DISUSUN OLEH:
KELOMPOK 3 :
DOSEN:
Puji syukur kami ucapkan kepada Allah SWT. yang telah memberikan rahmat,
hidayah, keberkahan serta kemudahan yang berlimpah, sehingga kami dapat
menyelesaikan tugas kelompok “Analisis metode pengumpulan data,populasi dan
sampel, partisipan berdasarkan design penelitian kualitatif (fenomenologi, etnografi,
grounded ) ” Mata Kuliah Riset Kualitatif.
Sholawat beringkan salam marilah kita haturkan Kepada junjungan besar kita
Nabi Muhammad SAW. yang telah membawa kita menuju alam yang penuh
pengetahuan serta terang benderang ini. Semoga Rahmat selalu tercurah kepada beliau,
keluarga dan seluruh pengikutnya.
Terima Kasih yang sebesar-besarnya kami ucapkan kepada Nelwati, S.Kp., M.N., Ph.D
sebagai dosen pengajar dalam mata kuliah ini. Terima kasih kepada semua pihak yang
terlibat dalam pembuatan makalah ini.
Kami menyadari bahwa makalah ini belum sempurna dan masih memiliki
kekurangan. Untuk itu kami membutuhkan kritikan dan saran yang membangun demi
penyempurnaan makalah ini kedepannya. Harapan kami semoga makalah ini
bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Atas semua perhatian pembaca, kami ucapkan terimakasih.
Hormat kami,
Penulis
BAB 1
PENDAHULUAN
1.1 Latar Belakang
Penelitian kualitatif bertujuan untuk memahami (to understand) fenomena atau gejala
sosial dengan lebih menitik beratkan pada gambaran yang lengkap tentang fenomena yang
dikaji daripada memerincinya menjadi variabel-variabel yang saling terkait. Harapannya
ialah diperoleh pemahaman yang mendalam tentang fenomena untuk selanjutnya
dihasilkan sebuah teori. Karena tujuannya berbeda dengan penelitian kuantitatif, maka
prosedur perolehan data dan jenis penelitian kualitatif juga berbeda.
Ada delapan jenis penelitian kualitatif, yakni etnografi (ethnography), studi kasus
(case studies), studi dokumen/teks (document studies), observasi alami (natural
observation), wawancara terpusat (focused interviews), fenomenologi (phenomenology),
grounded theory, studi sejarah (historical research).
Fenomenologi, pada awalnya, merupakan kajian filsafat dan sosiologi. Edmund Husserl
sendiri, penggagas utamanya, menginginkan fenomenologi akan melahirkan ilmu
yanglebih bisa bermanfaat bagi kehidupan manusia, setelah sekian lama ilmu pengetahuan
mengalami krisis dan disfungsional. Fenomenologi, kemudian, berkembang sebagai
semacam metode risetyang diterapkan dalam berbagai ilmu sosial, termasukdi dalamnya
komunikasi, sebagai salah satu varian dalampenelitiankualitatifdalampayungparadigma
interpretif.
Etnografi merupakan suatu bentuk penelitian yang berfokus pada makna sosiologi
melalui observasi lapangan tertutup dari fonomena sosio kultural (Emzir, 2011). Dapat
disimpulkan bahwa penelitian etnografi adalah kegiatan pengumpulan data yang
dilakukan secara sistematik mengenai cara hidup serta bagaimana aktivitas sosial dan
berbagai benda kebudayaan dari suatu masyarakat. Tujuan dari etnografi adalah untuk
menguraikan budaya tertentu secara holistik yaitu aspek budaya baik spiritual maupun
material.
