Pendahuluan Volkano

Eruptions
Volcanic
Hazards and Positive Effect
2021
TANGGAL TATAP MUKA KULIAH HARI SABTU
PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK GEOLOGI
WAKTU 07.30-09.30
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi
UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI NO TANGGAL DOSEN KETERANGAN 1 11-Sep-21 Benyamin Pendahuluan

2 18-Sep-21 Benyamin Komposisi dan Struktur Bumi
3 25-Sep-21 Benyamin
Lempeng Tektonik dan Gunung Api
4 02-Oct-21 Benyamin Magma dan Intrusi
5 09-Oct-21 Benyamin
Pemodelan Perubahan Densitas dan Viskositas Magma 6 16-Oct-21 Benyamin Deformasi Gunung Api
7 23-Oct-21 Benyamin Pemodelan Deformasi Metoda Mogi

8 30-Oct-21 Tentative U T S
9 06-Nov-21 Benyamin Monitoring Gas Gunung Api
10 13-Nov-21 Benyamin Pemodelan Kecepatan Efusi dan Panjang AliranLava 11 20-Nov-21 Benyamin Seismo Volcano
12 27-Nov-21 Benyamin Prediksi Erupsi
13 04-Dec-21 Benyamin Volkano Stratigrafi 1
14 11-Dec-21 Benyamin Volkano Stratigrafi 2
15 18-Dec-21 Benyamin Energi Panas Bumi
16 15-Jan-22 Tentative U A S
What is a volcano?
UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI cone molten rock (magma) from

within the Earth’s crust to
the Earth's surface.
•The volcano includes the

surrounding cone of
erupted material.
conduit
vent
magma chamber
•A volcano is a vent or
'chimney' that connects
Morfologi
UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI
Volcanoes Classification
>1300 volcanoes known to have
erupted in Holocene (last 10 000 years)
~500 classified as ‘ active’ (i.e. known to have erupted in

recorded history)
Remainder classified as ‘ dormant’ (may become active again)

or ‘ extinct’ (not
expected to erupt again), but Vesuvius
was thought to be extinct before AD
79!
htt://www.rotezionecivile.ov.it/cms/it/rischiovulcanico.w
Status Gunung Api
• Gunung api hidup: gunung api

yang masih bisa erupsi → Simkin

(2004) gunung api yang pernah
erupsi dalam rentang waktu
10.000 tahun (Holosen).
• Gunung api aktif • Bagi awam,
adalah gunung api yang sedang
erupsi
• Gunung api yang pernah erupsi
sejak jaman sejarah
• Gunung api istirahat/dorman:
gunung api yang sudah lama tidak
erupsi, namun masih ada lagi •
potensi erupsi lagi.
• Gunung api mati: gunung api erupting in 1943 (graphic by Diego Rivera)
Paricutin (Michoacan, Mexico) shown
yang sudah tidak akan erupsi

Klasifikasi Gunung Api Indonesia
• Tipe A: pernah erupsi sejak
tahun 1600
• Tipe B: tidak diketahui erupsi
sejak 1600 namun diketahui
pernah erupsi dan mungkin
akan erupsi di masa depan.
• Tipe C: hanya mempunyai
manifestasi panas di kawah
• Pada umumnya erupsi
pertama dalam zaman sejarah
menelan korban lebih banyak.
• Gunung api yang lama tidak
erupsi atau dorman/istirahat
perlu diwaspadai.
Erupsi eksplosif terbesar di
abad 19-20
Distribution of active volcanoes
60% around Pacific; 20% in Mediterranean region

Volcanoes of the Mediterranean
EurasianEurasianApulian
Iberian
I ranian
Io.
Volcanoes
African
Plate motions
Volcanoes and eruptive style
Eruptive style and hazard depends on:

Tectonic setting
Depth of magma formation
Rate of magma movement to the surface
Percent and type of volatiles (gases)

Volcanoes - tectonic settings

Oceanic ridges, hotspots Subduction zones

Basic/Mafic volcanics Acidic/Felsic volcanics
Low SiO2 High SiO2
Fluid lava (10 m/s) Viscous lava (3 m/s)

