Bioekologi Terumbu Karang (IX)

B IOEKOLOGI PESISIR DAN LAUT
TROPIS: TERUMBU KARANG

DR. CHATERINA AGUSTA PAULUS, M.SI
NIP. 19840819 201012 2 003
PENDAHULUAN
Terumbu karang adalah endapan-endapan masif yang
penting dari kalsium karbonat yang terutama dihasilkan oleh
karang (Filum Cnidaria, Klas Anthozoa, Ordo
Madreporaria=Sclerectinia) dengan sedikit tambahan dari
Algae berkapur dan organisma-organisma lain yang
mengeluarkan kalsium karbonat.
Karang hermatipik merupakan karang yang

menghasilkan terumbu. Di dalam terdapat sel-sel
tumbuhan yang bersimbiosis yg dinamakan
zooxanthellae
Karang ahermatipik merupakan karang yang
tidak menghasilkan terumbu.
DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
Terumbu karang adalah bangunan masif yang terbuat dari kapur hasil dari
organisme. Organisme terpenting pembentuk terumbu karang adalah karang
Terumbu karang mendukung sekitar 25% spesies laut.

• 4.000 spesies ikan (di Indonesia sekitar 1900 sp.),
• 700 spesies of karang,
• Ribuan tumbuhan dan hewan lainnya.
Terumbu Karang adalah sekumpulan hewan
karang yang bersimbiosis dengan sejenis tumbuhan
alga yang disebut zooxanhellae.
Terumbu karang termasuk dalam jenis filum

Cnidaria kelas Anthozoa yang memiliki tentakel.
Kelas Anthozoa tersebut terdiri dari dua

Subkelas yaitu Hexacorallia (atau Zoantharia)
dan Octocorallia, yang keduanya dibedakan
secara asal-usul, Morfologi dan Fisiologi.

Proses fotosintesis oleh algae menyebabkan
bertambahnya produksi kalsium karbonat dengan
menghilangkan karbon dioksida dan merangsang reaksi
kimia sebagai berikut:
Ca(HCO3) CaCO3 + H2CO3 H2O + CO2
Fotosintesis oleh algae yang bersimbiosis membuat

karang pembentuk terumbu menghasilkan deposit
cangkang yang terbuat dari kalsium karbonat, kira-kira
10 kali lebih cepat daripada karang yang tidak
membentuk terumbu (ahermatipik) dan tidak bersimbiose
dengan zooxanthellae.

Koloni karang terbentuk dari ribuan atau lebih
individu polip, yang berdiameter 1-3 mm.
Polip memiliki bagian-bagian tubuh terdiri
atas:
1. mulut dikelilingi oleh tentakel yang
berfungsi untuk menangkap mangsa dan alat
pertahanan diri.
2. rongga tubuh (coelenteron) yang juga
merupakan saluran pencernaan
(gastrovascular)
3. dua lapisan tubuh yaitu ektodermis dan
endodermis yang lebih umum disebut
gastrodermis karena berbatasan dengan
saluran pencernaan.
DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.S

Bentuk Koloni
meja otak bercabang
spiral tonggak

Kemampuan produksi karang:
 Karang hermatipik
 Karang ahermatipik
Terumbu karang terbagi dalam empat tipe:

 Terumbu karang tepi (fringing reefs )
 Terumbu karang cincin (attols )
 Terumbu karang datar (patch reefs)
 Terumbu karang penghalang (barrier reefs )
Berdasarkan arah angin:

 Terumbu menghadap angin (windward reef)
 Terumbu membelakangi angin (leeward reef)

Zona Terumbu Karang
DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.S

PENYEBARAN DAN FAKTOR PEMBATAS
Suhu
Terumbu karang hidup di daerah 23-25oC (dibatasi suhu 20oC).
Terumbu karang dapat mentoleransi suhu sampai 36-40oC
Di wilayah pantai barat Amerika Selatan dan Amerika Tengah, serta pantai
selatan Afrika, meski termasuk tropis, tidak dijumpai terumbu karang. Karena
terdapat arus dingin (arus Humboldt di Amerika, arus Benguela di Afrika)

Kedalaman
Terumbu karang dapat hidup pada kedalaman 50-70 m. Kebanyakan pad
kedalaman 25 m.
Cahaya
Salah satu faktor penting dalam pertumbuhan karang.
Dapat tumbuh pada intensitas berkurang sampai 15-20% dari permukaan.
Salinitas
Karang tumbuh pada salinitas laut (32-35%o).
Terumbu karang juga dapat tumbuh pada salinitas 42%o (di Teluk Persia)

Pengendapan (sedimentasi)
Mempunyai efek negatif terhadap pertumbuhan
terumbu karang, dapat mengurangi cahaya,
menutupi dan menyumbat struktur pemberian
makanan.
Perairan pasang surut

Terumbu karang dibatasi oleh tinggi muka air laut.

Parameter lingkungan penting:
 kecerahan,
 suhu,
 salinitas,
 kedalaman,
 cahaya,

STRUKTUR TERUMBU KARANG
Anggota terumbu karang yg dominan adalah karang.

Karang adalah anggota Filum Cnidaria, Klas Anthozoa.
Karang menghasilkan kerangka luar dari Kalsium Karbonat.
Karang dapar berkoloni atau sendiri. Hampir semua karang hermatipik
berkoloni.
Tiap mangkok atau koralit mempunyai bbrp septa yg tajam dan
berbentuk daunyg keluar dari dasar.
Lapisan epidermis, gastrodermis, mesoglea.
Memiliki nematokis untuk menangkap makanan berupa zooplankton
Simbiotik zooxanthellae (dinoflagelata) ditemukan pd lapisan
gastrodermis

TIPE TERUMBU
Atol KARANG
Berbentuk cincin, jauh dari daratan, melingkari gobah.
Terumbu Penghalang
Berdekata dengan daratan. Contoh Great Barrier Reef. Dibatasi jarak
yg lebih jauh, dan laut lebih dalam.
Terumbu Tepi
Berdekatan dengan daratan. Dibatasi jarak yg lebih pendek dan laut
lebih dangkal

