et al. (2017) 'Involvement of Fathers in Pediatric Obesity Treatment and 864
Prevention Trials: A Systematic Review.', Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics, 865
139(2). doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-2635.

866 Murdock, G. (1949) Social Structure. Edisi ke-2. MacMillan Company.

867 Musher-Eizenman, DR et al. (2009) 'Child and parent characteristics related to parental 868
feeding practices. A cross-cultural examination in the US and France', Appetite, 52(1), pp. 869
89–95. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2008.08.007.

870 Oliveria, SA et al. (1992) 'Parent-child relationships in nutrient intake: the Framingham 871
Children's Study', The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Oxford University Press, 872
56(3), pp. 593–598. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/56.3.593.

873 Orrell-Valente, JK et al. (2007) '“Just three more bites”: An observational analysis of 874
parents' socialization of children's eating at mealtime', Appetite. Academic Press, 48(1), pp. 875
37–45. doi: 10.1016/J.APPET.2006.06.006.

876 Parke, RD (2008) 'Father Involvement', Marriage & Family Review. Taylor & Francis 877
Group, 29(2–3), pp. 43–58. doi: 10.1300/J002v29n02_04.

37
878 Payne, LO, Galloway, AT and Webb, RM (2011) 'Parental use of differential restrictive 879
feeding practices with siblings', International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 6(2–2), pp. e540– 880
e546. doi: 10.3109/17477166.2011.575144.

881 Pleck, J. and Masciadrelli, B. (2004) 'Paternal Involvement by US Residential Fathers: 882
Levels, Sources, and Consequences.', in The role of the father in child developement. 4th edn. 883
New York: Wiley, pp. 222–271.

884 Powell, EM et al. (2017) 'The relationship between adult attachment orientation and child 885
self-regulation in eating: The mediating role of persuasive-controlling feeding practices', 886 Eating
Behaviors, 26, pp. 121–128. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2017.02.006.

887 Powell, EM, Frankel, LA and Hernandez, D. (2017) 'The mediating role of child self 888
regulation of eating in the relationship between parental use of food as a reward and child 889
emotional overeating', Appetite. Elsevier Ltd, 113, pp. 78–83. doi:
890 10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.017.

891 Pratt, M. et al. (2017) 'Structure, coercive control, and autonomy promotion: A comparison
892 of fathers' and mothers' food parenting strategies', Journal of Health Psychology. SAGE 893
PublicationsSage UK: London, England, p. 135910531770725. doi:
894 10.1177/1359105317707257.

895 Pulley, C. et al. (2014) 'Parental child feeding practices: how do perceptions of mother, 896
father, sibling, and self vary?', Appetite, 80, pp. 96–102. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.05.001.

897 Reinaerts, E. et al. (2007) 'Explaining school children's fruit and vegetable consumption: 898
The contributions of availability, accessibility, exposure, parental consumption and habit in 899
addition to psychosocial factors', Appetite. Academic Press, 48(2), pp. 248–258. doi: 900
10.1016/J.APPET.2006.09.007.

901 Rempel, LA and Rempel, JK (2011) 'The Breastfeeding Team: The Role of Involved 902
Fathers in the Breastfeeding Family', Journal of Human Lactation. SAGE PublicationsSage 903
CA: Los Angeles, CA, 27(2), pp. 115–121. doi: 10.1177/0890334410390045.

904 Robinson, LN et al. (2015) 'Relationships between dietary intakes of children and their 905
parents: a cross-sectional, secondary analysis of families participating in the Family Diet 906 Quality
Study', Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111), 28(5), 907 pp.
443–451. doi: 10.1111/jhn.12261.

38
908 Spinney, L. (2011) 'Venus and Mars collide', New Science, (209), pp. 43–45.

909 Tamis-Lemonda, CS and Cabrera, N. (1999) 'Perspectives on Father Involvement: 910

Research and Policy', Social Policy Report Society for Research in Child Development, 911
13(2), pp. 1–25. Available at: http://srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/spr13-2.pdf 912
(Accessed: 26 November 2018).

913 Tanner, C., Petersen, A. and Fraser, S. (2014) 'Food, fat and family: Thinking fathers through 914
mothers' words', Women's Studies International Forum. Pergamon, 44, pp. 209–219. doi: 915
10.1016/J.WSIF.2013.01.017.