(little explosive activity)
Low gas pressure High gas pressure
(explosive activity)
Classification of volcanic eruptions
Types of Eruptions
UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI There are three different types of eruptions:
⮚ The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions,

which involve the decompression of gas within
magma that propels it forward.
⮚ Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of
volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of
gas within magma, the direct opposite of the
process powering magmatic activity.
⮚ The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption, which
is driven by the superheating of steam via
contact with magma; these eruptive types often
exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the
granulation of existing rock.
Types of Eruptions
ash 6. Stratum 7. Magma conduit 8. Magma chamber 9.
Dike)
Diagram of a Vulcanian eruption. (key:

1. Ash plume 2. Lapilli 3. Lava fountain
A scheme of a phreatic eruption: 1: water-vapor cloud, 2: 4. Volcanic ash rain 5. Volcanic bomb
magma conduit, 3: layers of lava and ash, 4: stratum, 5: 6. Lava flow 7. Layers of lava and ash 8.
water table, 6: explosion, 7: magma chamber Stratum 9. Sill 10. Magma conduit 11.
Diagram of a Surtseyan eruption. (key: 1. Water vapor cloud Magma chamber 12. Dike)
2. Compressed ash 3. Crater 4. Water 5. Layers of lava and
How and why do volcanoes erupt?
Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower density
than the surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the

crust to erupt on the surface.
When magma reaches the surface it depends on how easily it
flows (viscosity) and the amount of gas (H2O, CO 2, S) it has in
it as to how it erupts.
Large amounts of gas and a high viscosity (sticky) magma will
form an explosive eruption.
Think about shaking a carbonated drink and then releasing the cap
Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity (runny) magma will
form an effusive eruption.
Where the magma just trickles out of the volcano (lava flow)
Explosive Eruptions
Explosive volcanic
eruptions can be
catastrophic
Erupt 10’s-1000’s km3 of

magma
Send ash clouds >25 km

into the stratosphere
Have severe environmental

and climatic effects Hazardous!!!
Mt. Redoubt cloud from an explosive eruption at Mt
Redoubt,Alaska
Above: Large eruption column and ash
Explosive Eruptions
Three products from

an explosive
eruption:
Pyroclastic
surge
Ash fall
Pyroclastic
Pyroclastic flows
flow on Montserrat,
buried the capital
city.
Direct
measurements of
pyroclastic flows
are extremely
dangerous!!!
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI

Effusive
Eruptions
Effusive eruptions are
characterised by outpourings
of lava on to the ground.
Hawaii
VEI
Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch
(Volcanic Explosivity Index)

htts://www.wired.com/2013/07/revamin-the-volcanic-exlosivit-index-or-tin-erutions-need-love-too/
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
PRODUCTS OF VOLCANIC
Lava is molten rock expelled by a

volcano during an eruption. When first
erupted from a volcanic vent, lava is a
liquid at temperatures from 700 °C to
1,200 °C (1,300 °F to 2,200 °F).
Although lava is quite viscous, with
about 100,000 times the viscosity of
water, it can flow great distances before
cooling and solidifying, because of both
its thixotropic and shear thinning
properties. The term lava flow is
commonly shortened to lava. Explosive
eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic
ash and other fragments called tephra,
rather than lava flows.

UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI Lahars can be best described as volcanic
mudflows. They may not necessarily be
caused by volcanic activity, but at the very
least do originate from some type of
volcanism. Lahars have the consistency of
concrete: fluid when moving, then solid
when stopped
A lahar is a type of mudflow or landslide
composed of pyroclastic material and water
that flows down from a volcano, typically
along a river valley.[1] The term "lahar"
originated in the Javanese language of Indonesia
A boulder is a rock with grain

size of usually no less than
256 mm (10 inches) diameter.
While a boulder may be small
enough to move or roll
manually, others are
extremely massive. In
common usage, a boulder is
too large for a person to move.
Smaller boulders are usually
just called rocks or stones.
Fakultas Teknologi
volcano are called volcanic ash. Very
Kebumian dan Energi
UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI small ash particles can be less than
Small jagged pieces of rocks, 0.001 millimeters (1/25,000th of an
minerals, and volcanic glass the size of inch) across.
sand and silt (less than 2 millimeters
(1/12 inch) in diameter) erupted by a
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCK
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANIC ROCK
Volcanic Features
Fissure Vent
Shield Volcanoe
Lava Domes
Volcanic cones (cinder
cones
Strato volcanoe
Super volcanoes
Submarine volcanoes
Subglacial volcanoes
Mud volcanoes
Volcanic fissure vents are flat,
linear cracks through which lava
emerges.
Shield volcanoes, so named for

