EVOLUTION

BIOLOGI UMUM –
27/09/2022 Geografi C 2022
OUTLINE

A. Definition
B. History of evolution.
C. Evidence for evolution.
D. Mechanism of evolution.
E. Speciation.
F. Human evolution.
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OUTLINE

A. Definition

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 A

Munculnya evolusi sebagai konsep

• Mengapa ada berbagai kelompok organisme

yang mirip di berbagai belahan bumi? (contoh:
emu di Australia-burung onta di Afrika Selatan-rhea di
Amerika Selatan)
• Mengapa organisme yang telah punah di masa
lalu berbeda dengan organisme yang hidup kini?
(bukti-bukti fosil)
• Bagaimana struktur tubuh yang sama dapat
memiliki fungsi berbeda? (homologi-perbandingan
anatomi)
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 A

Pengertian Evolusi

• Evolusi adalah Perubahan secara bertahap dalam

waktu yang lama akibat seleksi alam pada variasi gen
dalam suatu individu atau spesies yang menghasilkan
perkembangan spesies baru.

• Proses satu arah dalam waktu yang tidak dapat di

balikkan, yang selama berlangsung menghasilkan
sesuatu yang baru, keanekaragaman dan taraf
organisasi yang lebih tinggi.

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 Macam-macam Evolusi A
• 1. Evolusi abiologis : perubahan benda-benda tak hidup (abiotik) secara perlahan-lahan
dalam waktu yang lama dari persenyawaan sederhana menuju kepersenyawaan yang
kompleks.
• 2. Evolusi biologis : perubahan makhluk hidup secara perlahan-lahan dalam waktu yang
lama dari organisme tingkat rendah ke organisme tingkat tinggi.
• 3. Mikroevolusi : perubahan secara bertahap yang terjadi pada frekuensi gen yang
dapat menimbulkan perubahan fenotif organisme.
• 4. Makroevolusi : evolusi yang menimbulkan skala besar meliputi asal-usul
organisme baru, arah evolusi,jenis organisme yang menempati habitat baru dan
terjadinya kepunahan.
• 5. Evolusi Progresif : evolusi yang menghasilkan spesies menuju pada
kemungkinan populasi dapat bertahan hidup atau survive.
• 6. Evolusi Regresif : evolusi yang menuju kemungkinan populasi menjadi punah.
• 7. Evolusi Divergen : perubahan yang berlangsung dari satu spesies menjadi
banyak spesies baru.
• 8. Evolusi Konvergen : perubahan pada organ yang berbeda pada organisme yang
memiliki hubungan kekerabatan jauh menuju ke kesamaan fungsi dari organ
tersebut.
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 A

Evolution is defined as the Cumulative Change in the

heritable characteristics of a population over time.

Evolution does not act on individual; individuals cannot

evolve. But population can evolve, as their individuals (and
more important, their individual’s offspring) undergo
changes in phenotype and genotype.
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A
The Geologic
Time Scale

Scientists divide
the Earth into a
number of
periods - the
“Geological Time
Scale", according
to the rock types
and sort of
fossils found in
each one.
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 A

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 A

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OUTLINE

B. History of evolution.
Before Darwin
Darwin
After Darwin

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 B
History: Evolution Before Darwin
▪ Aristoteles menyatakan bahwa spesies bersifat tetap/permanen,
sempurna, dan tidak berevolusi.

▪ George Cuvier, seorang palentologis, percaya bahwa fosil

membuktikan ada organisme yang hidup di masa lampau dan kini
telah punah. Kepunahan organisme diyakini Cuvier sebagai bencana
alam (Catastrophism).

▪ James Hutton mengeluarkan teori mengenai struktur geografi bumi,

bahwa perubahan besar merupakan akumulasi dari perubahan-
perubahan kecil yang berlangsung secara terus menerus.
Contohnya lembah terbentuk akibat pengikisan batuan oleh air.

▪ Jean Baptise Lamarck mengajukan teori bahwa bagian-bagian tubuh

yang selalu digunakan akan berkembang (menjadi lebih besar dan lebih
kuat), sedangkan bagian tubuh yang tidak digunakan akan tereduksi.
Selain itu Lamarck percaya bahwa evolusi terjadi lewat pewarisan
karakter-karakter yang diperlukan oleh suatu organisme.
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 B
History: Evolution Before Darwin
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ‘s Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics Theory: Environmental changes bring
changes in individuals, and these changes are passed
on to their offspring.
Lamarck incorrectly thought that by using or not using
certain body parts, the organism developed
characteristics that could be passed on to the offspring.