Terumbu karang tidak dapat hidup pd perairan 50-70
m.
ASAL
TERUMBU
Teori penenggelaman (subsidence theory).
Asal atol berasal dari Charles darwin, pada kapal BEAGLE.
Berasal dari pulau yg memiliki terumbu tepi. Kemudian pulau tersebut
tenggelam.
Pada bagian tengah pulau, air tenang dan terdapat pengendapan tinggi, sehingga
terbentuk goba.
Jika teori Darwin benar, jika terumbu karang dibor ke bawah akan terdapat lapisan
batuan vulkanik.
Ladd dkk (1953), mengebor di Eniwetok (Kep Marshall) sampai kedalaman 1283 m
KOMPOSISI TERUMBU laut,
lili
KARANG laut,
Yang membentuk terumbu karang: Krust
bermacam organisma lain yg berasosiasi dg asea,
terumbu Polik
aeta,
Pada karang keras (Madreporaria) tdp bakte
Cnidaria, gorgonia, kipas laut, cambuk laut, ri.
tdp di Atlantik.
Pada karang lunak (Octocorallia),
biasanya tdp di Indo Pasifik.
Terdapat juga Algae koralin, Moluska
(Tridacna, Hippopus), Gastropoda,
Ekinodermata (bulu babi, teripang, bintang DR. CHATERINA
PAULUS, M.Si
PENYEBARAN KARANG DAN
ZONASI TERUMBU
Jumlah spesies dan genera terumbu karang yg terbesar berada di Indo-Pasifik
(Filipina, Indonesia, Papua Nugini, utara Australia).
Crossland (1952) dan Well (1954) mencatat 50 genera dan 700
spesies Di Atlantik ditemukan 36 genera dan 62 spesies.
Genus terbanyak Acropora, Pocillopora, Pavona, Geniopora
Zonasi menghadap ke arah datangnya angin (windward)

1. Lereng terluar yang menghadap ke laut
2. Batas terumbu atas angin dg daerah susuk atau penopang
3. Pematang algae
4. Dataran terumbu
5. Pantai laut
6. Pantai gobah
7. Dasar gobah
8. Terumbu gobah
9. Dataran karang bawah DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
angin 10.Batas karang bawah
angin 11.Lereng karang bawah
angin
Zona Terumbu Karang

TERUMBU ATLANTIK DAN INDO-PASIFIK
Struktur, sifat zonasi, keberadaan, ketiadaan,
kelimpahan flora dan fauna.
Atlantik Pasifik
Kipas laut, cambuk laut Kipas laut, cambuk laut
banyak sedikit
Karang lunak sedikit Karang lunak banyak
Krang raksasa jarang Krang raksasa banyak
Pematang algae jarang Pematang algae banyak
Algae koralin dan Algae koralin dan alga
alga berkapur kurang berkapur berperan
berperan
Zona penopang dalam Zona penopang dangkal
Umur lebih muda Umur lebih tua
PRODUKTIVITAS
Produktivitas terumbu karang sangat tinggi (1500-
3500 gC/m2/tahun.
Zooxanthella merupakan organisma ototropik yg
sangat berdaya guna, algae koralin, algae hijau, algae
coklat
Kemampuan terumbu untuk menahan nutrien dlm

sistem dan berperan sebagai kolam untuk
menampung segala sesuatu yg berasal dari luar

BIOLOGI KARANG HERMATIPIK
Makanan
Karnivore, memiliki nematokis untuk menyengat
dan memangsa organisma plankton
Pertumbuhan dan Klasifikasi
Kebutuhan pertumbuhan karang adalah cahaya.
Jika cahaya tidak cukup, terumbu karang mati.
Pertumbuhan berbeda, krn tgt spesies, umur
koloni, daerah terumbu karang

Dewasa Seksual, Reproduksi dan Pemulihan antara
Dewasa seksual pd umur 7-10 tahun
Reproduksi seksual (menghasilkan larva planula) dan aseksual (dg cara
membentuk tunas).
Pada Great Barrier Reef, pemulihan antara 0-13 koloni baru per m2 per
tahun

INTERAKSI SPESIES DAN EKOLOGI
TERUMBU
Merupakan sistem yg dinamis,

bertambah atau berkurang sebagai
akibat interaksi yg kompleks antara
berbagai kekuatan biologi dan fisik

PERANAN ALGAE DAN SISTEM TERUMBU
Algae koralin merah yg membentuk hamparan spt

Lithothamnion sangat penting dalam memelihara
keutuhan terumbu karang dg cara meletakkan scr terus
menerus berbagai potongan kalsium karbonat menjadi
satu.
Algae tertentu melubangi kerangka karang shg menyebabkan
rusaknya struktur terumbu.
EKOLOGI IKAN TERUMBU KARANG
Ikan merupakan oreganisma yg jumlahnya terbanyak dan organisma
besar yg mencolok yg dapat ditemui.
Terumbu karang terdapat daerah berpasir, berbagai teluk dan celah,
daerah algae, perairan dangkal, zona yg berbeda.
Terdapat perbedaan jenis ikan pada siang dan malam.
Tdp tingkah laku pembersihan

BENCANA KEMATIAN DAN PEMULIHAN
TERUMBU KARANG
Sumber terbesar dari kematian adalah bad, ai tropik (topak

atau angin puyuh).
Acanthaster planci menyebabkan bencana
kematian Kegiatan manusia (pencemaran dan
penggalian) Perlu 25-30 th untuk pulih (akibat dari
bencana)
7-40 th akibat Acanthaster planci
PEMUTIHAN
KARANG DI INDONESIA
• Pada periode 1997-1998, dimana terjadi pemutihan karang di dunia, wilayah

Sumatra, Jawa, Bali, Lombok, dan sebagian kecil di Kalimantan Timur.
• Pemutihan karang dimulai ketika arus hangat dari Laut Cina mengalir menuju
Riau, Jawa dan Lombok.