their broad, shield-like profiles, are
formed by the eruption of low
viscosity lava that can flow a great
distance from a vent, but not
generally explode catastrophically.
Since low-viscosity magma is
typically low in silica, shield
volcanoes are more common in

oceanic than continental settings
Volcanic Features
Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan from eruptions that erupt mostly small pieces
Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble
viscous lavas. They are cinders, hence the name of this volcano type)
sometimes formed within the crater of a that build up around the vent. These can be
previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a
Helens), but can also form independently, as in cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters high.
the case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, Most cinder cones erupt only once. Cinder
they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, cones may form as flank vents on larger
but their lavas generally do not flow far from volcanoes, or occur on their own
the originating vent.
Volcanic cones or cinder cones are the result

Volcanic Features
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan
features on the ocean floor. Some are active
Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI
A supervolcano is a large and, in shallow water, disclose their presence
volcano that usually has a large caldera and by blasting steam and rocky debris high
can potentially produce devastation on an above the surface
enormous, sometimes continental, scale. of the sea.
Such eruptions would be able to cause severe
cooling of global temperatures for many
years afterwards because of the huge
volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They are
the most dangerous type of volcano.
Submarine volcanoes are common

Volcanic Features
Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made
up of flat lava which flows at the top

of extensive pillow lavas and
palagonite. When the icecap melts,
the lavas on the top collapse, leaving
a flat-topped mountain
Mud volcanoes or mud domes are

formations created by geo-excreted
liquids and gases, although there are
several different processes which
may cause such activity. The largest
structures are 10 kilometers in
diameter and reach 700 meters high.
VOLCANO MONITORING TECHNIQUES
SEISMICITY
Seismic observations are
made using
seismographs deployed
near volcanic areas,
watching out for
increased seismicity
during volcanic events, in
particular looking for long
period
harmonic tremors which
signal magma movement
through volcanic conduits
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI
GAS MONITORING
as sulfur dioxide; or by infra red
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian
dan Energi UNIVERSITAS
TRISAKTI spectroscopy (FTIR). Increased gas
Gas emissions may be monitored emissions, and more particularly
with equipment including portable changes in gas
ultra violet spectrometers compositions, may signal an
(COSPEC, now superseded by the impending volcanic eruption.[3]
miniDOAS) which analyzes the
presence of volcanic gases such
GROUND DEFORMATION
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian
also includes GNSS
dan Energi UNIVERSITAS
TRISAKTI
Surface deformation monitoring observations and InSAR. Surface

includes the use of geodetic deformation indicates magma
techniques such as leveling, tilt, upwelling: increased magma
strain, angle and distance supply produces bulges in the
measurements through tiltmeters, volcanic center's surface.
total stations and EDMs. This
THERMAL MONITORING
Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI using thermometers and observing
changes in thermal properties of
volcanic lakes and vents which may
indicate upcoming activity. Other
geophysical techniques (electrical,
gravity and magnetic observations)
include
monitoring fluctuations and sudden
change in resistivity, gravity
anomalies or magnetic anomaly
patterns which may indicate
volcano-induced faulting and
magma upwelling
Temperature changes are monitored

STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
Stratigraphic analysis
includes analyzing
tephra and lava
deposits and dating
these to give volcano
eruption patterns,
with estimated cycles
of intense activity and
size of eruptions
Volcanic
Hazards
Pyroclastic flow
Lahars/Mud flows
Pyroclastic fall
Lava flow
Noxious Gas
Earthquakes
htt://volcanoes.uss.ov/Hazards/What/hazards.html
Major volcanic eruptions
since AD1600 (>8000 deaths)
Date 9000 Starvation
Event 1783 Hazard
Laki, Deaths type

Iceland
Unzen, Japan 1792 14300 70% by cone collapse;
30% by tsunami
Tambora, Indonesia 1815 92000 90% by starvation
Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 36000 90% by starvation; <10% pyro.
flows and tephra
Mt. Pelée, Martinique 1902 29000 Pyroclastic flows
Nevada del Ruiz, 1985 25000 Lahars
Colombia
Volcanic hazards:
deaths (AD
Lahars Disease,
etc. Tephra falls

1900-2000) Others
Unknown
Pyro flows
Basaltic lava flows
“Aa” (blocky lava) flow, Hawaii “Pahoehoe” (ropy lava) flow, Reunion
Hazards - property burnt and buried by lava