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 B
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Wallace wrote his book in 1855, “On the Law which has
Regulated the Introduction of Species”.

Wallace Has the Same Idea (as Darwin’s)

The Wallace Effect occurs when natural selection favours
reproductive isolation between two diverging
populations, eventually creating two separate species.
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 B
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
Pada thn 1855 Wallace menulis sebuah buku “On the
Law which has Regulated the Introduction of
Species”, yang menyatakan bahwa spesies-spesies baru
muncul dari dalam variasi-variasi suatu populasi yg
secara geografis terisolasi dari populasi-populasi lainnya.

Pada thn 1854 Wallace berangkat ke Hindia Belanda (setelah pd thn 1848 pergi ke
Amazon), yg lebih suka disebutnya Kepulauan Melayu. Selama delapan tahun ia
mencari bukti-bukti untuk mendukung dua “kepercayaannya”, yaitu:
1). Bahwa geografi sangat berpengaruh pada perkembangan biologi;
2). Bahwa spesies bermula dari seleksi alami dari tipe-tipe yg lebih unggul
dalam variasi-variasi populasi.
Pada 3 November 1859, ia mengajukan makalah tentang gagasan-gagasannya
tentang perbedaan distribusi yang sangat jelas pada hewan-hewan yang
tinggal di Kep. Melayu. Wallace menyadari bahwa kedua wilayah biologis dapat
begitu dekat, tetapi juga begitu berbeda akibat geologi. Secara tidak sadar, Wallace
telah meletakkan dasar-dasar pada pemikiran bahwa telah terjadi perubahan-
perubahan pada permukaan bumi (evolusi bumi), yaitu pergerakan lempeng/pelat
tektonik
Pada Februari 1858, di gubuknya di Ternate, Wallace
menemukan gagasan tentang survival of the fittest.
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 B
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
Pada thn 1855 Wallace menulis sebuah buku “On the
Law which has Regulated the Introduction of
Species”, yang menyatakan bahwa spesies-spesies
baru muncul dari dalam variasi-variasi suatu
populasi yg secara geografis terisolasi dari
populasi-populasi lainnya.

Pada thn 1854 Wallace berangkat ke Hindia Belanda

(setelah pd thn 1848 pergi ke Amazon), yg lebih suka
disebutnya Kepulauan Melayu. Selama delapan tahun ia
mencari bukti-bukti untuk mendukung dua
“kepercayaannya”, yaitu:
1). Bahwa geografi sangat berpengaruh pada
perkembangan biologi;
2). Bahwa spesies bermula dari seleksi alami dari tipe-
tipe yg lebih unggul dalam variasi-variasi populasi.
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 B
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
Pada Februari 1858, di gubuknya di Ternate,
Wallace menemukan gagasan tentang
survival of the fittest.

Pada 3 November 1859, ia mengajukan makalah tentang

gagasan-gagasannya tentang perbedaan distribusi yang
sangat jelas pada hewan-hewan yang tinggal di Kep.
Melayu.
Wallace menyadari bahwa kedua wilayah biologis dapat
begitu dekat, tetapi juga begitu berbeda akibat geologi.
Secara tidak sadar, Wallace telah meletakkan dasar-dasar
pada pemikiran bahwa telah terjadi perubahan-
perubahan pada permukaan bumi (evolusi bumi), yaitu
pergerakan
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lempeng/pelat tektonik 17
 "Survival of the fittest"
• "Survival of the fittest" adalah ungkapan yang berasal
dari teori evolusi Darwin sebagai cara untuk
menggambarkan mekanisme seleksi alam.
• Konsep kebugaran biologis didefinisikan sebagai
keberhasilan reproduksi.
• Dalam istilah Darwin, frasa ini paling baik dipahami
sebagai "Kelangsungan hidup dari bentuk yang akan
meninggalkan paling banyak salinan dirinya dalam
generasi-generasi berikutnya."

Spencer, Herbert (1864). Principles of Biology, Volume

1. Williams and Norgate. p. 444. But this survival of the
27/09/2022 fittest, implies multiplication of the fittest. 18
 B
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

The idea of evolution had been accepted by many biologists long

before Darwin; what was missing was a theory of How organisms
changed over time. Darwin provided that theory.

