Oleh :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
Pendahuluan
Antimetabolites
S
(2-6h)
G2
(2-32h) Vinca
alkaloids
M Mitotic inhibitors
(0.5-2h)
Cell cycle level
Taxoids
Alkylating
agents
G1
(2-h)
G0
Titik Kerja Obat Kemoterapi pada siklus sel
• Obat hanya bekerja pd sel yg berada dlm siklus pertumbuhan , ttp tidak pd
sel yg tidak tumbuh (G0).
• Sel yg pertumbuhannya cepat lebih peka terhdp obat dari pada sel yg
lambat, dgn perbedaan kepekaan yg cukup besar. Toksisitas sel tergantung
dari dosis obat & lama paparan (exposure).
Principles of chemotherapy
Action sites of cytotoxic agents
DNA
synthesis Antimetabolites
Mitosis
Intercalating
agents
Spindle poisons
Obat Obat Kemoterapi pada Kanker Ginekologi
3.1.Pembagian dan mekanisme kerja sitostatiska
Table 2 : Useful chemotherapeutic agents
Class and Type Agents
Alkylating agents
Alkyl sulfonate Busulfan
Ethylenimine derivative Thiotepa (triethylenethiophosphoramide
Metal salt Carboplatin, cisplatin, oxaliplatin
Nitrogen mustard Chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, estramustine, ifosfamide,
mechlorethamine, melphalan
Natural products
Antibiotics Bleomycin, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin,
mitomycin, mitoxantrone, valrubicin
Enzyme Asparaginase
Microtubule polymer stabilizer Docetaxel, paclitaxel
Mitotic inhibitor Vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, vinorelbine
Mechanisms of resistance Increased capacity to repair alkylated lesions, e.g., guanine O6-alkyl transferase (nitrosoureas, busulfan)
Increased expression of glutathione-associated enzymes, including γ-glutamyl cysteine synthetase, γ-glutamyl
transpeptidase, and glutathione-S-transferases
Increased aldehyde dehydrogenase (cyclophosphamide)
Decreased expression or mutation of p53.
Pharmacokinetics: 3-10 (parent) 7-15 (parent) 1.5 (parent) 0.25 to 0.75a (non- 50% or greater
primary elimination 1.6 (aldophosphamide) linear increase with
t½(h) 8.7 (phosphoramide dose from 170-720
mustard) mg/m2)
Precautions Use MESNA with high-dose Always coadminister Decomposes if - Monitor AUC
therapy MESNA administered over with high-dose
<1 hr therapy Induces
phenytoin
(Dilantin)
Drug interactions Expect increased cytotoxicity with radiation %
metabolism
sensitizers and glutathione depletion
Toxicity Myelosuppression
Mucositis, gastrointestinal epithelial denudation
Renal tubular obstruction and injury
Hepatotoxicity
Pneumonitis
Hypersensitivity
Neurotoxicity
Pharmacokinetic drug Interference with 5-FU catabolism markedly prolongs its half-life.
Precaution Nonlinear pharmacokinetics: difficulty in predicting plasma concentrations and toxicity at high doses.
Patients with deficiency of DPD may have life-threatening or fatal toxicity if treated with 5-fluoropyrimidines.
Duration of DPD inhibition with eniluracil may be prolonged (8-week washout period recommended).
Patients receiving sorivudine should not receive concurrent 5-fluoropyrimidines (4-week washout period
recommended).
Older, female, and poor-performance-status patients have greater risk of toxicity.
Closely monitor prothrombin time and INR in patients receiving concurrent warfarin DPD, dihydropyrimidine
dehydrogenase.
Interactions: Inhibitors of DPD:
Thymidine and thymine
Uracil (component of uracil and ftorafur)
5-chloro-2,4-dihydroxypyridine (component of ftorafur, 5-chloro-2,4-dihydroxypyridine, and potassium oxonate)
3-cyano-2,6-dihydroxypyridine (component of emitefur, 3-{3-[6-benzoyloxy-3-cyano-2-pyridyloxycarbonyl]benzoyl}-1-
ethoxymethyl-5-fluorouracil)
(E)-5(2-bromovinyl)uracil (metabolite of sorivudine)
Eniluracil
Chronic administration of cimetidine (but not ranitidine) may decrease the clearance of 5-FU
Dipyridamole increases 5-FU clearance during continuous i.v. infusion.
Interferon-α may decrease 5-FU clearance in a dose- and schedule-dependent manner.
Biochemical drug interactions Thymidine salvage via thymidine kinase repletes thymidine 5- triphosphate pools, decreases FdUMP formation, and antagonizes the
DNA-directed toxicity of 5-FU and 5-fluoro-2-deoxyuridine; thymidine may increase fluorouridine triphosphate formation and its
incorporation into RNA.
Sequential methotrexate 5-FU increases 5-FU toxicity and increases fluorouridine triphosphate (FUTP) incorporation into RNA; may
antagonize DNA-directed toxicity of 5-FU.
Leucovorin increases intracellular pools of reduced folates; 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate polyglutamates enhance the stability of
reduced folate-FdUMP–thymidylate synthase ternary complex; the magnitude and duration of thymidylate synthase inhibition is
increased.
Inhibitors of de novo pyrimidine synthesis (N-phosphonoacetyl-l-aspartic acid, brequinar) increase 5-FU anabolism to the ribonucleotide
level and 5-FU–RNA incorporation; uridine triphosphate, cytidine triphosphate, deoxycytidine triphosphate, and deoxyuridine
monophosphate depletion may enhance RNA- and DNA-directed toxicity of 5-FU
Precaution Nonlinear pharmacokinetics: difficulty in predicting plasma concentrations and toxicity at high doses.
Patients with deficiency of DPD may have life-threatening or fatal toxicity if treated with 5-fluoropyrimidines.
Duration of DPD inhibition with eniluracil may be prolonged (8-week washout period recommended).
Patients receiving sorivudine should not receive concurrent 5-fluoropyrimidines (4-week washout period recommended).
Older, female, and poor-performance-status patients have greater risk of toxicity.
Closely monitor prothrombin time and INR in patients receiving concurrent warfarin DPD, dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase.