MANFAAT TERUMBU KARANG
• Mempunyai beragam manfaat bagi kelangsungan hidup ekosistem laut itu sendiri.
• Mengandung berbagai manfaat yang sangat besar dan beragam, baik secara ekologi
maupun ekonomi.
• Manfaat terumbu karang dapat diidentifikasi menjadi dua yaitu manfaat langsung
dan manfaat tidak langsung.
• Secara alami, merupakan habitat bagi banyak spesies laut untuk melakukan
pemijahan, peneluran, pembesaran anak, makan dan mencari makan (feeding
& foraging), terutama bagi sejumlah spesies yang memiliki nilai ekonomis
penting.
• Sebagai gudang keanekaragaman hayati laut.
• Sebagai gudang keanekaragaman hayati menjadikannya sebagai sumber penting
bagi berbagai bahan bioaktif yang diperlukan di bidang medis dan farmasi.
Manfaat dari terumbu karang yang langsung
dapat dimanfaatkan oleh manusia adalah:
1. Sebagai tempat hidup ikan yang banyak
dibutuhkan manusia dalam bidang pangan, seperti
ikan kerapu, ikan baronang, ikan ekor kuning), batu
karang,
2. Pariwisata, wisata bahari melihat keindahan
bentuk dan warnanya.
3. Penelitian dan pemanfaatan biota perairan
lainnya yang terkandung di dalamnya.
INDONESIA
Terumbu Karang Terancam di Indonesia
Integrated Threat Index

● Low
● Medium
● High
TINGKAT ANCAMAN TERHADAP
TERUMBU KARANG
100%
90%
80%
70% Low
60% Med High
50%
40% Reefs at Risk in Indonesia
30%
20%
10% 100%
0% 90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
CD MbP SED OVF DF Integrated

Manfaat Terumbu Karang
• Habitat ikan (makan, pemijahan, pembesaran, dan asuhan)

• Sumber keanekaragaman hayati
• Peran fungsional dalam daur biogeokimiawi global
• Penahan abrasi pantai
• Pariwisata bahari (melihat keindahan bentuk dan warnanya)
• Sumber bahan bioaktif (farmasi dan medikal)
Ancaman
pengeboman reklamasi
pembangunan yang buruk pencemaran

Rangkaian kegiatan manusia yang menjadi ancaman bagi
terumbu karang
Karang hidup adalah habitat
bagi keragaman ikan
Karang mati

Keterkaitan
mangrove, padang lamun, dan terumbu karang
Mangrove menyaringunsur
haradan sedimentasidari
daratanmeningkatkan
kualitas air sebelum sampai ke
padang lamun Padang lamun selanjutnya menyaring unsur hara dan sedimentasi seb
Terumbu karangbertindak
sebagai memecah
penyanggauntuk
tenaga gelombang
sebelum mencapai padang lamun
dan tegakan mangrove
 menjaga keutuhan pantai

Perusakan berlanjut mangrove, padang lamun, dan terumbu karang
untuk pembangunan akan menuju suatu penurunan
keanekaragaman hayati, peningkatan dalam erosi, dan dampak badai.
Itulah sebabnya betapa pentingnya kita melindungi dan melestarikan

apa yang masih ada pada ekosistem yang terancam untuk
memastikan kesehatan dan kelestarian sumber daya pesisir dan
laut kita tetap terjaga.

TERIMA
KASIH
DR. CHATERINA
PAULUS, M.Si
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS
Ecology and Environmental Management

LECTURE CONTENT
• Coral reef ecology • Coral reef management

• How they are formed • Assessing damage
• Physical Environment • Management for ecology and
• Diversity patterns economics
• Threats to coral reefs • Diversification
• Fisheries • Tourism
INTRODUCTION TO
CORAL REEFS

WHAT IS A “CORAL REEF”
• Biological (“coral community”)

• Organic, Biogenic
• Coral and Algal communities
• Mostly “hermatypic” corals, algae, and other sessile animals
• Geological features (“reef”)
• Carbonate
• In situ buildup
• Topographic relief
• Wave resistant
• Cemented, consolidated
CORALS
• Phylum Anthazoa
• Class Cnidaria
• Hermatypic (hard) corals
contain symbiotic algae
• Up to 500 spp. at
some sites
Rosen 1981

BUILDING THE REEF
3 3
M.Si
Biologic export,
Biogenic
al dissolution
production
erosion
Sediment
Import Mechani
cal
Cementati erosion
on
Sedime
nt
DR. CHATERINA PAULUS,
Reef Growth
Kleypas et al., 2001

TYPES OF REEF
Fringing, Barrier, Atoll

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
• Physical environment
• Temperature of 25-31oC (limited Northwards by the
18oC minimum isotherm)
• Salinity of 34-37 ppt
• Light level
• Predominantly in top 30 m of water
• Biological environment
• Oligotrophic, highly stratified water column

Coral reef distribution

CORAL DIVERSITY PATTERNS

MAPS
• For the lecture I used maps from a variety of

locations, often more for clarity than scientific detail.
I would recommend the maps from the World
Conservation Monitoring Centre (www.wcmc.org.uk)
which I would tend to value as reliable.
• The main point being that the high population densities
in many coastal areas which contain high coral reef
species richness represent a serious threat.

FISH COMMUNITY
• Mainly Perciform teleosts

• 2 faunas, Diurnal and Nocturnal
• Often territorial/site attached
• Intraspecific interactions (pair bonding and
harems) and interspecific mutualism (e.g. cleaning
stations)
• Mostly planktonic larvae
• Estimated 4500 spp, 25% of marine total
• ~10% of world fishery landings
FISHERY SPECIES
Often large, high-value fish

FISH DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS

WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

A ND IF THAT WASN’T BAD ENOUGH…..

THREATS TO CORAL REEF SYSTEMS
• Overpopulation
• Unsustainable fisheries
• Coastal development
• Global climate change

CORAL REEF FISHERIES
• Essential to survival of many

• Managed sustainably for generations
• Diverse ecosystem
• Multispecies fisheries
• Interspecies interactions may invalidate models
• Collection of sufficient data for all species may not
be practicable
• Reduction of fishing effort to sustain all fish species
wastes the productivity of most stocks
NON-SELECTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE
FISHING METHODS
• Subsistence fishing occurs regardless of

effort required
• Muro Ami, Dynamite (Blast), and cyanide fishing
• Trawling
• Trapping and lines
• Ghost fishing
• Total fishing mortality often not known
MALTHUSIAN OVERFISHING
• “...occurs when poor fishermen, faced with

declining catches and lacking any alternative
initiate wholesale resource destruction in
order to maintain their incomes.
• This may involve in order of seriousness,
and generally in temporal sequence...