916 Thorsdottir, I. et al. (2006) 'Fruit and vegetable intake: vitamin C and beta-carotene intake 917
and serum concentrations in six-year-old children and their parents', Food & Nutrition 918
Research, 50(2), pp. 71–76. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v50i2.1561.

919 Townsend, NW (2002) The package deal : marriage, work, and fatherhood in men's lives. 920
Temple University Press. Available at:
921 https://books.google.ie/books/about/Package_Deal.html?id=Fl-GEzEvHVkC&redir_esc=y
922 (Accessed: 28 November 2018).

923 Tschann, JM et al. (2013) 'Parental feeding practices in Mexican American families: initial 924
test of an expanded measure', International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical 925
Activity. BioMed Central, 10(1), p. 6. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-10-6.

926 Vanhala, ML et al. (2011) 'Parental predictors of fruit and vegetable consumption in 927
treatment-seeking overweight children', Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 24(1), pp. 928
47–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-277X.2010.01133.x.

929 Vaughn, AE et al. (2016) 'Fundamental constructs in food parenting practices: a content 930 map
to guide future research', Nutrition Reviews. Oxford University Press, 74(2), pp. 98–117. 931 doi:
10.1093/nutrit/nuv061.

932 Vauthier, JM et al. (1996) 'Family resemblance in energy and macronutrient intakes: the 933
Stanislas Family Study.', International journal of epidemiology, 25(5), pp. 1030–7. Available 934 at:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8921491 (Accessed: 20 November 2018).

935 Vepsäläinen, H. et al. (2018) 'Like parent, like child? Dietary resemblance in families', 936
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. BioMed Central, 15(1), 937 p.
62. doi: 10.1186/s12966-018-0693-1.

39
938 Vollmer, RL, Adamsons, K., Foster, JS, et al. (2015a) 'Association of fathers' feeding 939
practices and feeding style on preschool age children's diet quality, eating behavior and body 940
mass index', Appetite, 89, pp. 274–281. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.021.

941 Vollmer, RL, Adamsons, K., Foster, JS, et al. (2015b) 'Investigating Relationships 942
Between Paternal Perception of the Role of the Father and Paternal Feeding Practices', 943
Journal of Child and Family Studies. Springer US, 24(12), pp. 3734–3741. doi: 944
10.1007/s10826-015-0181-z.

945 Vollmer, RL, Adamsons, K., Gorin, A., et al. (2015) 'Investigating the Relationship of 946
Body Mass Index, Diet Quality, and Physical Activity Level between Fathers and Their 947
Preschool-Aged Children', Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Elsevier, 948
115(6), pp. 919–926. doi: 10.1016/J.JAND.2014.12.003.

949 Walsh, AD et al. (2015) 'Associations between dietary intakes of first-time fathers and their 950
20-month-old children are moderated by fathers' BMI, education and age', British Journal of 951
Nutrition. Cambridge University Press, 114(06), pp. 988–994. doi:
952 10.1017/S0007114515002755.

953 Walsh, AD et al. (2016) 'Dietary associations of fathers and their children between the ages 954
of 20 months and 5 years', Public Health Nutrition. Cambridge University Press, 19(11), pp. 955
2033–2039. doi: 10.1017/S136898001600077X.

956 Walsh, AD et al. (2017) 'Fathers' perspectives on the diets and physical activity behaviours 957
of their young children.', PloS one. Public Library of Science, 12(6), p. e0179210. doi: 958
10.1371/journal.pone.0179210.

959 Wang, Y. et al. (2011) 'Do children and their parents eat a similar diet? Resemblance in child 960
and parental dietary intake: systematic review and meta-analysis.', Journal of epidemiology 961 and
community health. NIH Public Access, 65(2), pp. 177–89. doi:
962 10.1136/jech.2009.095901.

963 Wardle, J., Carnell, S. and Cooke, L. (2005) 'Parental control over feeding and children's 964
fruit and vegetable intake: How are they related?', Journal of the American Dietetic 965
Association, 105(2), pp. 227–232. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2004.11.006.