TABLE 12: KEY FEATURES OF CYTOSINE ARABINOSIDE (ARA-C) PHARMACOLOGY
Mechanism of action Inhibits DNA polymerase α, is incorporated into DNA, and terminates DNA chain
elongation
Metabolism Activated to triphosphate in tumor cells. Degraded to inactive ara-U by
deamination
Converted to ara-CDP choline derivative
Toxicity Myelosuppression
Gastrointestinal epithelial ulceration
Intrahepatic cholestasis, pancreatitis
Cerebellar and cerebral dysfunction (high dose)
Conjunctivitis (high dose)
Hidradenitis
Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema
Precaution High incidence of cerebral-cerebellar toxicity with high-dose ara-C in the elderly,
especially in those with compromised renal function
ara-CDP, arabinosylcytosine diphosphate; ara-CTP, arabinosylcytosine triphosphate; ara-U, uracil arabinoside; CSF,
cerebrospinal fluid; t1/2, half-life.
TABLE 13: KEY FEATURES OF Capecitabine (Xeloda )
Mechanism of action Oral prodrug of 5-FU. That is ultimate converted in tumor tissue to the
active cytotoxic agent 5-FU
Pharmacokinetics Elimination half life 45 minutes, food reduced the rate and extend
absorbtion.It should be administered with water, 30 minutes after meal.
Dosage range 500-3500mg/m2/daydivided 12 hours
Dosage and schedule For recurrent cervical or epitelial ovarian cancer standard dosing 1500-
2000mg/m2 daily in two divided doses for 2 weeks with a 1 week rest
period (repeat every 3 weeks). For renal insufficiency (CrCl30-
50mL/minutes) modified dose. (CrCL Less than 30) shoul not received
capecitabine.
Pharmacokinetics Minimally protein bound , has high volume of distribution. Peak plasma concentration 30
minutes of drug administration. The half life of the parent compound 1 hour, the active
metabolite can be detectedi n the plasma for up to 24 hours.
Drug interactions Increases metabolism of AraC to active metabolite and the incorporation of arabinosylcytosine
triphosphate into DNA.
Enhances the effects of other antimetabolites.
Increases the phosphorylation of antiviral nucleosides and favors their incorporation into viral
DNA.
Enhances effects of ionizing radiation.
Toxicity Myelosuppression, with white blood cells affected to a greater extent than platelets or red blood
cells.
Gastrointestinal effects (nausea, vomiting, changes in bowel habits, ulceration).
Dermatologic effects (pigmentation, leg ulcers, erythema, rash, atrophy).
Renal effects, rare.
Hepatic effects, occasionally severe.
Neurologic effects, rare.
Acute interstitial lung disease, rare.
TABLE 16: KEY FEATURES OF BLEOMYCIN PHARMACOLOGY
Mechanism of action Oxidative cleavage of DNA initiated by hydrogen abstraction
Metabolism Activated by microsomal reduction
Degraded by hydrolase found in multiple tissues
Metabolism Unknown
Pharmacokinetics t1/2: 36 hr
Elimination Renal: 6-30%,
Bile: 5-11%
Drug interactions None
Toxicity Myelosuppression
Nausea and vomiting
Mucositis
Diarrhea
Necrosis at extravasation
Radiation sensitization and recall reactions
Precaution Avoid extravasation
TABLE 18: KEY FEATURES OF MITOMYCIN C
Metabolism Hepatic
Toxicity Myelosuppression
Necrosis at extravasation
Hemolytic uremic syndrome
Interstitial pneumonitis
Cardiomyopathy
Metabolism Reduction of side-chain carbonyl to alcohol, resulting in some loss of cytotoxicity 2. One-
electron reduction to semiquinone free-radical intermediate by flavoproteins, leading to
aerobic production of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical 3. Two-
electron reduction, resulting in formation of aglycone species that can be conjugated for
export in bile
Pharmacokinetics Doxorubicin: Vd = 25 liters; protein binding = 60-70%; CSF/plasma ratio, very low; t½α =
10 min; t½β = 1-3 hr; t½γ = 30 hr. Circulates predominantly as parent drug; doxorubicinol is
most common metabolite, although a substantial fraction of patients form doxorubicin 7-
deoxyaglycone and doxorubicinol 7-deoxyaglycone; substantial interpatient variation in
biotransformation; no apparent dose-related change in clearance; clearance in men > women.
Daunomycin: Vd, protein binding, and CSF/plasma ratio similar to doxorubicin; t½α = 40
min; t½β = 20-50 hr. Metabolism to daunomycinol faster than for equivalent doxorubicin
metabolism, although interpatient variation remains high.
KEY FEATURES OF DAUNORUBICIN AND DOXORUBICIN
Elimination Only 50 to 60% of parent drug accounted for by known routes of elimination, which include
reduction of the side-chain carbonyl by hepatic aldoketoreductases, aglycone formation, and
excretion of biliary conjugates and metabolites. A substantial fraction of the parent compound
is bound to DNA and cardiolipin in tissues and is slowly dissociated, contributing to
prolonged disappearance. While changes in anthracycline pharmacokinetics may be difficult
to demonstrate in patients with mild alterations in liver function, drug clearance is definitely
decreased in the presence of significant hyperbilirubinemia or patients with a marked burden
of metastatic tumor in liver.
Drug interactions Heparin binds to doxorubicin, causing aggregation; coadministration of both drugs leads to
increased doxorubicin clearance. In rodents, phenobarbital has been shown to increase, and
morphine decrease, doxorubicin disappearance; drugs that diminish hepatic reduced
glutathione pools (acetaminophen and BCNU) sensitize the liver to anthracycline toxicity.
Toxicity 1. Myelosuppression
2. Mucositis
3. Alopecia
4. Cardiac toxicity
5. Severe local tissue damage after drug extravasation
Precaution 1. Acute and chronic cardiac decompensation can occur. Most common is cumulative
dose-related congestive cardiomyopathy, which is more frequent in patients with
underlying hypertensive heart disease or those who have received mediastinal radiation
with a cardiac dose > 2000 cGy.
2. Radiation sensitization of normal tissues, including chest wall and esophagus, is
common and may occur many years after radiation exposure.
3. Extravasation damage to extremities has resulted in loss of limb function.
TABLE 20 : KEY FEATURES OF THE TAXANES
Paclitaxel Docetaxel
Mechanism of action Low concentrations inhibit microtubule dynamics (dynamic instability and treadmilling).