1) Use of gears and mesh sizes not sanctioned by
government
2) Use of gears and mesh sizes not sanctioned within the
fisherfolk community…
3) Use of gears that destroy the resource base
4) Use of gears such as dynamite or sodium cyanide that
do all of the above and even endanger the fisherfolks
themselves”
McManus 1997

ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF FISHERIES
• Removal of predators
• Removal of algal grazers
• Change in dominance
• Californian Sea Otters
• Urchins
• Crown of Thorns starfish “COTS” (Acanthaster planci)
• Changes in size frequency of animals

CROWN OF THORNS STARFISH

CROWN OF THORNS
• Eats coral by everting gut

• Aggregations can remove 95% of coral cover
• May result in collapse of remaining skeleton
• Pheromone controlled aggregated spawning
• Recovery takes at least 12 years
• Caused by loss of predators?
• Increased larval survival due to pollution?
TERRESTRIAL IMPACTS
• Pollution • Construction on reef flats

• Sewage • Coral mining
• Agriculture
• Mangrove destruction
• Aquaculture
• Rubbish
• Sedimentation
• Eutrophication

CLIMATE CHANGE
Potential impacts on coral communities

• Changes in water temperature
• Increases in CO2 concentration
• Changes in solar irradiation (if cloud cover changes)
• Sea level rises leading to drowning of reefs
• Changes in surface run-off (sedimentation)
• Changes in land-use patterns leading to increased reef exploitation
Kleypas et al 2001
CORAL BLEACHING
• Loss of symbiotic algae

• May cause death of animal
• A symptom of climate change?

CORAL BLEACHING
• First described in 1984

• Multiple re-occurrences at same sites
• New sites impacted during 1990s
• Many known triggers
• Temperature (especially increases)
• Solar radiation (especially UV)
• Combination of UV and temperature
• Reduced salinity
• Infections
EFFECTS OF BLEACHING
• Loss of symbiontic algae (Zooxanthellae) algae by:

• Degradation In situ
• Loss of algae by exocytosis
• Expulsion of intact endodermal cells containing algae
• Resulting impacts
• Vary between species, and even parts of the same colony
• Loss of sensitive species (especially Acropora spp.)
• Recovery slow and highly variable between sites

THE PROBLEMS
• A large (and growing) number of people are

dependent on coral reefs
• Management of a multispecies fishery is
extremely complex, and often fails
• Terrestrial development may destroy coastal
reef systems
• Global climate change may exert new pressures
CORAL REEF
MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT ISSUES
• Biological
• What does the resource consist of?
• What state is it in?
• Is there overfishing?
• Is there habitat destruction?
• Socio-ecomomic
• Levels of resource exploitation
• More sustainable ways of exploiting the resource
• Alternatives to coral reef exploitation/damage
MONITORING CORAL REEFS
• What sites and parameters to monitor?

• Fish
• Macroinvertebrates
• Water quality
• Benthic habitat quality
• Coral health

SOURCES
• Australian Institute for Marine Science (AIMS) website

contains all their standard techniques. From a
comparability point of view it is extremely helpful to
use common techniques.
• The AIMS site and their manual (English et al, 1997) even
explains how to store the data in a database and manage
it. Essential reading if you can get hold of it.
• The use of volunteers for some types of coral reef survey
work is very common and slightly controversial. Common
sense will be necessary in determining what techniques a
volunteer can apply - in particular for qualitative
judgements about reef “quality” and levels of impact.
LARGE-SCALE STUDIES
• Rapid Ecological Assessment

• “Manta tows”
• Estimates of % cover (live and
dead coral)
• Abundance of highly
visible species
• Human impacts
• Mapping and aerial
photography
MONITORING FISH
• Visual census
• Transects
• Point counts
• Random searching
• Often allow biomass
estimates
• Fisheries monitoring

MONITORING THE BENTHOS
•Line intercept transects

•Visual transects
•Quadrats
•Photography and video

LINE INTERCEPT TRANSECT

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
• Fisheries reserves
• “No take zones” (NTZs)
• Controlled fishing
• Effects on fish populations
• Coral reef fish often have small ranges
• Effects on fishing revenue
• Local management and ownership
SOURCES
• The marine protected areas case studies are based on the work
of Russ and Alcala.
• I think these are classic studies because they show both the
conservation and economic benefits of marine reserves AND
how important co-operation with the local community can be.
• These are not new references, work from Roberts’s paper
for newer studies. See also Gell and Roberts 2003 – Trends
in Ecology and Evolution, 18, 448 - 455

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PROTECTION
• Habitat protection
• Biodiversity
• Protection of vulnerable species
• Allow fish to grow to maturity
• Control (reference) sites

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF PROTECTION
• Increased size and abundance of

stock species
• Emmigration into fishing grounds
(Spillover)
• Insurance against management failure
• Tourism “spin-offs”
• Ease of enforcement
MARINE RESERVES CASE STUDY

EFFECTS ON FISH DIVERSITY

EFFECTS ON FISH ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS

FACTORS TO CONSIDER
• Costs? • Can you sell it?

• Staff, setup, monitoring • Any spin-off benefits?
• Initial loss of fishing • Employment of local
revenue staff?
• Size/shape of reserve? • Compromise on size of
• Life history and reserve?
behaviour • What management
of fish outside reserve?
• Fishing intensity
• 20-40% of fishing ground
IMPACTS OF TOURISM
• Terrestrial development
• Land reclamation and creation of beaches
• Mangrove removal
• Sand on reef flat
• Boats
• Anchors
• Diver/snorkeller impacts and fish feeding
• Sewage
• Harbour dredging
RAS MOHAMMED PROJECT

GROWTH OF REEF TOURISM

SOURCES
• This section is based on the works of David Medio and

Julie Hawkins. A couple of their references are included
at the end.
• Much other material is directly from the Egyptian
Environmental Affarirs Agency (link at the end)

DIVERS REDUCE CORAL COVER

… .AND SCARE AWAY FISH

REDUCING DIVER IMPACT
• Mooring buoys
• Most damage caused my
minority of divers
• Education
• Enforcement
• Ban gloves
• Monitoring
• Zoning / Closure /
Rotation
MANAGING TERRESTRIAL IMPACTS
• Catchment management
• Agriculture
• Fertiliser
• Seafront corridors
• Controls on sewage systems
• Limits on development
• Dry beaches and walkways
WHO CARES WHAT HAPPENS TO
CORAL REEFS ANYWAY?
• Fisheries
• Tourism
• Coastal protection
• Bioprospecting
• Moral reasons
• Many coral reef functions are Subsistence
• Do not show up as economic benefits
• REPLACEMENT value may be extremely high

SUMMARY
• Coral reefs contain diverse fish and

invertebrate assemblages
• This makes them valuable, but difficult to manage
• Coral reefs are mainly found in the poorest areas
of the world
• This makes them prone to over-exploitation