Volcanic hazards - Hawaii
Five active volcanoes;

hazards are mainly lava flows, although
tephra and gas emissions also occur.
Hazard profile similar for all three.
Pyroclastic Flow (nuée ardente)
Ruins of St. Pierre, Martinique.

km/h) from Mt. Pelée in 1902 killed
Collapse of eruption column (Mt. 30 000 people; 2 survived.
Mayon Phillipines, 1968)
Pyroclastic flow (>700°C; ~200
Mt Peleé, Martinique (1902)
An eruption of Mt Peleé in 1902 produced a

pyroclastic flow that destroyed the city of St. Pierre.
before after
Pyroclastic Flow
For example,
eruption of
Vesuvius in 79 AD
destroyed the city
of Pompeii
Pompeii (79AD)
On August 24, 79AD Mount Vesuvius literally blew its top,

erupting tonnes of molten ash, pumice and sulfuric gas miles
into the atmosphere. Pyroclastic flows flowed over the city
of Pompeii and surrounding areas.
Pompeii (79AD)
Pyroclastic flows of poisonous gas
and hot volcanic debris engulfed the

cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and

Stabiae suffocating the inhabitants
and burying the buildings.
Pompeii (79AD)
The cities remained buried and

undiscovered for almost 1700 years
until excavation began in 1748.These
excavations continue today and provide
insight into life during the Roman
Empire.
7 Sixth (final) surge causes Volcanic
from Pliny to flee Misenum; flow
buries Pompeii
Pliny’s deposits 7
08
letters
Fakultas Teknologi
Kebumian dan Energi 5

UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI Pompeii victims; flow
Fourth surge asphyxiates
060402002220181412
First surge cloud kills Herculaneum
6
4
follows 7
victims; pyroclastic flow follows
Third surge
reaches northern
walls of Pompeii;
flow
buries
Herculaneum
4
1
5
3
Second surge and flow
3
2
Eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79
Mt.Vesuvius
modern
Herculaneum
excavated area of
Roman
Herculaneum (20
m below modern
city)
Vesuvius today
Vesuvius remains a
Fakultas
Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi
Bay of Naples hazardous volcano
with heavily
populated flanks:
around 1.5 million

people live in the
Naples
city of Naples alone
Naples is situated
Vesuvius approx. 30 km
from Vesuvius
can flow up to 100
Pyroclastic flows km from source!
MountVesuvius:recent major eruptions
A.D. 79: destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum;
80 eruptions since then -

most violently in 1631 and 1906;
quiet since 1944
Why wasn’tVesuvius recognized as high-risk by the Romans?

Bed Date (BP) Eruptive style Volume (km 3)
~1900 ~2200
Pompeii Plinian 2.8 AP6 Strombolian ?
AP5 ? Strombolian to Vulcanian 0.08 AP4 ? Phreato-Plinian

~2700
0.12 AP3 Strombolian to Vulcanian 0.15
~3000 Sub-Plinian to phreato

AP2
0.14
Plinian
~3300 Sub-Plinian to phreato
AP1
0.15
Plinian
~3450
Avellino Plinian 1.5
From data in:Andronico, D. and Cioni, R. 2002.
Bull.Volcanology 64, 372-391.
Pyroclastic Flow - direct impact

Pyroclastic Flow - burial
Pyroclastic Flow - burns
Pyroclastic Flow - lahars
Hot volcanic activity can melt
snow and ice
Melt water picks up rock and

debris
Forms fast flowing, high energy

torrents
Destroys all in its path

Lahars
Lahars: volcanic melting of summit snow/ice (e.g.

Nevado del Ruiz)
mudflows
Post-eruptive intense
rainstorms (e.g.
Hurricane Mitch)
Eruptive “volcanic rain”