High concentrations inhibit depolymerization of tubulin
Standard dosage (mg/m2) 175 over 3 hours every 3 weeks 60-100 over 1 hour every 3 weeks
135-175 over 24 hours every 3 weeks (75 is the most common dose used)
80 over 1 hour weekly 36 over 1 hour weekly
Premedication Corticosteroids, H1- and H2-histamine Corticosteroids with each treatment to prevent
antagonists before each treatment to prevent fluid retention;H1-histamine antagonists
HSR (see –administration-) recomemended to HSRs.
Precautions: Patients with abnormal liver function should be treated with caution. See section on dosage and
schedule for specific dosing guidelines.
Mechanism of action Low concentrations inhibit microtubule dynamics (dynamic instability and treadmilling) High
concentrations inhibit polymerization of tubulin.
Standard dosage 1-1.4 every 3 weeks 6-8 every week 3-4 every 1-2 weeks 15-30 every 1-2 weeks
(mg/m2)
Pharmacokinetics and
disposition
Precautions Patients with abnormal liver function should be treated with caution. See section on dosage and
schedule for specific dosing guidelines.
SIADH, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion.
TABLE 22 : DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMAN DNA TOPOISOMERASES
TYPE I AND II
Type I topoisomerase
Monomeric protein, molecular weight ~91 kd
Single-copy gene located on chromosome 20q12-13.2
Transiently breaks one strand of duplex DNA and forms a 3--phospho-tyrosine covalent intermediate
Single-step changes in the linking number of circular DNAs
Its expression is continuous during the cell cycle and in quiescent cells
Mainly involved in relaxation of supercoiled DNA during RNA transcription
ATP independent
Type II topoisomerase
Homodimeric protein, molecular weight 170 kd (isoenzyme IIα) and 180 kd (isoenzyme IIβ)
Single-copy gene located on chromosome 17q21-22 (isoenzyme IIα) and chromosome 3p24
(isoenzyme IIβ)
Breaks both strands of duplex DNA and forms a pair of 5--phosphotyrosine covalent intermediates
Generates a gate through which another region of DNA can be passed
Double-step changes in the linking number of circular DNAs
Its expression increases during S phase of the cell cycle (especially isoenzyme IIα) and is almost
absent in quiescent cells (primarily expression of isoenzyme IIβ)
Involved in DNA replication, recombination, RNA transcription and repair
ATP dependent
TABLE 23 : KEY FEATURES OF TOPOTECAN
Mechanism of action Topoisomerase I poison. Stabilizes the cleavable complex in which topoisomerase I is covalently
bound to DNA at a single-stranded break site. Conversion into lethal DNA damage follows when a
DNA replication fork encounters these cleavable complexes (-fork collision model-).
Metabolism Nonenzymatic hydrolysis of the lactone ring generates the less active open ring hydroxy carboxylic
acid. N-desmethyl metabolite recently characterized in plasma, urine, and feces.
KEY FEATURES OF TOPOTECAN
Pharmacokinetics Approximate terminal half-life of topotecan lactone is 2.9 hr (range, 1.6-5.5 h); approximate
clearance of 62 L/h/m2 (range, 14-155 L/h/m2) reported for 30-min topotecan infusions.
Elimination About 26% to 41% excreted unchanged in urine over 24 h. Concentrated in the bile at levels that are
1.5 times higher than the simultaneous plasma levels
Modifications for organ dysfunction In minimally pretreated patients, no dosage adjustments appear to be necessary for patients with
mild renal impairment (creatinine clearance 40-60 mL/ min), but dosage adjustment to 0.75
mg/m2/d is recommended for patients with moderate renal impairment (20-39 mL/min). Further
dosage adjustments may be necessary for patients with extensive prior chemotherapy or radiation
therapy. Studies of small numbers of patients suggest that dosage adjustments are not required for
hyperbilirubinemia up to 10 mg/dL.
Precaution For febrile or severe grade 4 neutropenia lasting >3 d, the dosage for subsequent courses should be
reduced by 0.25 mg/m2/d. Monitoring of blood counts is essential.
TABLE 24: KEY FEATURES OF IRINOTECAN
Mechanism of action After metabolic activation to 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38), the mechanism of action is the
same as for topotecan.
Metabolism Irinotecan is a prodrug that requires enzymatic cleavage of the C-10 side chain by an irinotecan
carboxylesterase–converting enzyme to generate the biologically active metabolite SN-38. Both
irinotecan and SN-38 can undergo nonenzymatic hydrolysis of the lactone ring to the open-ring
carboxylate species. Irinotecan can also undergo hepatic oxidation of its dipiperidino side chain to form the
inactive metabolite 7-ethyl-10-[4-N-(5-aminopen-tanoic acid)-1-piperidino]carbonyloxycamptothecin
(APC).
Pharmacokinetics Approximate terminal half-life of irinotecan lactone is 6.8 h (range, 5.0-9.6 h) and approximate clearance is
46.9 L/h/m2 (range, 39.0-53.5 L/h/m2). Approximate terminal half-life of SN-38 lactone is 11.05 h (range,
9.1-13.0 h).
Elimination Elimination of irinotecan occurs by urinary excretion, biliary excretion, and hepatic metabolism. About
16.1% (range, 11.1-20.9%) of an administered dose of irinotecan is excreted unchanged in the urine. SN-
38 is glucuronidated, and both the conjugated and unconjugated forms are excreted in the bile. SN-38
glucuronide can also be detected in plasma.
Modifications for organ dysfunction No definite recommendations are available for patients with impaired renal or hepatic dysfunction.
Extreme caution is warranted in patients with liver dysfunction or Gilbert's disease.
Toxicity Early-onset diarrhea within hours or during the infusion associated with cramping, vomiting, flushing, and
diaphoresis. Consider atropine 0.25-1.0 mg s.c. or i.v. in patients experiencing cholinergic symptoms. Late-
onset diarrhea can occur later than 12 h after drug administration.
Myelosuppression, predominantly neutropenia and less commonly thrombocytopenia.