Darwin published his book in 1859, "The Origin of Species,

or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for
Life“.
I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if
useful,
27/09/2022is preserved, by the term Natural Selection. 19
 B
The Ideas of Darwin and Wallace
TRAIT VARIATION
❖DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
OVERPRODUCTION
All organisms are descended with
changes from common ancestors.
STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL
(COMPETITION)
❖NATURAL SELECTION
ADAPTATION
The increased survival and
reproduction of individuals better
SUCCESSFUL SURVIVAL/
REPRODUCTION adapted to environment.

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 B
Natural Selection Leads To Evolution
Six points of Darwin’s Theory: To date, the theory that best
❖ Overproduction. explains the diversity of life forms
❖ Characteristic/Trait Variation. and the evidence of change over
❖ Competition. time is Darwin’s theory of
❖ Natural Selection. Evolution by Natural Selection.
❖ Adaptation.
❖ Speciation.

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 B
Summary of Darwin’s Theory
VARIATION
Individuals of a population vary in size, form, etc. (They have TRAITS).
Some of this VARIATION IS HERITABLE.
OVERPRODUCTION
Individuals of all populations PRODUCE MORE OFFSPRING than the
environment can support.
COMPETITION
Individuals of a population must COMPETE FOR RESOURCES.
NATURAL SELECTION
Natural Selection is the result of SURVIVAL and REPRODUCTION of
individuals better adapted to environment.
ADAPTATION
When a form of a TRAIT IS ADAPTIVE and has a HERITABLE BASIS, the
individuals tend to survive and reproduce more frequently. Over
generations, the adaptive version becomes common in the population.
SPECIATION
Natural selection results in MODIFICATION OF TRAITS within a line of
27/09/2022descent. It may bring about the evolution of a NEW SPECIES. 22
perkembangan teori evolusi terbagi menjadi teori evolusi B

sebelum Darwin dan teori evolusi setelah Darwin

• Teori Evolusi sebelum Darwin
• teori kreasionisme, teori katastropisme, teori gradualisme, teori
uniformitarianisme, dan Lamarck atau Teori Perolehan yang Terwariskan
Secara Genetik.

• Teori Evolusi Pada Masa Darwin

• Implikasi Teori Evolusi Darwin
• 1. Asal Usul Spesies
• 2. Seleksi Alam

• Teori Evolusi Setelah Darwin

• Masa ini sering dikatakan sebagai neo-Darwinisme

• Setelah neo-Darwinisme diikuti masa evolusi

modern.
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OUTLINE

C. Evidence for evolution.

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 C
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
The evidence for evolution are provided by:
1. Fossil record.
2. Anatomical record: Homologous structures.
3. Selective breeding → Artificial selection.
4. Molecular record.

1. FOSSIL RECORD
❖ Show ancient species
share similarities with
present species (shows
change over time).
❖ e.g. preserved bones,
footprints, or dead
organisms.
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 C
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
1. FOSSIL RECORD
❖ Show ancient species share similarities with present species (shows
change over time).
❖ e.g. preserved bones, footprints, or dead organisms.

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 C
2. HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
❖ Adaptation from DIVERGENT EVOLUTION produce homologues
structures.
❖ HOMOLOGUES STRUCTURES: structures that are similar because
they are inherited from a common ancestor.
❖ Two population/species have different traits and behaviors.
❖ Divergent evolution results in SPECIATION.

Comparative
Anatomy

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 C
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE
• Adaptation from CONVERGENT EVOLUTION produce analogous
structures.
❖ ANALOGUES STRUCTURES: body parts are similar in function, but
different in structure (they do not come from the same ancestor).
❖ Two separate population/species from different ancestors share
similar traits and behaviors.
❖ Convergent evolution NEVER RESULTS in speciation.

Comparative Anatomy
Wings Fins

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Similar function, different structures 28
 C
3. SELECTIVE BREEDING → ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
(of Domesticated Animals and Plants)
❖ Process of humans purposefully breed wild organisms
for thousands of years to produce offspring with most
desired traits → humans caused evolution.
❖ The characteristics of species can change over
generations as particular traits are selected in offspring.

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Selective breeding can result in phenotypic change 29
 C
4. MOLECULAR RECORD
❖ Evolutionary relationships among species are documented in their
DNA and proteins.
❖ Universal genetic code: DNA and RNA.
❖ All life on Earth uses a three-letter code (codon) to produce 20
standard amino acids.
❖ Homologous protein: cytochrome C for respiration.