SUMMARY
• Reefs must be assessed and monitored to allow

management
• Marine protected areas may protect biodiversity
and maintain fish stocks
• Diversification of local economies may be effective
in reducing pressures
• Tourism brings new pressures which must also be
managed.
Reef diversity patterns
(Rosen 1981; Ormond and Roberts 1997)
Urchins, Climate change, bleaching
(Brown 1997; Lessios 1998; Kleypas et al. 2001)
Monitoring techniques
Australian Institute for Marine Science http://www.aims.gov.au/
(English et al. 1997)
Fisheries and reserves
(Roberts and Polunin 1993; Roberts 1995; Russ and Alcala 1996; McManus 1997; Russ and Alcala
1998; Jennings et al. 2001)
Tourism and zoning
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency www.eeaa.gov.eg/
(Medio et al. 1997; Hawkins et al. 1999)
Brown BE (1997) Coral Bleaching: causes and consequences. Coral Reefs 16:S129-138
English S, Wilkinson C, Baker V (1997) Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources. Australian
Institute for Marine Science, Townsville
Hawkins JP, Roberts CM, Van'T Hof T, De Meyer K, Tratalos J, Aldham C (1999) Effects of
recreational SCUBA diving on Caribbean coral and fish communities. Conservation Biology
13:888-897
Jennings S, Kaiser MJ, Reynolds JD (2001) Marine Fisheries Ecology. Blackwell Science Ltd., London
Kleypas JA, Buddemeier RW, Gattuso J-P (2001) The future of coral reefs in an age of global
change.
International Journal of Earth Sciences 90:426-437
Lessios HA (1998) Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum in the Caribbean: what have we learned?
Annual Review of Ecological Systems 19:371-393
McManus JW (1997) Tropical marine fisheries and the future of coral reefs: a brief review with
emphasis on Southeast Asia. Coral Reefs 16:S121-S127
Medio D, Pearson M, Ormond RFG (1997) Effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by divers.
Biol Cons 79:91-95
Ormond RFG, Roberts CM (1997) The biodiversity of coral reef fishes. In: Ormond RFG, Gage JD,
Angel MV (eds) Marine Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, p 471
Roberts CM (1995) Effects of fishing on the ecosystem structure of coral reefs. Conservation Biology
9:988-995
Roberts CM, Polunin NVC (1993) Marine reserves: simple solution to managing complex fisheries?
Ambio 22:363-368
Rosen BR (1981) The tropical high diversity enigma - the corals'-eye view. In: Forey PL (ed) Chance,
change and challenge: the evolving biosphere. Cambridge University Press, London, p 103-
129
Russ GR, Alcala AC (1996) Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island,
central Philippines. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 132:1-9
Russ GR, Alcala AC (1998) Natural fishing experiments in marine reserves 1983-1993: community
and trophic responses. Coral Reefs 17:383-397 DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
CORAL BLEACHING Erica Weston

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS
• Coral reefs are like the

rainforests of the sea
• Biologically diverse
• Support 33% of marine
fish species
• Provides medicines,
chemicals, and other
resources .

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS
• Coral reefs attract tourists to island, many of

which are impoverished and provide
revenue.
• Reefs provide a barrier to prevent erosion and

protect from storms and floods.
• Provided millions of dollars worth of services
WHAT IS CORAL BLEACHING?
• Coral reefs get their bright colors from a mutualistic

relationship with algae called zooxanthellae.
• Zooxanthellae live in the coral and receive shelter and
compounds needed for photosythesis.
• Corals receive food from the zooxanthellae’s photosynthesis
products.
• this allows coral to secret calcium carbonate and grow.

• The tropical waters that corals grow in are very

nutrient poor.
• During photosynthesis the algae make oxygen.
Corals use oxygen to remove wastes.
• Zooxanthellea also provide the coral with glucose,
glycerol, and amino acids.

• When the coral is

under stress it will
expel it’s
zooxanthellae.
• This makes the coral appear
“bleached”
• The coral can no longer
build its calcium carbonate
skeleton.
• Can regain zooxanthellae
if stress is reduced. If not,
corals can die.
CORAL STRESSORS
• What causes coral to expel the zooxanthellea?

• Rising water temperatures
• Pollution
• Overfishing
• Natural disasters
• Predation
• Coral mining
• Coral reefs are very fragile habitats.

POLLUTION AND NATURAL DISASTERS
• The zooxanthellea need light from the sun for

photosynthesis.
• If pollution causes the water to be cloudy the sunlight
cannot reach the zooxanthellea and they cannot
produce the byproducts the coral depend on.
• Natural disasters can also cause the water to become
cloudy with sediment and block the sunlight.
• Natural disasters can also tear coral reefs apart and
extreme low tides can cause them to dry out and die.
INCREASED CARBON DIOXIDE
• A study was done (Hii et al. 2009) that tested the effect of
increased co2 on two different species of coral.
• Porites cylindrica and Galaxea fascicularis
• The increased C02 caused stress and reduced
zooxanthellae in both species of coral and
caused bleaching.
• Degree of stress was species dependent.

TEMPERATURE AND PREDATION
• Corals live in a narrow temperature margin.

• A rise in temperature in 1-2 degrees for 5-10
weeks can cause bleaching.
• Corals are also venerable to predation from
starfish, fish, crabs, worms, and snails.
• 1978-1979 outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish.

CORAL MINING AND OVERFISHING
• The most devastating threat to corals come from

humans.
• Many coral reefs are harvested for aquarium
fish and decoration, jewelry, or building
materials.
• Certain fishing techniques also kill coral.
• Blast fishing
• Cyanide fishing
• Deep water trawling
AREAS OF MASS CORAL BLEACHING

CORAL EVOLUTION
• The coral expelling their zooxanthellae may be an

adaptation so they can acquire different zooxanthellae that
can withstand the environmental stress.
• Some studies have shown an increased tolerance in
certain coral species (Maynard et al. 2008) when
comparing the damage from a bleaching event in 1998 and
a bleaching event in 2002.
• Another study (McClanahan et al 2007) showed that some
corals seem to have acclimated to rising temperature and
bleach less, though these areas are less diverse.

CORAL EVOLUTION
• The future of coral reefs will highly depend on

how quickly and efficiently they can adapt to global
changes.
• Although some coral species appear to be
evolving a tolerance for higher temperatures
and Co2 levels, human interference in reefs by
harvesting and fishing still pose a problem.