Alopecia
Nausea and vomiting
Mucositis
Fatigue
Elevated hepatic transaminases
Pulmonary toxicity (uncommon) associated with a reticulonodular infiltrate, fever, dyspnea, and
eosinophilia
Precaution Severe delayed-onset diarrhea may be controlled by high-dose loperamide given in an initial oral dose of 4
mg followed by 2 mg every 2 h during the day and 4 mg every 4 h during the night. High-dose loperamide
should be started at the first sign of any loose stool and continued until no bowel movements occur for a
12-hr period. Particular caution is also warranted in monitoring and managing toxicities in elderly patients
(>64 yr) or those who have previously received pelvic/abdominal irradiation.
TABLE 25 : KEY FEATURES OF EPIPODOPHYLLOTOXIN DERIVATIVES
Etoposide (VP-16) Teniposide (VM-26)
I. KANKER SERVIKS
a. Bleomycin + Mitomycin
b. B O M (Bleomycin + Oncovin + Mitomycin)
c. P V B (Cisplatin + Vincristin + Bleomycin)
d. Paclitaxel- cisplatin/ carboplatin
e. Cisplatin ( paliatif, radiosensitizer)
II. KANKER OVARIUM
1. Kanker Ovarium yang berasal dari Epitel :
a. CP
b. CAP
c. Paclitaxel + Carboplatin
d. Docetaxel+ Carboplatin
e. Gemzar
f. Xeloda
2. Kanker Ovarium yang berasal dari Germ Cell :
c. PEB
III. PENYAKIT TROFOBLAS
1. Penyakit Trofoblas Jinak :
* Pada Mola Hydatidosa diberikan MTX
profilaksis ( kontroversi).
* Diberikan injeksi MTX 0,4 mg/kgBB hari (IM) selama
5 hari
* Evaluasi klinis dan kadar HCG minimal
sampai 8 minggu setelah kuret kedua.
2. Penyakit Trofoblas Ganas :
a. Resiko Rendah
* Methotrexate atau Actinomycin D dosis
tunggal.
b. Resiko Sedang
* kombinasi MTX + Actinomycin.
* kombinasi MTX + Actinomycin +
Chlorambucil.
* kombinasi Etoposide + MTX + Actino.
c. Resiko Tinggi
* EMACO (etoposide + MTX + Actino. +
Cycloph. + Oncovin).
IV. KANKER ENDOMETRIUM
a. Cyclophosphamide.
b. Doxorubicin.
d. Hormonal (Progesteron).
Anthelmintik dan Amebisid
Oleh :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
Anthelmintik
Obat untuk memberantas atau mengurangi infestasi
cacing dalam lumen usus atau jaringan tubuh
Menginfeksi host :
• Melalui zat makanan yang mengandung larva
• Menyebabkan kehilangan sel darah merah
• Merusak organ, intestinal atau limfa melalui pengeluaran
toksin
Gejala :
• Anemia ditandai dengan lemah, letih dan lesu
• BB menurun akibat kurang gizi
• Batuk tidak sembuh-sembuh
• Nyeri perut
• Diare
• Perut membuncit
• Wajah pucat dan mata belekan
• Ada gangguan pertumbuhan
Intestinal Nematodes
Mekanisme kerja :
1. Menurunkan aktivitas otot cacing paralisis
2. Menyebabkan perubahan pada permukaan membran
mikrofilaria sehingga mudah dihancurkan.
• Cepat diabsorpsi diusus, ekskresi lewat
urin, 70% bentuk metabolitnya
Efek samping :
Relatif aman pada dosis terapi
Pusing,gangguan sal cerna, sakit kepala
dll.
Reaksi alergi karena matinya parasit
dan substansi yang dilepaskan oleh
mikrofilaria yang hancur.
2.Piperazin
Efektif terhadap A. lumbricoides & E
vermicularis
Mekanisme kerja :
• Blokade respon otot cacing terhadap asetil kolin
paralisis
• Cacing mudah dikeluarkan oleh peristaltik
usus,cacing keluar 1-3 hari setelah pengobatan.
3.Pirantel Pamoat
Niklosamid
Trikomoniasis
Giardiasis
POLIFAGIA
Penggunaan glukosa yag tidak efektif didalam sel, sehingga
sel kekurangan makanan, sinyal lapar dikirimkan ke pusat
lapar dan meningkatkan intake asupan makanan
POLI DIPSI
Akibat diuresis osmotik dalam sistem perkemihan, sel
mengalami dehidrasi dan memberikan sinyal haus, ini
menyebabkan asupan cairan meningkat
PATOFISIOLOGI
Diabetes Melitus
Etiologi
Keturunan, usia, obesitas, stress, radang, virus
Patogenesis
Terkait dengan
Insulin - glukosa
Patogenesis
G
makanan KH G sirkulasi G
KH darah I
E
lambung
sel
insulin
pankreas
Insulin
- atau 0
dikendalikan
Strategi ?
Strategi Terapi
• pasok insulin
• produksi insulin meningkat
• penyimpanan glukosa sel meningkat
• absorbsi glukosa menurun
PENATALAKSANAAN ?
TATALAKSANA DM
Diabetes Mellitus
Antidiabetika
PENATALAKSANAAN DM
Edukasi/penyuluhan
Suntikan oral
insulin
Golongan Sulfonilurea*
Glibenklamid 2,5 mg 15-20 mg 1-2 kali
Gliklasid 80 mg 240 mg 1-2 kali
Glikuidon 30 mg 120 mg 2-3 kali
Glipisid 5 mg 20 mg 1-2 kali
Glipisid GITS 5 mg 20 mg 1 kali
Glimepirid** 1 mg 6 mg 1 kali
Klorpropamid 50 mg 500 mg 1 kali
Golongan Biguanid
Metformin*** 500 mg 2500 mg 1-3 kali
Golongan inhibitor glukosidase alfa#
Acarbose 50 mg 300 mg 3 kali
Oleh :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
Mengapa antiseptik diperlukan ?
ANTISEPTIK :
Agen anti mikrobial yang digunakan pada kulit atau jaringan hidup
untuk membunuh mikroorganisme.