(e.g. Herculaneum)
Lahars, Mt Rainier
Osceola lahar:
age: 5600 yrs BP
length: 120 km
volume: 40x Ruiz
depth: 20m
velocity: >70
km/h
pop: 100 000
Pyroclastic Fall
Ash load
Collapses roofs
Brings down power lines
Kills plants
Contaminates water supplies
Respiratory hazard for

humans and animals
Lava Flow
It is not just explosive volcanic activity that can be

hazardous. Effusive (lava) activity is also dangerous.
Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland
Iceland, January
23,1973
Large fissure
eruption
threatened the
town of
Vestmannaeyjar
The lava flows caught the

inhabitants by surprise
Before the eruption was

over, approximately one
third of the town of
Vestmannaeyjer had been
destroyed
However, the potential damage was reduced by spraying
This caused them to slow and/or

stop, or diverted them away from
the undamaged part of the town.
seawater onto the advancing lava
flows.
Jokulhlaups
Iceland)
Fakultas Teknologi
Kebumian dan
(e.g.Vatnajokull,
3
In 1996 a subglacial eruption released 4 km of
meltwater
SuperVolcanoes
Continental caldera formation
The after-effects of a super-eruption

Stratospheric loading of ~1000 Mt of SO2 and
sulphate aerosols
Aerosol veil persists for 5 - 10 years Global cooling of
3-5°C (locally 15°C)
Collapse of agricultural production for several years -->

famine --> conflict
Last great supereruption (Toba, ~73,000 BP) may have

reduced human population to ~10,000 people (Ambrose, 1998,
J. Human Evolution., v. 34, 623)
(Rampino, 2002, Icarus, v.156, p. 562)

10 km

3
Since 1980 some 2M m of CO2 released and substantial
earthquake activity (some quakes M ~ 6) associated with
intrusion of magma tongue
The last super-eruption
from LongValley caldera
Bishop Tuff
Campi Flegrei
La Solfatara
http://www.ov.ingv.it/ov/doc/vulcani_napoletani_HQ.pdf
Tectonic deformation,
Campi Flegrei (1982-
Fakultas Teknologi
Kebumian dan Energi 1985 pulse)
Ruins of Roman
1976
market, Pozzuoli; inundated by
sea, uplifted by 2m in <10 years
as a result of volcano-tectonic
forces beneath Campi Flegrei
caldera
1984
Earthquake damage,
Church of Purgatory,
Puzzuoli
1982
City of Naples
La Solfatara,
one of several small active craters in the Campi Flegrei

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Eruptions

UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI NO TANGGAL DOSEN KETERANGAN 1 11-Sep-21 Benyamin Pendahuluan

7 23-Oct-21 Benyamin Pemodelan Deformasi Metoda Mogi

UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI cone molten rock (magma) from

•The volcano includes the

~500 classified as ‘ active’ (i.e. known to have erupted in

Remainder classified as ‘ dormant’ (may become active again)

• Gunung api hidup: gunung api

yang masih bisa erupsi → Simkin

yang sudah tidak akan erupsi

60% around Pacific; 20% in Mediterranean region

Eruptive style and hazard depends on:

Depth of magma formation

Rate of magma movement to the surface

Percent and type of volatiles (gases)

Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi

Oceanic ridges, hotspots Subduction zones

Low SiO2 High SiO2

Fluid lava (10 m/s) Viscous lava (3 m/s)

⮚ The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions,

Diagram of a Vulcanian eruption. (key:

than the surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the

Erupt 10’s-1000’s km3 of

Send ash clouds >25 km

Have severe environmental

Three products from

Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi UNIVERSITAS TRISAKTI

Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi

Lava is molten rock expelled by a

Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi

A boulder is a rock with grain

Shield volcanoes, so named for

volcanoes are more common in

Volcanic cones or cinder cones are the result

Submarine volcanoes are common

up of flat lava which flows at the top

Mud volcanoes or mud domes are

Surface deformation monitoring observations and InSAR. Surface

Temperature changes are monitored

Date 9000 Starvation

Event 1783 Hazard

Laki, Deaths type

etc. Tephra falls

Hazards - property burnt and buried by lava

Five active volcanoes;

Ruins of St. Pierre, Martinique.

An eruption of Mt Peleé in 1902 produced a

On August 24, 79AD Mount Vesuvius literally blew its top,

and hot volcanic debris engulfed the

cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and

The cities remained buried and

Kebumian dan Energi 5

around 1.5 million

80 eruptions since then -

Why wasn’tVesuvius recognized as high-risk by the Romans?

Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi

AP5 ? Strombolian to Vulcanian 0.08 AP4 ? Phreato-Plinian

~3000 Sub-Plinian to phreato

Bull.Volcanology 64, 372-391.

Pyroclastic Flow - direct impact

Melt water picks up rock and

Forms fast flowing, high energy

Destroys all in its path

Lahars: volcanic melting of summit snow/ice (e.g.