1.2 Tujuan
1.1.1. Mengetahui analisis pengumpulan data, populasi,sampel pada penelitian
kualitatif (fenomenologi)
1.1.2. Mengetahui analisis pengumpulan data, populasi,sampel pada penelitian
kualitatif (Etnografi)
1.1.3. Mengetahui analisis pengumpulan data, populasi,sampel pada penelitian
kualitatif (Groundedtheory)
BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2. Sampel
Sampel merupakan bagian dari populasi (Sugiyono, 2008). Teknik
pengambilan sampel pada penelitian kualitatif berbeda dengan penelitian
kuantitatif. Pada penelitian kuantitatif jumlah sampel harus dilakukan seleksi
terlebih dahulu secara jelas dan dapat secara teracak maupun terstruktur dengan
jumlah besar. Sedangkan pada penelitian kualitatif tidak membutuhkan jumlah
sampel yang besar(Anggito & Setiawan, 2018).
a) Pengumpulan Data
Teknik pengumpulan data dapat berbentuk wawancara, observasi, dan
dokumentasi(Wahidmurni, 2017).
2) Observasi
Observasi merupakan pencatatan yangs sistematis dan perekaman
peristiwa, perilaku, dan benda-benda di lingkunga sosial tempat studi
berlangsung. Observasi adalah metode dasar yang sangat penting dalam
penelitian kualitatif.
Kegiatan observasi meliputi memerhatikan dengan saksama, termasuk
mendengarkan, mencatat, dan mempertimbangkan hubungan antaraspek
pada fenomena yang sedang diamati. Objek observasi adalah sebagai
berikut :
a. Pakaian, gaya rambut, sepatu, tatto, rumah, perhiasan , dll.
b. Gerakan-gerakan tubuh seperti gerakan mata, wajah, postur, senyum,
kerutan dahi, dll.
c. Lingkungan fisik
d. Bahasa tubuh misalnya menyilangkan kaki, dll.
e. Kelas sosial, status dan gender
3) Rekaman Audio
Rekaman audio atau alat recording adalah sarana untuk membantu
proses pengumpulan data untuk merekam percakapan selama wawancara,
yang kemudian dibuat transkrip hasil wawancara. Alat recording juga
membantu peneliti dalam menstransliterasi hasil rekaman (Susilo, W.H,
dkk., 2014).
b) Prosedur Pengumpulan Data dalam Riset Fenomenologi
Prosedur pengumpulan data dalam penelitian Keperawatan dengan
pendekatan fenomenologi terdiri dari tiga tahap (Susilo, W.H, dkk., 2014) :
1) Tahap Persiapan
2) Pelaksanaan
3) Paska wawancara
c) Kegiatan yang Dilakukan Peneliti Terkait Pengumpulan Data dalam Riset
Fenmenologi
1) Melakukan bracketing
Yaitu proses mensupresi, mengurung, atau menyimpan berbagai asumsi,
pengetahuan, dan keyakinan yang dimiliki peneliti tentang fenomena yang
diteliti.
2) Melakukan intuisi
Langkah awal melakukan intuisi dimulai ketika mengumpulkan data atau
informasi dengan cara mengeksplorasi pengalaman partisipan tentang
fenomena yang diteliti melalui pengamatan langsung, wawancara,
penemuan dokumen-dokumen tertulis, dan menuliskan berbagai catatan
lapangan selama pengambilan data. Pada tahap ini, peneliti tidak boleh
memberikan kecaman, evaluasi, opini, atau segala hal yang membuat
peneliti kehilangan konsentrasi terhadap data atau informasi yang sedang
diceritakan kepada partisipannya.
3) Melakukan analisis
Kegiatan analisis dibagi menjadi beberapa tahapan, yaitu mengumpulkan
dan melakukan analisis data atau informasi tentang fenomena yang diteliti
dengan langkah-langkah : membaca semua data atau fenomena yang telah
dikumpulkan, membaca ulang fenomena dan memilih kata kunci.
4) Melakukan deskripsi dan interpretasi
5. Merupakan kegiatan akhir dari pengumpulan dan analisis data, yaitu
memberikan gambaran tertulis secara utuh dari fenomena yang diteliti, lalu
membandingkannya dengan hasil-hasil penelitian sebelunya (Afiyanti &
Rachmawati, 2014).