DESINFEKTAN :
Agen anti mikrobial yang digunakan pada objek (bukan benda hidup)
untuk membunuh mikroorganisme
Aspek Penggunaan Antiseptik / Desinfektan
• Pada pasien yang menjalani operasi terjadi ILO (infeksi luka operasi)
Lingkungan (Ruangan )
– Kamar operasi : dilakukan desinfeksi dinding dan lantai dengan chlorin
0,5% sebelum dan sesudah tindakan operasi
– Ruangan : Lantai didesinfeksi dengan chlorin 0,5% / NADCC (Natrium
dichloro cyanurite)
Pasien
– Di ruangan : px dibersihkan dengan chlorhexidine, mouth hygiene
– sebelum operasi pasien dimandikan dengan chlorhexidine
Alkes / Instrumen
– Dilakukan dekontaminasi dengan Chlorine 0,5% selama 10 menit,
kemudian dibilas dengan air
– Cuci dengan sabun enzimatik, gunakan sikat yang lembut, hati-hati dgn
instrumen yang bergigi kemudian bilas dan keringkan dengan handuk
– Dilakukan sterilisasi dengan autoclave / Ethilen oxide
– Desinfeksi tingkat tinggi dengan glutaraldehyde atau orthopethaldehyde
– Bersihkan bahan non kritis spt stetoskop dengan alkohol 70%
– Termometer didesinfeksi dengan alkohol 70%. Penempatan termometer
oral / rektal tidak boleh dicampur meskipun setelah dibersihkan
Alat Endoscopy
– Bersihkan dan rendam dengan alkohol 70%
– Bersihkan dengan sabun enzimatik
– Didesinfeksi tingkat tinggi dengan glutaraldehyde atau
orthopethaldehyde
– Jangan gunakan savlon karena savlon bukan desinfektan tingkat
tinggi
Dekontaminasi
Chlorine 0,5 % selama 15 menit untuk alat-alat kritikal
Pre – Cleaning
Mekanis (sikat; air&sabun) & kimiawi (enzymatic detegerent )
Sterilization
Rinsing
Storage
NADCC
( Natrium dichloro cyanurite )
Gambaran Umum :
• Termasuk desinfektan golongan Halogen.
• Merupakan Garam Natrium dari Asam Dicloro Isosianuric → Sodium
Triclosene.
• Mengandung 64,5% klorin dan melepaskan klorin bebas dalam
bentuk asam hypochlorus (HOCl) yang aktif sebagai biosidal.
• PH 5→ Persentase HOCl yang tidak terdisosiasi lebih banyak.
→ Efektivitas lebih besar
HOCl yang tidak terdisosiasi memiliki potensi biosidal jauh lebih besar
daripada bentuk yang terdisosiasi.
Mekanisme Kerja
• NaDCC mengoksidasi membran sel mikro org
Struktur membran rusak Sel MO mengalami
lisis
• Aktivitas Klorin sangat dipengaruhi PH → Aktivitas
menurun jika PH meningkat
Tabel Pengaruh pH terhadap persentase HOCl
pH % HOCl pada 20 C
5.0 99,740
5.5 99,180 ASAM
6.0 97,450
6.5 92,370
7.0 79,290
NETRAL (AIR MURNI)
7.5 54,770
8.0 27,690
8.5 10,800
9.0 3,690
9.5 1,190
ALKALI
10.0 0,380
10.5 0,120
11.0 0,040
11.5 0,012
Kegunaan dan Prosedur
2 Sanitasi lingkungan 1000 ppm 4 tablet 1 4 tablet 5 3,5 tablet 10 Usap permuka-
untuk di kritikal area liter air liter air liter air an area
(OK, Lab dan VK) dengan lap
a. Lantai yang telah
b. Lemari direndam
c. Permukaan meja lantai dalam larutan
Chlorine
Konsentrasi Derajat pengenceran
N chlorine Lama
Kriteria Barang yang
o Tablet 0,5 Tablet 2,5 Tablet 2,5 Perendaman
dibutuhkan gram gram gram
d. Permukaan dinding
e. Lap sikat
f. Pel Lantai
3 Sanitasi lingkungan 140 ppm 1 tablet 2 liter 1 tablet 10 1 tablet 20 Usap permu-
untuk umum air liter air liter air kaan area de-
a. Lantai ngan lap yang
b. Lemari telah direndam
c. Permukaan meja dalam larutan
lantai Chlorine
d. Permukaan dinding
e. Lap sikat
f. Pel lantai
4 Khusus sanitasi ling 10000 ppm 18 tablet 0,5 7 tablet 1 9 tablet 2,5 Basahi lap
kungan yang ter liter air liter air liter air dengan laru-
kontaminasi dengan tan Chlorine
darah dan bersih-
Kan darah
dengan lap
tersebut
Pemilihan Antiseptik & Desinfektan
Perlu dipertimbangkan :
Efektivitasnya,
Absorbsi
Daya tahan
Keamanan
Harga
CONTOH SEDIAAN ANTISEPTIK
I . CHLORHEXIDINE
chlorhexidine 4% Untuk tindakan invasif & pre operatif
Mekanisme Kerja :
Mengoksidasi membran bakteri yang
menyebabkan disrupsi membran lisis.
Chlor Hexidine diabsorpsi melalui dinding sel
obstruksi permeabilitas dinding sel aktivitas
fisiologi sel terganggu destruksi dinding sel.
KEUNTUNGAN & KERUGIAN CHLORHEXIDINE
o KEUNTUNGAN
a) Lebih efektif terhadap bakteri gram positif (Staphylococcus).
b) Lebih aman, lebih murah dibanding Povidon Iodine 10%.
c) Mempunyai efek residual yang lebih lama daripada Povidone
Iodine
o KERUGIAN
a) Efek virusidal dan fungisidal lebih lemah dibanding Povidon
Iodine.
b) Mengiritasi mata dan telinga.
TARODENT 0,2% MOUTHWASH/
• Tarodent contains: chlorhexadine digluconate 0,2%
w/v, polysorbate 800, sorbitol, ethanol, peppermint
oil and purified water
• Tarodent is an antibacterial mouthwash used to:
– Prevent dental plaque
– Treat and prevent gingivitis (gum disease)
– Promote gum healing after surgery
– Manage dental sore mouth and oral thrush
– Manage recurring mouth ulcers and maintain good mouth
hygiene
lanjutan
• Mengandung 60 - 90% Ethyl atau Isopropyl Alkohol sebagai bahan aktif dan
gliserin 1% sebagai emolien.
• Efektif terhadap bakteri dan mikro organisme vegetatif dan virus.
• Tidak efektif terhadap bakteri berspora dan jamur.