PROTECTING CORAL REEFS
• In 1998 the United States established the Coral Reef Task

Force (CRTF) to protect and conserve coral reefs.
• The CRTF monitors and maps US coral reefs and
researches causes of coral bleaching.They also work on
finding ways to prevent bleaching.
• To fully protect reefs legal action may be needed such as
Marine Protected Areas.

WORKS CITED
• Buchheim Jason. Coral Reef Bleaching. 1998.

http://www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm.April 2010.
• Maynard, J. A., Anthony, K. R. N., Marshall, P. A. Masiri, I. 2008. Major bleaching events can
lead to increased thermal tolerance in corals. Marine Biology 155: 173-182.
• McClanahan,T.T., Ateweberhan, M., Muhando, C.A., Maina, J., Mohammed. M. S. 2007.
Effects of climate and seawater temperature variation on coral bleaching and mortality.
Ecological Monographs 77: 503-525.
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. March 25,2008
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral11_protecting.html.April 2010.
• Yii-Siang Hii, Abol Munafi Ambok Bolong,Teng-Teng Yang, and Hock-Chark Liew,
“Effect of Elevated Carbon Dioxide on Two Scleractinian Corals: Porites cylindrica (Dana,
1846) and Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767),” Journal of Marine Biology, vol. 2009,
Article ID 215196, 7 pages, 2009.
Learning Session, 20 September 2017 PUSAT RISET PERIKANAN BR
TERUMBU BUATAN
MENDUKUNG KEHIDUPAN
IKAN KARANG
Ekosistem Terumbu karang merupakan ekosistem yang dibangun oleh biota laut penghasil kapur, terutama oleh hewan
karang,bersama-sama dengan biota lain yang hidup di dasar laut maupun kolom air.
Fungsi terumbu karang:
• Tempat proses siklus bio-reproduksi beberapa jenis ikan (nilai ekologi)
• Benteng alami dari abrasi pantai (nilai ekologi)
• Lokasi penangkapan ikan bagi nelayan (nilai ekonomi)
• Lokasi ekowisata bahari (nilai estetika = biofilia)
Luas terumbu karang dunia sekitar 285.000 km2 (Edwards & Gomez, 2007):
 Rusak : 20%
 Terancam rusak dalam jangka pendek : 24%
 Terancam rusak dalam jangka panjang : 26%
Antropogenik:
Penambangan koral; Sedimentasi; Penggunaan bom, racun
ikan & trawl; Penangkapan berlebih; Kapal menabrak
karang; Penyelaman; Labuh jangkar
Ekosistem Terumbu Karang
Alam:
Predasi; Penyakit; Tsunami; Angin topan; Resiliensi
http://aziz-mukhsin.blogspot.co.id/2014/12/pengertian-
contoh-penyebab-dan-akibat.html
Perubahan Iklim
Ambruk//Hilang ≈ killing zone
Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI)
CTI merupakan tindak lanjut Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ke-8 di Brazil pada 2006 didasari perairan Indonesia dan kawasan di
sekitarnya merupakan habitat bagi highest level of coral diversity.
CTI dikembangkan untuk membentuk mekanisme kerjasama antar negara-negara di kawasan Coral Triangle yaitu: Indonesia, Filipina,
Malaysia, Timor Timur, PNG, dan Kepulauan Solomon.
http://ctatlas.reefbase.org/mapgallery.aspx
Luas terumbu karang di Indonesia ≈ 2.500 km2 (0,9%) % luas terumbu karang per region pulau
status baik – sangat baik ≈ 30%.

(Susanto et al., 2015; Giyanto et al., 2017)
435
222
407
Indikator

Terumbu Karang
Terumbu Karang
(tempat menempel) (biota hidup)
Alami Buatan
Kondisi terumbu buatan berumur 15 tahun di
perairan Tukadse, Karangasem, Bali. (Hartati,
(terbentuk secara alami) (dibuat/ditempatkan oleh manusia) 2008)
Proses geologi & biologi Sengaja dirancang: Terumbu buatan merupakan suatu struktur
• bahan (beton, besi, kayu dll)
• desain (konstruksi, arsitektur dll)
• lokasi penempatan
• peruntukan
Proses biologi
OSPAR (Oslo Paris) Convention 1992
CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE MARINE
ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC1
Terumbu buatan dari beton sekaligus sbg substrat

transplantasi karang
Terumbu buatan dari besi sekaligus sbg substrat

transplantasi karang DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
M.Si
PUSAT RISET
PERIKANAN
Remediasi
Bisakah status Biologis

kondisi terumbu Antropogenik
karang dinaikkan???
Terumbu karang 35%

(875 km2) kondisi jelek. Akankah bertambah?
Terumbu Buatan
arang tempat tinggal berbagai biota laut (“ikan”)

MODEL REHABILITASI EKOSISTEM
TERUMBU KARANG MELALUI PENGEMBANGAN TERUMBU
BUATAN DI PERAIRAN BARAT SUMATERA
Kegiatan Terumbu Buatan

2016
BIOTA LAUT YANG BERINTERAKSI DENGAN
TERUMBU BUATAN
170 hari 170 hari
80 hari
Kelompok biota lainnya: gastropoda, teripang, bintang laut & krustase

PROSES YANG TERJADI KETIKA ADA TERUMBU BUATAN DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
Proses Proses
Fisis Kolonisasi adalah suatu pBroisoeslobigoilosgi yang dicirikan dengan
Menambah luasan permukaan kolonisasi organisme

Biofouling: organisme yang menempel pada substrat
Menyediakan substrat yg kokoh & stabil utk organisme menempel
Menyediakan arus lebih tenang bagi ikan
(Abarzua & Jakubowski, 1995)
Menyediakan makanan
Suksesi adalah proses perkembangan suatu ekosistem untuk mencapai
Menyediakan tempat tinggal & perlindungan

PERSPEKTIF
TERUMBU BUATAN  Media bagi penempelan & pertumbuhan benih karang
 Tempat berlindung beberapa jenis ikan (biodiversitas)
 Kegiatan perikanan  Kegiatan ekowisata
 Kegiatan pendidikan
I. FASE PRA-KONSTRUKSI  Kegiatan penelitian
II. FASE KONSTRUKSI  Kegiatan pembinaan dan pendampingan masyarakat
III. FASE PASCA-KONSTRUKSI DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
Contoh: Panduan Pemanfaatan Terumbu Buatan