966 Watterworth, JC et al. (2017) 'Food parenting practices and their association with child 967
nutrition risk status: comparing mothers and fathers', Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and

40
968 Metabolism. NRC Research Press, 42(6), pp. 667–671. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0572.

969 Williams, A. et al. (2018) 'Dietary outcomes of overweight fathers and their children in the 970
Healthy Dads, Healthy Kids community randomised controlled trial', Journal of Human 971
Nutrition and Dietetics, 31(4), pp. 523–532. doi: 10.1111/jhn.12543.

972 Yee, AZH et al. (2017) 'The influence of parental practices on child promotive and 973
preventive food consumption behaviors: a systematic review and meta-analysis', 974
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14(47). doi: 975
10.1186/s12966-017-0501-3.

976 Zhang, L. and McIntosh, WA (2011) 'Children's weight status and maternal and paternal 977
feeding practices', Journal of Child Health Care. SAGE PublicationsSage UK: London, 978
England, 15(4), pp. 389–400. doi: 10.1177/1367493511414448.

979 Zuercher, JL, Wagstaff, DA and Kranz, S. (2011) 'Associations of food group and 980 nutrient
intake, diet quality, and meal sizes between adults and children in the same 981 household: a
cross-sectional analysis of US households', Nutrition Journal, 10(1), p. 131. 982 doi:
10.1186/1475-2891-10-131.
 41

e
r

'

'

e
D

&

C
ef

'

i
h

'

<

s
o

i
d

p
-

T
,

Q
l

p
d

)6
1

I
d

Sebuah

p
m

m
o

)1
1

f
F

Sebuah

t
-

S
d

<

'

q
l

r
a

38
A
1.

3
K(
02
r

I
B(
M
na
02
r

I
R(
e

R
02
a

C
B(
a

D
KU

i
–

QF

fl

de
d

'

o
s

l
h

i
l

i
l

t
s

q
l

5
O

QF

C
e

e
h

&

s
g

3
t

C
2

&

e
a

&

d
e

2
S

m
g

n
a

c
r

r
e

s
d

'
d

4
.

1.

3
o

V(
a

dA
s

F
102
AS

U
.

1.

3
u

G(

la
AS

U
h

K(
a

hC
v

D
102
AS

U
g

F
d

e
m

l
a

n
o

'

C
r

.
l

QF

'

w
d

d
r

A
AS

tc
a

F
y

lr

te

n
^

ai

r
o

o
H(

a
)5
002

4.

1.

3
m

K(
a

ll

M
)

4102
ts

'

h
–

e
u

QF

QF

e
r

<

'

la
n

it

d
'

it

q
r

ht

lo

QF

ia
n

it

dli

QF

C
;

de

2
.

4
t

)4
1

e
f

r
$
a

ai

A
t

it

di
t

la
e

li

f
fo
e

i
l

2
i

A
s

it

e
o

he
b

it

a
n

dli

ie
h

t
fo
s

ht

e
e

o
t

pp
u

b
f-

lu

F
;

ft

FB

48
e

ia
n

it

q
s

it
la
e

ir

89
e

de
d

lc
n

89
7

9
9

&

m
g

M
s

'

n
i

dl

t
s

C
'

'

N
s

'

n
e

2
s

s
d

'

n
a

&

n
i

'

)5

'

i
e

mu
&

a
ht
$

s
y

t
nr
e
ro
)7

r
$

d
02
a

ba

88
r

ht

A
n

C
ta

1.
2.

3
w

W(
1

2
,

e
a

C
u

pd
n

(
)61
0

2
,

la
AS

U
n

ir
r

H(

*
AS

v
=

hp

n
h
4

l
i

e
8

QF
F

T
g

l
e

h
r

i
3

e
w

2
d

e
h

l
e

)6
i

y
.

t
t

i
e

f
l

c
h

F
'

d
n

t
c

i
m

'

ga

4
e

F(
g

iS
AS

U
.

2.