• Efektifitas berkurang dengan adanya zat organik.
• Alkohol glyserin tidak dapat menggantikan detergen & air
Mekanisme kerja :
Denaturasi protein dari membran sel bakteri lisis.
KEUNTUNGAN ALKOHOL GLYSERIN
• Memiliki aktivitas biosidal yang luas.
• Tidak perlu dibilas air.
• Harga relatif murah.
• Tidak meninggalkan residu / noda.
• Tidak korosif.
• Golongan CHLORINE
•Contoh sediaan : chlorine cair, chlorine
bubuk(powder)
• Golongan ALDEHIDE
•Contoh sediaan : glutaraldehide,
orthopthaldehyde, formaldehide / formalin
FENOL
• Kerjanya dengan cara denatrasi dalam rentang
waktu 10 menit, kadar 0,2 - 5%
Mekanisme Kerja :
• Formaldehid bereaksi dengan
denaturasi protein .
• Aktivitas meningkat jika suhu
meningkat.
PENGGUNAAN
• Desinfeksi ruangan kadar 8% Formaldehid (fogging 10 - 24 jam)
tidak direkomendasi.
• Desinfeksi Peralatan dan lantai.
• Efektif terhadap bakteri vegetatif, jamur dan beberapa virus.
• Untuk mematikan bakteri endospora perlu waktu 10 - 24 jam
KERUGIAN :
• Bersifat toksik karsinogenik
• Bila terhirup dapat mengakibatkan iritasi dan rasa terbakar pada hidung
dan gangguan pernafasan
• Iritasi pada mata memerah dan menyebabkan pengeluaran air mata
yang hebat.
• Jika terkena kulit menimbulkan perubahan warna merah mengeras dan
rasa terbakar.
Penyimpanan dan pengisian Antiseptik
Hati - hati
BUAT PROTAP
PENYIMPANAN ANTISEPTIK / DESINFEKTAN
Glutaraldehid ( Cidex )
Stabil selama 14 hari setelah wadah dibuka.
Penyimpanan pada suhu dingin 20 - 26º C.
Alkohol Glicerin
Simpan pada suhu dingin 20 - 26º C dan
area yang sirkulasinya bersih.
PENYIMPANAN / KEMASAN :
• Antiseptik / desinfektan kemasannya dalam
botol ukuran ± 100 - 200 ml.
• Penyimpanan ditempat yang sejuk, tdk terkena
sinar matahari langsung. Untuk sediaan yg tdk
tahan cahaya disimpan dlm wadah gelap
PENGISIAN :
• Tidak diperbolehkan mengisi antiseptik /
desinfektan dengan cara Topping Up.
• Pengisian kembali antiseptik / desinfektan →
sediaan dihabiskan dahulu, kemudian wadah
dicuci bersih dan dikeringkan, baru diisi kembali
dengan antiseptik / desinfektan.
Level Kegunaan dari desinfektan
Oleh :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
Tuberkolosis (TB)
• TB Paru
Bentuk yang paling sering dijumpai dan
menyerang paru-paru
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Merupakan basil gram positif, berbentuk batang, dinding selnya
mengandung komplek lipida-glikolipida serta lilin (wax) yang sulit
ditembus zat kimia.
Umumnya M. tuberculosis menyerang paru dan sebagian kecil organ
tubuh lain.
Kuman tetap menetap di jaringan paru Kuman mati dan keluar dari percabangan
trakeobronkial bersama gerakan silia dan
sekretnya
Pemeriksaan radiologi
Pemeriksaan penunjang
1. Pemeriksaan sejarah medis dan pemeriksaan
jasmani
Kelainan paru pada umumnya terletak di daerah lobus superior terutama daerah
apeks dan segmen posterior , serta daerah apeks lobus inferior.
Tanda-tanda
penarikan
paru
Mediastinum
2.Pemeriksaan specimen sputum
SPS(Sewaktu-
Pagi-Sewaktu)
*Mukopurulen adalah nanah berwarna hijau kekuning- kuningan, bukan ingus juga
bukan ludah, jumlahnya 3-5ml tiap pengambilan.
3.Pemeriksaan darah dan TB skin test (mantoux)
Foto toraks
• Fotolateral
CT Scan
• Top lordotik
• Oblik
Gambar paru normal Gambar paru yang terkena flek
TB
Gejala
Batuk Kronis
Demam
Berkeringat di Malam Hari
Keluhan pada Pernapasan
Anoreksia (Kurang Nafsu Makan)
Berat Badan Turun
Nyeri di Bagian Dada
Dahaknya Mengandung Darah
(Tjay, 2002)
Gejala klinik
Gejala Gejala TB
Gejala sistemik
respiratorik ekstra paru
• Batuk 2 • Demam • Tergantung
minggu, • Lain : dari organ
darah malaise, yang terkena
• Sesak napas keringat • Diagnosis
dan nyeri malam, pasti sering
dada anoreksia, BB sulit
menurun ditegakkan
Samir, S. 2009. Pediatric Practice Infectious Disease. Philadephia, Pennsylvania. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Samir, S. 2009. Pediatric Practice Infectious Disease. Philadephia, Pennsylvania. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Recommended treatment regimens for each diagnostic category
There is a standard code for anti-TB treatment regimens, which uses an abbreviation for
each anti-TB drug, e.g. isoniazid (H), rifampicin (R), pyrazinamide (Z) and ethambutol (E). A
regimen consists of two phases: the initial and continuation phases. The number at the
front of each phase represents the duration of that phase in months
