Penggolongan antibiotik Indikasi Kontra indikasi Mekanisme kerja Sasaran penggunaan Efek samping Toksisitas
Penggolongan
Penggolongan berdasarkan kimia Penggolongan berdasarkan mekanisme kerja Penggolongan berdasarkan manfaat dan sasaran kerja
Golongan Betalaktam
Gol. Betalaktam 1(penisilin) Amoksisikin, ampisilin, kloksasilin, fenoksifenisilin,propisilin,sulfamisilin, prokainpenisilin,fluklosasilin, benzatinmetil penisilin Golongan betalaktam 2 (sefalosporin) Sefaletin, sefaleksin,sefaloridin,sefuroksin,sefadroksil, sefaktor, seftilbufen, sefazolin, seftizoksin, sefradin, seftazedin, sefpiron, sefriaksin Na, sefpodoksin proksetil, sefamandol, sefadrin
Golongan Aminoglikosida
Neomisin, spektinomisin, streptpmisin, kanamisin, gentamisin, paromomisin, amiksin, tobromisin, dideoksikanamisin, netilmisin
Golongan Klorampenicol
Klorampenicol, tiamfenicol
Golongan Tetrasiklin
Klortetrasiklin Rolitetrasiklin Demetilklortetrasiklin Doksisiklin Demeklosilin
Golongan Makrolida
Eritromisin Oleandomisin Roksitromisin Azitromisin Klaritromisin B
Golongan Rifamisin
Rifamisin dan rifampisin
Golongan Polipeptida
Polimiksin A Polimiksin B Basitrasin
Golongan Polien
Nistatin Ampoterisin B
Toksistas Antibiotik
Ginjal Darah Saraf Saluran cerna Hati Kulit Otot dan tulang Kardiovaskular Gigi
Golongan aminoglikosida spt: steptomisin, neomisin, kanamisin, spektinomisin, amikasin dan tobromisin Golongan rifamisin spt; rifamisin
Menimbulkan fiksasi pada bakal gigi, tonsil, gigi dan tulang karena pemberian tetrasiklin Menyebabkan sindrom kelabu dan kolap peredaran darah karena pemberian klorampenicol Menimbulkan gangguan pada hati seperti penyakit kuning atau ikterus karena pemberian rifamisin
Resiko penggunaan antibiotik pada bayi prematur dan bayi yang baru lahir
Resiko penggunaan antibiotik pada kondisi patologik dan defesiensi Kerusakan ginjal akan mengakibatkan kegagalan
dalam mengeliminasi antibiotik sehingga kadar antibiotik tinggi dalam darah sehingga resiko toksisitas akan semakin tinggi, hal ini dapat diatasi dengan cara: Penyesuaian dosis (adaptasi pasologi) Memperpanjang interval waktu pemberian Pemberian dosis awal tetap seperti dosis orang dewasa tapi dosis pemeliharaan dikurangi setengahnya dan interval waktu diperpanjang
Beberapa faktor yang harus diperhatikan untuk tercapainya sasaran penggunaan antibiotik
Aktivitas antibiotik Perlu diperhitungkan faktor pertahanan tubuh yang berada disekitar infeksi tersebut agar mikroorganisme tersebut dapat dimusnahkan. Farmakokinetik Absorbsi, pencapaian antibiotik melalui peredaran darah pada lokasi infeksi, difusi antibiotik dari plasma ke jaringan, penetrasi antibiotik ke dalam sarang infeksi dan kemampuan bertahan dari antibiotik pada konsentrasi yang memadai
As. Teikoat
Suatu senyawa heterogen yang mengandung fosfor dalam dinding sel bakteri gram (+)terasosiasi pada membran sitoplasma, merupakan essensial bagi bakteri garm (+) yang terdiri dari residu asam uralin, 3 gliserol fosfat dan asetil glukosamin, merupakan 50% dari seluruh komponen dinding sel yang merupakan tempat aktivitas suatu antibiotik.