Data dari fenemena sosial yang diteliti dapat dikumpulkan dengan berbagai
cara, diantaranya observasi dan interview, baik interview mendalam (in-depth
interview). In depth dalam penelitian fenomenologi bermakna mencari sesuatu
yang mendalam untuk mendapatkan satu pemahaman yang mendetail tentang
fenomena sisoal dan pendidikan yang diteliti. In-depth jugabermaknamenuju pada
sesuatu yangmendalam guna mendapatkan sense dari yang nampaknya straight-
forward secara aktual secara potensial lebih complicated. Pada sisi lain peneliti
juga harus memformulasikan kebenaran peristiwa/ kejadian dengan
pewawancaraan mendalam. ataupun interview. Data yang diperoleh dengan in-
depth interview dapat dianalisis proses analisis data dengan Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis sebagaiman ditulis oleh Smith (2009: 79-
107).Tahap-tahapInterpretative Phenomenological Analysis yang dilaksanakan
sebagai berikut: 1) Reading and re-reading; 2) Initial noting; 3) Developing
Emergent themes; 4) Searchingfor connections acrossn emergent themes; 5)
Moving the next cases; and 6) Looking for patterns across cases. Masing-masing
tahap analisis diuraikan sebagaiberikut:
1. Reading andRe-reading
2. Initial Noting
Meskipun transkrip interviu merupakan tempat pusat data, akan tetapi data
itu akan menjadi lebih jelas dengan diberikannya komentar eksploratori
(exploratory commenting) secara komphrehensip. Dengan komentar
eksploratori tersebut maka pada seperangkat data muncul atau tumbuh secara
substansial. Untuk memunculkan tema-tema peneliti memenej perubahan data
dengan menganalisis secara simultan, berusaha mengurangi volume yang detail
dari data yang berupa transkrip dan catatan awal yang masih ruwet (complexity)
untuk di mapping kesalinghubungannya (interrelationship), hubungan
(connection) dan pola-pola antar catatan eksploratori. Pada tahap ini analisis
terutama pada catatatan awal lebih yang dari sekedar transkrip.Komentar
eksploratori yang dilakukan secara komprehensip sangat mendekatkan pada
simpulan dari transktip yangasli.
Mencari makna dari sketsa tema-tema yang muncul dan saling bersesuaian
dan menghasilkan struktur yang memberikan pada peneliti hal-hal yang penting
dari semua data dan aspek-aspek yang menarik dan penting dari keterangan-
keterangan partisipan. Hubungan-hubungan atau koneksi-koneksi yang mungkin
muncul dalam Interpretative Pheno-menology Analysis selama proses analisis
meliputi: Abstraction, Subsumtion, Polarization, Contextualization, Numeration,
dan Function.
Ciri – ciri penelitian etnografi menurut Hutomo dalam (Spradley, 2006) antara lain:
1. Autoethnography
2. Classical (holistic traditional)
3. Cognitive
4. Critical (disrupted)
5. Deconstructive
6. Disrupted
7. Focused
8. Maxiethnography (classical, holistic, traditional)
9. Microethnography
10. Performance
11. Practioner
12. Reflexive .
13. Specialist
Mengumpulkan
data etnografi
Menanyakan
pertanyaan etnografi Membuat cacatan
etnografi
Menulis suatu
etnografi
Berikut ini merupakan penjelasan dari siklus penelitian Etnografi (Emzir, 2011) :
1) Pengkodean terbuka
Open codingadalah pengkodeaan yang dimulai dari suatu pemahaman belum
jelas berupa list sejumlah kategori yang relefan (“open codes). Data dikodekan
dengan mengklasifikasikan kedalam elemen-elemen data dalam bentuk tema-
tema atau kategorisasi kemudian dicari pola diantara kategori berdasarkan
komunaliti/keguyuban, kausalitas/hubungan sebab akibat, dsb. Koding awal
akan dapat dilakukan dengan membaca sejumlah literatur, meskipun Glaserand
Strauss (1967) andGlaser (1978) berargumentasi bahwa peneliti harus menjauhi
literatur yang berkaitan dengan subyek penelitian, sebab membaca literatur ini
akan membuat peneliti lebih peka terhadap konsep-konsep yang berkaitan
dengan teori yang ada dan membatasi inovasi dalam melakukan koding data.