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 C
LIVING FOSSILS
▪ Species that changed very little since pre-historic times (the time
before human invented writing).
▪ The environmental conditions under which they lived did not
change, so no evolutionary adaptation is expected.
▪ Extinct: no longer found alive. Extant: living specimens still found.
Extant Eocene Extant Carboniferous Extant

Dated 400,000,000 years old Dated 50,000,000 years old Dated 150,000,000 years old
Eocene Extant

Dated 50,000,000 years old Dated 62,000,000 years old

Devonian Extant Ordovician Extant

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Dated 386,000,000 years old 31
Dated 445,000,000 years old
OUTLINE

D. Mechanism of evolution

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 MEKANISME EVOLUSI
“individuals don’t evolved, populations do”

Populasi: kumpulan individu-individu sejenis yang menempati satu tempat

tertentu.
Di alam, masing-masing individu memiliki ciri-ciri yang membedakan antara
satu dan yang lain (variasi)
Perbedaan yang nampak pada individu sangat dipengaruhi oleh gen-gen
yang dimiliki oleh individu tersebut (fenotip = genotip + lingkungan)
33
 D
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
The Members of A Species Show Variations.

• Genetic variation within natural populations was a puzzle to

Darwin and his contemporaries.
• Two people in 1908 solved the puzzle of why genetic variations
persist – G.H. Hardy and W. Weinberg.
• Diploid organism receives two sets of alleles; each from each
parent (Remember! Allele is an alternative version of a gene).34
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1. Variasi dari sifat yang diturunkan disebabkan
adanya allel (alternative versions of genes).

2. Untuk setiap karakter, organisme diploid

menerima 2 alel (masing-masing orangtua
memberi 1 alel) 27/09/2022
35
 D
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Hardy and Weinberg pointed out that the original
proportions of the genotypes in a population will remain
constant from generation to generation, as long as the
following assumptions are met:
• The population size is very large.
• Random mating is occurring.
• No mutation takes place.
It Is An Ideal Case
• No genes are input from other
sources (no immigration takes place).
• No selection occurs.

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 D
GENE POOL AND ALLELE FREQUENCY
❖ GENE POOL: All the alleles of the genes in a population.
❖ ALLELE FREQUENCY: The number of times (frequency)
an allele for a particular gene occurs within a gene pool.
❖ Allele frequency can range from 0.0 to 1.0.

GAIN of alleles LOSS of alleles

GENE POOL of a population

SHIFT in ALLELE FREQUENCY

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 D
Factors Affecting Allele Frequency in A Gene Pool
❖ Evolution. EVOLUTION involves a change in allele frequency in a
population’s gene pool over a number of generations.

❖ Migration, or Gene Flow.

❖ Mutation.
❖ Natural selection.
Next slide
❖ Genetic drift:
- Founder effect.
- Bottleneck effect.
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 D
AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE
❖Mutation.
❖Gene Flow.
❖Non-random Mating.
❖Genetic Drift:
- Founders Effect.
- Bottleneck Effect.
❖Selection:
- Natural Selection.
- Artificial Selection.
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 Keseimbangan Hardy-Weinberg
tersebut tercapai bila:
1. No mutation (tidak ada
perubahan alel)
Kenyataan:
2. No gene flow (tidak ada
▪ Mutation perpindahan alel dari dan keluar
▪ Gene flow populasi)

▪ Genetic drift 3. No genetic drift (populasi sangat

besar sehingga perubahan alel
▪ Natural selection yg terjadi tidak berpengaruh)

▪ Non random 4. Random mating (pasangan

kawin terjadi secara acak)
mating
5. No selection (tidak ada
kecenderungan terhadap satu
27/09/2022 genotip tertentu)
 D
MUTATION
❖The ultimate source of new genetic variation.
❖Mutation from one allele to another can change the
proportions of particular alleles in a population.

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 D
GENE FLOW, or MIGRATION
❖ The movement of alleles from one population to another
→ one way or two-ways (Immigration and Emigration).
❖ Gene flow occur when an individual travels and joins a
different population of the species.
❖ Gene flow may result from the mating of individuals
belonging to adjacent populations.