b-LACTAMASE INHIBITORS Certain molecules can inactivate b-lactamases, thus preventing the destruction of b-lactam antibiotics that are substrates for these enzymes. b-Lactamase inhibitors are most active against plasmid-encoded b-lactamases (including the enzymes that hydrolyze ceftazidime and cefotaxime), but they are inactive at clinically achievable concentrations against the type I chromosomal b-lactamases induced in gram-negative bacilli (such as Enterobacter, Acinetobacter, and Citrobacter) by treatment with second- and third-generation cephalosporins. Clavulanic acid is produced by Streptomyces clavuligerus; its structural formula is as follows: It has poor intrinsic antimicrobial activity, but it is a "suicide" inhibitor that irreversibly binds b-lactamases produced by a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms. Clavulanic acid is well absorbed by mouth and also can be given parenterally. It has been combined with amoxicillin as an oral preparation (AUGMENTIN) and with ticarcillin as a parenteral preparation (TIMENTIN). Amoxicillin plus clavulanate is effective in vitro and in vivo for b-lactamase-producing strains of staphylococci, H. influenzae, gonococci, and E. coli. Amoxicillin-clavulanate plus ciprofloxacin has been shown to be an effective oral treatment for low-risk, febrile patients with neutropenia from cancer chemotherapy (Freifeld et al., 1999; Kern et al., 1999). It also is effective in the treatment of acute otitis media in children, sinusitis, animal or human bite wounds, cellulitis, and diabetic foot infections. The addition of clavulanate to ticarcillin (TIMENTIN) extends its spectrum such that it resembles imipenem to include aerobic gram-negative bacilli, S. aureus, and Bacteroides spp. There is no increased activity against Pseudomonas spp. (Bansal et al., 1985). The dosage should be adjusted for patients with renal insufficiency. The combination is especially useful for mixed nosocomial infections and is used often with an aminoglycoside. Sulbactam is another b-lactamase inhibitor similar in structure to clavulanic acid. It may be given orally or parenterally along with a b-lactam antibiotic. It is available for intravenous or intramuscular use combined with ampicillin (UNASYN). Dosage must be adjusted for patients with impaired renal function. The combination has good activity against gram-positive cocci, including b-lactamase-producing strains of S. aureus, gram-negative aerobes (but not Pseudomonas), and anaerobes; it also has been used effectively for the treatment of mixed intra-abdominal and pelvic infections.
Tazobactam is a penicillanic acid sulfone b-lactamase inhibitor. In common with the other available inhibitors, it has poor activity against the inducible chromosomal b-lactamases of Enterobacteriaceae but has good activity against many of the plasmid b-lactamases, including some of the extended-spectrum class. It has been combined with piperacillin as a parenteral preparation (ZOSYN) (see Bryson and Brogden, 1994). The combination of piperacillin and tazobactam does not increase the activity of piperacillin against P. aeruginosa because resistance is due to either chromosomal b-lactamases or decreased permeability of piperacillin into the periplasmic space. Because the currently recommended dose (3 g piperacillin per 375 mg tazobactam every 4 to 8 hours) is less than the recommended dose of piperacillin when used alone for serious infections (3 to 4 g every 4 to 6 hours), concern has been raised that piperacillin-tazobactam may prove ineffective in the treatment of some P. aeruginosa infections that would have responded to piperacillin. The combination of piperacillin plus tazobactam should be equivalent in antimicrobial spectrum to ticarcillin plus clavulanate Tazobactam is a penicillanic acid sulfone b-lactamase inhibitor. In common with the other available inhibitors, it has poor activity against the inducible chromosomal b-lactamases of Enterobacteriaceae but has good activity against many of the plasmid b-lactamases, including some of the extended-spectrum class. It has been combined with piperacillin as a parenteral preparation (ZOSYN) (see Bryson and Brogden, 1994). The combination of piperacillin and tazobactam does not increase the activity of piperacillin against P. aeruginosa because resistance is due to either chromosomal b-lactamases or decreased permeability of piperacillin into the periplasmic space. Because the currently recommended dose (3 g piperacillin per 375 mg tazobactam every 4 to 8 hours) is less than the recommended dose of piperacillin when used alone for serious infections (3 to 4 g every 4 to 6 hours), concern has been raised that piperacillin-tazobactam may prove ineffective in the treatment of some P. aeruginosa infections that would have responded to piperacillin. The combination of piperacillin plus tazobactam should be equivalent in antimicrobial spectrum to ticarcillin plus clavulanate
OTHER b-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS Introduction Important therapeutic agents with a b-lactam structure that are neither penicillins nor cephalosporins have been developed.
Carbapenems
Carbapenems are b-lactams that contain a fused b-lactam ring and a five-membered ring system that differs from the penicillins in being unsaturated and containing a carbon atom instead of the sulfur atom. This class of antibiotics has a broader spectrum of activity than do most other b-lactam antibiotics. Imipenem. Imipenem is marketed in combination with cilastatin, a drug that inhibits the degradation of imipenem by a renal tubular dipeptidase. Source and Chemistry. Imipenem is derived from a compound produced by Streptomyces cattleya. The compound thienamycin is unstable, but imipenem, the Nformimidoyl derivative, is stable. The structural formula of imipenem is as follows: Antimicrobial Activity. Imipenem, like other b-lactam antibiotics, binds to penicillinbinding proteins, disrupts bacterial cell wall synthesis, and causes death of susceptible microorganisms. It is very resistant to hydrolysis by most b-lactamases.