SEBARAN TERUMBU BUATAN DI
INDONESIA Inisiasi lingkup Pusat Riset Perikanan dari
kegiatan penelitian terkait terumbu buatan
sejak 1990 - 2016
Inisiasi Ditjen. Penataan Ruang Laut

tahun 2001 – 2004 (Munasik, 2008)
Apakah ada
terumbu buatan di
lokasi lain??
Evaluasi &
Monitoring???
Suatu Pemikiran:  Apakah terumbu buatan identik

 Bagaimana informasi terumbu buatan di Indonesia? Buku bunga rampai? dengan taman terumbu karang
“REHABILITASI EKOSISTEM TERUMBU KARANG UNTUK KEBERLANJUTAN SUMBER (coral garden)?
DAYA PERIKANAN”
 Apakah ada panduan & kegiatan bersifat kolektif, terencana, dan terintegrasi terkait dgn terumbu
buatan?
 Apakah keberadaan terumbu buatan dapat dihitung sbg penambahan ekosistem terumbu
karang?
TERIMA KASIH
atas perhatiannya
Exploring Coral Reefs: a Virtual Dive

in the Bermuda Triangle!
Exploring Coral Reefs: a Virtual Dive in the Bermuda Triangle!
Join us as we dive and explore

reefs around the Caribbean.
Coral reefs are amazing diverse

ecosystems constructed by coral
algae, sponges and many other
groups of organisms.
This presentation will take you

through many of the important
aspects of a modern coral reef. It
includes examples from
Bermuda, Lee Stocking Island in
the Bahamas and the Florida
Keys.
(modified from Google Earth)
Coral reefs are only found at low latitudes, generally within 30° of the equator.
• Corals need:
• Clear, warm water (18-30°C)
• Shallow water (mostly less than 20 meters)
• Near normal salt content (salinity) (25-35 parts per thousand)
• Low nutrient levels
This photo shows the eastern edge of the Bermuda volcanic atoll. The brownish areas in the light
blue water are coral reefs that average 15 meters in diameter. The dark blue water marks the edge
of the atoll and reaches depths of more than 3 kilometers. 2.
This is the best classroom ever,
I can’t wait to get in the water!

Clear water on top of the Bermuda atoll, east side. Dark areas are small reefs in about two meters DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
of water and light blue water areas have white sand on the ocean floor.
North Rock
Lighthouse
4.
Reef that is about three meters in diameter in Bermuda with only a few centimeters of water
covering it.

Photo showing the underside of the water surface and a large colony of elkhorn coral
(Acropora palmata), Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas.
6.

Corals are colonial animals that have photosynthesizing organisms called zooxanthallae in their skin.
This is a reef from near Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas.
C
A
7.
D
Close-up showing a branch of elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata), Lee Stocking Island.
8.
1 cm 2 mm
Corals are animals. Photo above shows coral polyps of the finger coral (Porites porites)
with its tentacles extended. The diagram on the upper right is a simplified cross section of
a coral polyp.
9.
Relative amount and colors of light absorbed
The photo above shows elkhorn coral (Acropora

palmata), that has grown within a few centimeters of sea
level.
The photo to the right shows the same species but in this
case in about two meters of water.
Both examples are from Lee Stocking Island. 10.

Broken branch of elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata), near Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas
11.

Branching staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis), in three meters water depth, Lee Stocking Island.
12.

What high biodiversity! I can’t count the number of
organisms on this reef!
In Bermuda above the coral reef in the next slide.

Coral reef in Bermuda below the students in the previous slide.
14.

Small patch reef crest in Bermuda
15.

Small patch reef crest in Bermuda
E
C
B 16.
D

Top of a small coral reef in Bermuda with a blue terminal phase stoplight parrot fish
(Sparisoma viride) peaking out from behind two brain coral colonies (genus = Diploria).

Photo above shows a large colony of
mountainous star coral (Montastrea annularis).
Upper right shows many colonies of mountain
star coral with green algae. Lower right, large
brain coral (Diploria strigosa) colony. All from the
Florida
Keys. DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si
Reefs are home to many
organisms like the great
barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda)
(above left from the Florida Keys)
and the moon jellyfish (Aurelia
aurita) (above right from
Bermuda), and occasionally
students, like Holly (Homo
sapiens)(right, in Bermuda).

Sea whips (octacoral coral) and a shelter created by a now dead coral colony gives shelter to small
fish, Bermuda.

A queen angel (Holacanthus ciliaris) taking shelter in a coral reef, Lee Stocking Island

A purple-tipped sea anemone lives permanently attached in a rocky shelter on the reef
along with a brown, encrusting sponge (left), Bermuda.

Sea fans (right) are a type of soft corals called gorgonians. Sea
fans, such as this common sea fan (Gorgonia vendalina) in the
right photo shelter for fish, especially during the night when
predators, such as sharks, patrol the reef.
The photo below shows a large school of French grunts

(Haemulon flavolineatum) accompanied by a few jacks (gray)
(Seriola rivoliana) and sergeant majors (Abudefduf saxatilis).

Patch reef dominated by soft octacorals (sea whips and sea fans) with a school of blackear
wrasses (Halichoeres poeyi), Bermuda.
24.
A young hawksbill sea turtle (left)
(Eretmochelys imbriocota) swims
toward a reef seeking protection from
large, threatening-looking students. The
hawksbill is 0.5 meter long; Lee
Stocking Island, Bahamas.
A Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus

argus) also depends on the reef for
shelter (right). The lobster is 35
centimeters long; Lee Stocking Island,
Bahamas. 25.
Blue terminal phase stoplight parrot fish (Sparisoma viride) and two young initial phase stoplight parrot fish
grazing on a reef, Bermuda.
M.Si
26.
Young initial phase stoplight parrot fish (Sparisoma viride) grazing on a reef and,
Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas.
M.Si
27.
A gray angel fish (Pomacanthus arcuatus) grazing on algae on the flanks of a coral reef, Lee
Stocking Island.
28.
Deep water (22 meters deep) reef
dominated by soft octacorals (left) and
sponges (below), Lee Stocking Island,
Bahamas.
29.
A small colony of staghorn coral (Acroporoa cervicornis), near Key Largo, Florida Keys. The
white tips of the branches are new growth.
M.Si
30.
Stresses on Reefs:
Reefs around the world are

experiencing environmental stress
from increasing temperatures,
nutrients, and sediment.
Large brain coral (Diploria

strigosa) colony approximately
one meter in diameter, Bermuda.
The left half of the colony is dead with

only its underlying white skeleton
exposed. The black line is a zone of
tissue infected with a flesh-eating
bacteria that causes blackband
disease.
31.
A sergeant major fish (Abudefduf
saxatilis) swims over a large brain
coral (Diploria strigosa) colony
approximately one-half meter in
diameter, Bermuda.
The top of the colony is dead and

eaten away. This is likely due to
damage to the living colony caused
by a boat anchor. Once the living
tissue is damaged, the underlying
skeleton is attached by snails, clams,
worms, sponges, and other
organisms.
32.