3
a

W(
102
s

QF
F

a
f

a
)1

ai

gr

n
e

h
s

)5
i

F
f

t
8

q
r

QF
F

i
n

1
s

l
4

s
n

e
,

'

'

l
e

H(
102
s

A
a

W(
102
s

A
o

V(
a

dA
r

G
102
AS

o
s

Sebuah

8
l

)4
i

QF

C
d

E
l

'

c
r

u
M

r
y

&

r
o

)1
1

6
1

m
l

)7
1

2
–

y
d

'

)P

n
a

yr

L(
102
s

A
u

Z(
a

W
a

K
AS

U
e

H(

la
le

B
py

C
ts

E
r

G
n

u
H
l

tI
d

(
QF
F

)8
1

(
s

ai

)r

m
r

b
-

F
s

i
s

a
F

q
e

i
g

is

ia
n

it
s

de
e

dli

QF

ia
n

it

do
o

QF
F

89

l
c

i
t

h
yg

'

S
eg

o
p

f
l

QF

C
,

QF

n
n

s
d

f
g

QF

C
o

g
'

QF

L
e
re

)p
u

o
l

id
u

S
mi

&

s
yr

t
t

pe
c
r

li

o
e

'

a
o

'

Sebuah

fi

PF
P
n

dr

ir

h
c
h

i
P

la
n

ta

m
n

it

'

li

ba

29
r

ht

A
tn
u
o

C
e

ll

2
AS

ye

M
,

)6
0

2
KU

M(

)3
1

2
m

QF

t
a

P
F

QF

r
e

)2
1

g
n

'

E(
na
lB
02
KU

H(
lB
£
KU

QF

C
d

i
d

)1
1

QF

C
e

t
h

o
l

e
i

'

o
r

f
d

ec

a
p

(
la

G
e

W
AS

U
o

L(
102
AS

U
r
O(
la

V
002
AS

U
u

M(
e

iE

la
AS

s
s

b
£

s
r

o
i

&

5
B(
a

H
02
KU

E(
na
lB
02
KU

QS
P

2
s

l
£

ai

t
i

QF

n
i

(
e

r
,

n
a

)a
5

&

o
m

w
e

l
a

)7

QS
P

o
b

&

c
n

r
o

m
e

fl

'

li

u
g

QF
P

T
,

)6

A
s

'

&

c
a

t
;

8
s

)5

s
ai

v
y

lp

iT

ga
n

152

la
n

id
u

ig
n

la

e
e

gr

P(
102
AS

U
o

L(
102
AS

U
s

A(
m

S
102
s

A
e

B(

f
o

)0

a
i

&

m
t

a
e

y
u

dli

hC

QF

ia
n

it

de
e

dl
ih

QF

it

de
e

ia
n

it

u
o

he

it

dli

ia
n

it

it

de
e

is

h
T

5
102
AS

U
PF
P

99
m

99
e

99

99

de
e

it
ili

bi

de
e

s
r

ht

f
f

he

it

la
n

ba

'

e
l

&

A
y

&

f
f

n
:

)4
2

o
m

&

'

f
)4
1

ai

t
sr

a
n

3
l

&

t
l

s
d

a
i

v
y

ai

A
2

q
o

QF
F

i
h

gn
o

s
-

u
o

(
s

a
d

)2
9

f
e

e
e

5
9

gn
.

il
i

1
s

(
l

t
c

a
i

&

n
r

)9
0

F
d

f
f

)1
1

&

n
e

>

r
a

)6
9

ec

n
a

&

t
t

(
o

)6
0

y
r

P
n

B
d

f
n

&
n

i
m

2
5

t
r

)s

s
d

v
e

QF

e
n

c
,

)8

P
g

&
I

Sebuah

h
t

p
Q

&

p
x

p
)1

'

d
e

a
P

c
y

)9

)S

f
e

&
,

'

r
d

il

B(
ya

H
002
KU

Z(
Ic

M
102
AS

U
e

H(
002
AS

U
.

w
n

&

e
h

Sebuah

o
i

)3
1

n(

e
c

Sebuah

s
t

T
n

&

i
d

)4

A
s

ai

QS
P

s
r

c
a

)8

v
i

T(

la
AS

U
d

A(
d

a
102
s

A
n

J(
102
s
u

QS
P

QS
P

&

m
3

t
c

b
,

Sebuah

)7

Q
f

.
g

t
t
Q

&

'

)7

F
s

'

e
n

b
2.

6
 o

P(
n

F
r

H
102
AS

U
a

P(
102
AS

U
h

99

1000 Figure 1 Conceptual framework on the influence of fathers on child's dietary intake
64