Samir, S. 2009. Pediatric Practice Infectious Disease. Philadephia, Pennsylvania. The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reserve or second-line anti-tuberculosis drugs
Gie, R. P. 2006. Anti-tuberculosis treatment in children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
TERAPI TB
KANDUNGAN OAT – FDC
Tablet OAT - FDC Komposisi / Pemakaian
Kandungan
4FDC 75 mg INH Tahap intensif / awal
150 mg Rifampisin dan sisipan Harian
400 mg Pirazinamid
275 mg Etambutol
2FDC 150 mg INH Tahap lanjutan
150 mg Rifampisin 3 kali seminggu
Pelengkap paduan kategori-2 :
Tablet etambutol @ 400 mg
Injeksi (vial) Streptomisin 750 mg
Aquabidest dan spuit
Paduan pengobatan OAT-FDC yang tersedia saat ini di Indonesia terdiri dari:
2(HRZE)/4(HR)3 untuk Kategori 1 dan Kategori 3
2(HRZE)S/1(HRZE)/5(HR)3E3 untuk Kategori 2
TERAPI TB
DOSIS PENGOBATAN KATEGORI1 DAN KATEGORI
3 : {2(HRZE)/4(HR)3}
Berat Badan TAHAP INTENSIF TAHAP LANJUTAN
(tiap hari selama 2 (3 kali seminggu selama
bulan) 4 bulan)
OLEH :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
KONTRASEPSI
MENCEGAH : KONTRA
CONCEPTION : KEHAMILAN
bertemunya sperma
dgn ovum (FERTILISASI)
KONSEPSI
MACAM KONTRASEPSI:
I. HORMONAL :
PIL
SUNTIKAN
IMPLANT
II. NON HORMONAL
CARA ALAMIAH
CARA SEDERHANA
IUD
KONTAP
Aspek yg perlu diperhatikan :
ACCEPTABILITY
EFFICACY
SAFETY
I. CARA ALAMIAH
PANTANG BERKALA
COITUS INTERUPTUS
II.CARA SEDERHANA :
( BARRIER = RINTANGAN )
KONDOM
DIAFRAGMA
JELLY
SPERMATICEDE
III.P I L :
PEMBAGIAN :
PIL KOMBINASI
MINI PIL
AFTER MORNING PIL
EMERGENCY PIL
PEMBAGIAN LAIN
MONOPHASIC
BIPHASIC
TRIPHASIC
BAHAN AKTIF
PIL KOMBINASI :
ESTROGEN
PROGESTERON
# MENEKAN OVULASI
# MENINGKATKAN KEKENTALAN
LENDIR SERVIK
MEMBOSANKAN
TIDAK BISA DIPAKAI PD KEAD .TT
MENEKAN PRODUKSI ASI
TIDAK BISA MENCEGAH PHS
BIAYA RELATIF TINGGI
EFEKTIVITAS :
UNMEET NEED ( 11 % )
TIDAK SEMUA CARA KB BERHASIL
CARA PEMAKAIAN TIDAK BENAR
INDIKASI :
SALAH PAKAI KONTRASEPSI
Kondom bocor
Diafragma robek
IUD lepas
Gagal sanggama terputus
Lupa Pil < 2 hari
Terlambat suntikan
PERKOSAAN
TIDAK PAKAI KB
JENIS KONDAR :
I . MEKANIK
II. HORMONAL :
PIL KB
PROGESTIN
ESTROGEN
PROSTAGLANDINS
DANAZOL
YANG SERING DIPAKAI :
POSTINOR
VALENOR
EFEKTIVITAS :
KEGAGALAN / FAILURE RATE
PIL KB 3.1 %
POSTINOR 1.1 %
AKDR < 1%
V.AKDR ( IUD ) :
MACAM MACAM IUD :
DICURIGAI HAMIL
PERDARAHAN PERVAGINAM TAK JE
LAS SEBABNYA
INFEKSI GENITALIA
DICURIGAI CA CERVIK
VI.SUNTIKAN ( INJEKSI ):
BAHAN AKTIF :
SALAH SATU :
#DEPO MEDROXY PROGESTERON
ACETAT ( DMPA ) - DEPO PROVERA
- CYCLOFEM
# NOR ETHISTERON
- NORISTRATE
MEKANISME KERJA :
# MENGHAMBAT OVULASI
( MELALUI PENEKANAN PADA HY
POTHALAMUS UNTUK TIDAK
MENGHASILKAN LH RF )
# MENIPISKAN LAPISAN
ENDOMETRIUM
# MENGENTALKAN LENDIR SERVIK
SIDE EFEK :
SPOTING
AMENOREA
MENURUNKAN LIBIDO
MEMPERHEBAT VARICES
KULIT KERING
KERAPUHAN TULANG MENINGKAT
PENAMBAHAN BERAT BADAN
KONTRAINDIKASI :
DICURIGAI HAMIL
VARICES
PENYAKIT LIVER
PENYAKIT JANTUNG
GANGGUAN PEMBEKUAN DARAH
GANGGUAN NEUROLOGI
EFEKTIVITAS :
FAILURE RATE : 1- 2 %
(KEGAGALAN)
VII. IMPLANT :
NAMA LAIN :
SUSUK KB
AKBK
SUBDERMAL CONTRACEPTION
BAHAN AKTIF :
LEVONORGESTRAL ( LNG )
MASA KERJA : 5 TAHUN
MACAM MACAM :
NORPLANT
INDOPLANT
YADENA
DLL
SIDE EFEK :
SPOTING
AMENOREA
PUSING
PENAMBAHAN BERAT BADAN
GANGGUAN PEMBEKUAN DARAH
VARICES
KONTRA INDIKASI :
DICURIGAI HAMIL
PENY.LIVER
GGN PEMBEKUAN DARAH
PERDARAHAN PERVAGINAM TAK JE
LAS SUMBERNYA
PENYAKIT JANTUNG
VARICES
HIPERTENSI
EFEKTIFITAS :
FAILURE RATE : 1 – 2 %
VIII.KONTAP / STERILSASI:
KULDOSKOPI : - KAUTER
- CINCIN FALLOP
- IKAT
HISTEROSKOPI : BAKAR DG ZAT KIMIA
APA YG DILAKUKAN THD TUBA:
DIBAKAR ( KAUTER )
DIPASANG CINCIN
INDIKASI :
CUKUP ANAK
Oleh :
Annisa Amriani. S, M. Farm, Apt
Malaria
Spesies penyebab :
Plasmodium vivax Diagnosis:
Plasmodium falciparum Hapusan
Plasmodium malariae Darah
Plasmodium ovale (banyak di Afrika)
PATOGENESIS
6
Malaria Life Cycle Life Cycle
Sporogony
Oocyst
Sporozoite
s Mosquito
Salivary Gland
Zygote
Sporozoites Hypnozoites
(for P. vivax
and P. ovale)
Gametocytes
Exo-
erythrocytic
(hepatic) cycle
Merozoites
Erythrocytic
Cycle Merozoites
Schizogony
Daur hidup parasit malaria
Skizon
Dalam
Merozoit lambung Ookista
Dalam
darah Tropozoit
Skizon
Merozoit
Makrogametosit Makrogamet
Zigot = ookinet
Mikrogametosit Mikrogamet
Manifestasi Klinis
Pada anamnesa ditanyakan gejala penyakit dan riwayat bepergian ke daerah endemik
malaria.