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 D
NON-RANDOM MATING
❖Non-random mating, i.e. inbreeding, happens among close
relatives that share many identical alleles.
❖Sexual Selection is a non-random mating. It is based on the
phenotype, based on the choices made by the female.
❖Only the mating individuals pass on their traits.

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 D
GENETIC DRIFT
❖Change in allele frequencies due to chance (it occurs
randomly).
❖The random fluctuation in allele frequencies increase
as population size decreases.

❖There are two phenomena:

- Founder Effect.
- Bottleneck Effect.

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 D
GENETIC DRIFT: Founder Effect
❖Individuals leave old population and start new population
with decrease genetic variation.
❖Small group of individuals separates from large
population, and become the founders of a new, isolated
population.

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 D
GENETIC DRIFT: Bottleneck Effect
❖Random event (i.e. flooding, drought, epidemic
disease, hunting) decreases population and genetic
variation in population.
❖The few surviving individuals may constitute a random
genetic sample of the original population.

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 D
SELECTION: Natural Selection
❖The process by which individuals that are better adapted
to their environment will survive, reproduce and pass
their traits than other members of the same species.
❖Environmental conditions determine which individuals in
a population produce the most offspring.

▪ The ability to survive and reproduce in a certain

environment is called FITNESS.
▪ Fitness is a result of ADAPTATIONS – inherited
characteristic that increases an organism’s chance of
survival.
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 D
When the environment changes, natural selection
favor new traits in a species → Survival of the Fittest.

The Venus Fly Trap, are carnivorous. Natural selection adjusts the shape of
These plants grow in a nitrogen-poor the beak in response to the nature of
habitat. In order to thrive in such an the available food supply.
environment, these plants capture
insects in trap-like leaves. These
insects become a source of nitrogen
for 27/09/2022
the plant. 50
 D
SELECTION: Artificial Selection
❖ Process of humans purposefully breed wild organisms
for thousands of years to produce offspring with most
desired traits.

Different breeds of domestic chicken in

comparison with the wild ancestor, the
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Red Jungle Fowl.
 D
Comparing Natural Selection vs Artificial Selection

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OUTLINE

E. Speciation.

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 E
SPECIATION AND SPECIES
Speciation
❖The formation of a new species from a pre-existing one.
❖Long, slow accumulation of changes.
❖Takes many generations.

Species Are The Basic Units Of Evolution

Biological Species Concept
A species is a group of individuals fully fertile, but barred from
interbreeding with other similar groups by its physiological properties
(producing either incompatibility of parents, or sterility of the hybrids,
or both) (Dobzhansky, 1935).
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
(Mayr, 1942).
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 E
Speciation Through Isolation
❖ Geographic isolation (Habitat isolation), i.e., rivers,
mountains, bodies of water.
❖ Reproductive isolation, i.e. structural differences
between species prevent mating, mechanical isolation.
❖ Behavioral isolation, i.e. signals to attract mates,
elaborate behaviors, courtship rituals.

Mechanical isolation – There is a

physical or biological structure that
prevents mating. For example,
differences in the size or fit of
genitalia may not allow mating. This
27/09/2022 can be found in certain snails, insects 56
and plants.
 E
Are They New Species?
White liger

Liger

Liger Bengal Tigon Siberian

tiger tiger
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OUTLINE

F. Human evolution.

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 F
HUMAN EVOLUTION

PRIMATES are mammals with two distinct features:

grasping fingers and toes, and binocular vision.
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 F

❖About 40 million years ago, the earliest PRIMATES split

into the PROSIMIANS (‘’before monkeys”) and the
ANTHROPOIDS.
❖About 30 millions years ago, Anthropoids that remains
in Africa gave rise to two lineages: the OLD WORLD
MONKEYS and the HOMINOIDS.
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 F
Anthropoids

❖The Hominoids include the Apes and the HOMINIDS

(human and their ancestors).
❖The living Apes (kera besar) consist of the gibbon,
orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee.
❖Hominids became bipedal, walking upright.

Living Apes
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 F
Based on early Hominid fossils
Human Evolution
Because fossils are rare and often in
poor shape, the field of human
evolution is in a state of constant
flux. This chart reflects current best
estimates for the range of time
during which various species are
thought to have lived.

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 F
Based on early Hominid fossils

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 F
Based on early Hominid fossils

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 F
Based on early Hominid fossils

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 Next Week: Diversity of Life Forms

27/09/2022 Evolution has led to Diversity of Life on Earth 66