Reefs Glossary
Bacteria and cyanobacteria: single-celled prokaryotic organisms; cyanobacteris, also called blue-green algae, photosynthesize
Biodiversity: a measure of the biological variety or number of different organisms in an environment.
Hermatypic Corals: corals that have rigid skeletons and build coral reefs.
Nutrients: compounds or elements dissolved in sea water that organisms use for metabolism and growth.
Oligotrophic conditions: water that has very low nutrient levels -- any nutrients that are present in the environment are tied up in the
living tissues of the organisms. Corals are adapted to live in oligotrophic conditions.
Photosynthesis: the process in which some bacteria, plants, and some protozoans use energy from the sun to drive the transformation
of carbon dioxide into simple sugars and oxygen: 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H606 + O2
Protozoan: Single celled eukaryotic organisms of the phylum Protista; many protozoans are able to photosynthesize and were
orignially calssified as a type of single-celled algae.
Volcanic atoll: An extinct volcano in the ocean that is capped with coral reefs.
Zooxanthallae: microscopic, single-celled protozoans that form symbiotic relationships with corals that produce energy by
photosynthesis.

Impacts of Global Warming on
the Ocean and Coral Reefs
Emily Underriner
ChE 359
DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, November 24, 2008
M.Si
Agenda
• Global Warming and Climate Change
• The Ocean and Coral Reefs
• Impacts
• Temperature
• Acidity
• The Future Challenges

Global Warming
• Prior to industrial
revolution: 280 ppm
• Current day: 387 ppm
• “Greenhouse” effect
• By 2100, CO2 levels
to double pre-
industrial revolution
• Loss of environmental
biodiversity, disrupt
ecosystem processes,
and reduce ecological
goods and services

Importance of the Ocean
• Yearly global economic value of $21 trillion
• The largest sink/reservoir of atmospheric
CO2 emissions
• Contains 50 times the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere and 10 times more carbon than is held by soil
and plants
• CO2 uptake has not been without
negative consequences
Coral Reefs
• Coral reefs: corals, coralline algae, fish, others
• Corals: small animals
• Begin as larva, attach to hard surface
• Build coral skeleton via reaction of Ca and CO2 to make CaCO3, or limestone
• Symbiotic relationship with yellow-brown algae, zooxanthellae
• Provide coral with nutrients
• Coral provides protection and access to t
ligh

http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/
students/coral/coral5.htm
Coral Reefs
Source: wwf.org
Source: myclimatechange.net

Importance of Coral Reefs
• Among the most diverse and productive
ecosystems on earth (tropical rainforests of the
sea)
• Support 25% of all known aquatic wildlife species,
over 4,000 species of fish, 700 species of coral,
and thousands of others
• Provide: food, supply economic income via fishing
and tourism, shoreline protection, integral ocean
sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide
• Supply $375 billion in ecosystem goods and
services to the global economy each year
Impacts on the Ocean
• Temperature Rise
• Air has higher thermal heat capacity than water
• Since the 1950s, average temperature increase of 0.31 °C in top 300 meters of
water
• Acidification
• Since the 1900s, 30% increase in H+ in ocean

Temperature Impact on Coral Reefs
• Coral reefs very sensitive to changes in the ocean’s temperature

• Generally require T between 25°C and 29°C
• T change of only a few degrees above the long-term average
can cause coral to die
• “Bleaching” – loss of zooxanthellae
• Over 60% of the earth’s coral reefs will be lost by the next 25 years

Coral Reef Bleaching
• Between 1979 and 1990, out of 105 mass coral moralities, 60 coral
reef bleaching events were reported, compared with only three
bleaching events among 63 mass coral moralities for the
preceding 103 years
Source: Texas A&M University, Coral Reefs
M.Si
Source: http://www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm
Acidification
• Increasing ocean CO2 concentration
• Historically: pH of 8.2
• Since early 1900s, pH drop by 0.1 units, estimate
a drop in seawater pH by 0.5 units by 2100
• CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
• Increases carbonate (HCO3−) and H+ in the ocean
surface water (reducing pH), decreases bicarbonate
(CO32−)
• Coral reef organisms rely on the concentration
of bicarbonate to form hard skeletons
• Predict threshold to be met around 2050
The Future
• More research on coral reef impacts
• Increasing carbon concentration is dangerous
• GHG and carbon mitigation
• Reduce emissions
• Sequestration
• Impacts on entire ocean ecosystem difficult to predict

TERIMA KASIH !

Bioekologi Terumbu Karang (IX)

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B IOEKOLOGI PESISIR DAN LAUT

TROPIS: TERUMBU KARANG

Karang hermatipik merupakan karang yang

Terumbu karang mendukung sekitar 25% spesies laut.

Terumbu karang termasuk dalam jenis filum

Kelas Anthozoa tersebut terdiri dari dua

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Ca(HCO3) CaCO3 + H2CO3 H2O + CO2

Fotosintesis oleh algae yang bersimbiosis membuat

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.S

meja otak bercabang

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Terumbu karang terbagi dalam empat tipe:

Berdasarkan arah angin:

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.S

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Perairan pasang surut

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Anggota terumbu karang yg dominan adalah karang.

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Kemampuan terumbu untuk menahan nutrien dlm

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Merupakan sistem yg dinamis,

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Algae koralin merah yg membentuk hamparan spt

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Sumber terbesar dari kematian adalah bad, ai tropik (topak

• Pada periode 1997-1998, dimana terjadi pemutihan karang di dunia, wilayah

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Integrated Threat Index

CD MbP SED OVF DF Integrated

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

• Habitat ikan (makan, pemijahan, pembesaran, dan asuhan)

pembangunan yang buruk pencemaran

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Itulah sebabnya betapa pentingnya kita melindungi dan melestarikan

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Ecology and Environmental Management

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

• Coral reef ecology • Coral reef management

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

• Biological (“coral community”)

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

Kleypas et al., 2001

Fringing, Barrier, Atoll

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si

• For the lecture I used maps from a variety of

DR. CHATERINA PAULUS, M.Si