1. Demam
Malaria tertiana (P.falciparum, P.ovale and P.vivax) demam periodik setiap 3 hari
Malaria quartana (P. malariae) demam periodik setiap 4 hari
Demam khas malaria terdiri atas 3 stadium :
menggigil (15 menit – 1 jam)
puncak demam ( 2 – 6 jam)
berkeringat (2 – 4 jam)
2. Splenomegali
Merupakan gejala khas malaria kronik. Limpa mengalami kongesti, menghitam, dan
menjadi keras karena timbunan pigmen eritrosit parasit dan jar. ikat yang bertambah
3. Anemia
4. Ikhterus
Bentuk serangan demamnya:
• Fase menggigil :
– berlangsung 15 menit–1 jam
– suhu menjadi 41 °
• Fase panas :
– berlangsung 2 – 6 jam
– mengigau (delirium)
• Fase berkeringat :
– badan terasa letih
– ingin tidur
Tatalaksana
KELOMPOK OBAT ANTIMALARIA
Gol Antibakteri:
Gol Kuinolin:
Sulfonamid,tetrasiklin,
Kuinine,kuinidin,primakuin
Spiramisin,azitromisin,
Klorokuin,amodiakuin,
Klindamisin,rifampisin,
Meflokuine,halofantrin
Prevent
prophylaxis Cure
transmission
Blood
Suppressive causal Gametocides Sporontocides
schizontocides
blood tissue
schizontocides schizontocides
Skizontisid
jaringan primer
1.Proguanil
(chlorguanide)
2.Pyrimethamine
Skizontisida
jaringan sekunder
“Hipnozoitosit”
primaqunie
Skizontisid
darah
1. Chloroquine,
Mefloquine,
Halofantrine, &
Quinine
2. Proguanil,
Pyrimethamine, &
sulfadoxine.
Gametosit
Primaquine,
Chloroquine, &
Quinie
Sporontosit
Proguanil,
pyremethamine
primaquine
Chloroquine
• Kerja :
Plasmosidal
• Kegunaan klinis :
Profilaksis atau pencegahan serangan akut. Bentuk
eritrosit dari P.falciparum dan P. vivax
• Resistensi :
Resistensi luas dengan mekanisme yang tak
diketahui
• Efek yang tidak diinginkan :
Pusing, sakit kepala, ↓ akomodasi, retina mata
sapi, hemolisis pada pasien defisiensi G6PD
• Farmakokinetik :
Per oral, Intramuskular. Dosis muatan 2x dosis
rumatan. Waktu paruh = 4 hari
19
Kuinin
Kerja : sebagai skizontosida darah dan gametositosida terhadap P. vivax
dan P. Malariae dengan menghambat hemepolimerase
Kegunaan klinis : Sebagai skizontosida (kurang efektif dan lebih toksik
dibanding klorokuin), untuk penanganan malaria berat di daerah P.
Falciparum resisten terhadap klorokuin
Efek Samping : Penurunan fungsi nervus VIII dan gangguan penglihatan.
Dapat menstimulasi sekresi insulin (hipoglikemia). Hipersensitifitas
pada pasien yang mengalami ruam, angioedem, gangguan pendengaran
dan penglihatan
Kontraindikasikan pada kasus dengan tinitus dan neuritis optikus.
Pemberian pada pasien dengan fibrilasi atrial harus hati-hati. Obat ini
tidak boleh diberikan pada pasien myasthenia gravis.
Primaquine
• Mekanisme :
Mekanisme tidak jelas. diduga obat ini bekerja dengan menghasilkan
oksigen reaktif atau berkompetisi dengan transport elektron dalam
tubuh parasit
• Kegunaan klinis :
Malaria vivax resisten Chloroquine. Lebih aktif melawan stadium
hati dibandingkan bentuk eritrosit malaria
• Resistensi :
Resistensi sedikit terhadap obat oleh P.vivax
• Efek yang Tidak Diinginkan :
Mual, muntah, depresi sum-sum tulang dan anemia hemolitik
(hemolisis pada pasien defisiensi G6PD)
21
Sulfadoksin-pirimetamin
• Kombinasi sulfonamida/sulfon dan diaminopirimidin. Bersifat skizontosid jaringan
terhadap P.falciparum dan skizontosida darah serta sporontosida untuk keempat
jenis Plasmodium
• Kerja : anti folat bekerja menghalangi dua jalur pembentukan folat parasit.
Sulfadoksin menghalangi penggunaan para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) dengan
menghambat enzim dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS). Pirimetamin menghambat
enzim dihydrofolat reductase (DHFR) dari Plasmodium sehingga menghalangi
sintesa timin dan purin yang (bahan untuk sintesa DNA dan multiplikasi sel).
• Kegunaan klinis : selektif radikal malaria falsiparum resisten klorokuin
• Efek samping : ruam dan menekan hematopoesis. Dosis yang berlebihan
menimbulkan anemia megaloblastik. Sulfonamid menimbulkan agranulositosis,
aplastik anemia, reaksi hipersensitifitas, Sindrom Steven Johnson, dermatitis
eksfoliatifa, serum sickness, gangguan fungsi hati, anoreksia, muntah, dan anemia
hemolitik.
• Kontraindikasi pada pasien yang hipersensitif terhadap sulfa, bayi di bawah usia 2
bulan, pasien gagal ginjal kronik, dan pada wanita hamil
Mefloquine
• Kerja :
Schizontosidal : menghambat haem polymerase
• Kegunaan klinis :
P.falciparum yang resisten Chloroquinine
• Resistensi :
Aktif melawan strain yang resisten multiobat dengan dosis
tunggal
• Efek yang Tidak Diinginkan :
Ditoleransi baik, bradikardi sinus ringan, neuropsikiatrik
• Farmakokinetik :
Per oral. Diabsorpsi dan dieliminasi lambat. Waktu paruh = 4
hari
23
Derivat Artemisin