Lebih baik peneliti membangkitkan apa yang disebut oleh Lowe (1995) sebagai
“topicguide” untuk mengarahkan koding awal dari tema dan kategori
berdasarkan elemen dari pertanyaan awal penelitiannya. Glaser (1978, 57)
memberikan tiga pertanyaan yang digunakan dalam membangkitkan koding
terbuka yaitu:
a. Whatisthis data a study of?
b. Whatcategorydoesthisincidentindicate?
c. Whatisactuallyhappening in the data?
2) Pengkodeanaksial (bersumbu)
Proses axialcoding adalah sebuah proses untuk menemukan relasi antar konsep,
dan antar kategori. Dari proses penemuan relasi ini dapat dihasilkan kategori
baru, konsep baru, perubahan nama kategori dan konsep, atau penggabungan
konsep atau kategori. Kodingaksial adalah pelacakan hubungan diantara elemen-
elemen data yang terkodekan. Strauss (1978) menasehatkan bahwa kodingaksial
harus menguji elemen seperti keadaan kalimat, interaksi diantara subyek,
strategi, taktik dan konsekuensi. Strauss andCorbin (1998) menyamakan proses
ini untuk mencocokkan bagian-bagian dari pola yang masih teka-teki. Mereka
beragumentasi bahwa dengan menjawab konsekuensi dari “Who, When, Where,
Why, HowandWith”, peneliti dapat menceritakan struktur ke proses. Pendekatan
manapun yang diambil, kita dapat mencatat secara baik kemunculan
wawasan/pengertian dan secara eksplisit merefleksikan bagaimana wawasan itu
membatasi masalah penelitian melalui pemilihan sejumlah kategori. Ini dapat
dicapai melalui pembangkitan catatan/memo teoritis. Proses menemukan relasi
dilakukan dengan menggunakan codingparadigm yang diusulkan oleh Strauss.
Codingparadigm meminta peneliti untuk mengidentifikasi lebih lanjut setiap
konsep dan kategori yang muncul dalam peranannya terhadap fenomena yang
menjadi tujuan penelitian.
3) Pengkodean selektif
Selectivecoding adalah upaya untuk menentukan satu, atau dua kategori inti dan
membatasi penelitian di seputar kategori inti tersebut. Kategori ini
(corecategory) adalah poin esensial dan mendasar dari teori yang dibangun,
dimana kebanyakan kategori lain dihubungkan dengan kategori ini, dan kategori
ini bertanggung jawab terhadap hampir seluruh variasi pola yang terjadi.
Kategori inti memiliki fungsi utama (primefunction) mengintegrasikan teori, dan
membuat teori ‘padat’ dan saturasi terakhir dan meliputi penelusuran (scanning)
semua data dan kode-kode yang telah didapat sebelumnya. Tahap terakhir ini
dilakukan ketika peneliti telah siap untuk melakukan pengkodean terakhir dan ia
telah mengidentifikasi tema-tema utama dari penelitian. Pada pengkodean
terakhir ini, peneliti melihat secara selektif untuk kasus-kasus yang
mengilustrasikan tema-tema hasil pengkodean sebelumnya.
Ada beberapa tahapan kerja yang disarankan dalam proses pengkodean terpilih
ini (Umanailo, 2018):
a) Melakukan reproduksi kembali alur cerita atau susunan data ke dalam kerangka
Pemikiran.
b) Mengidentifikasi data dengan menulis beberapa kalimat pendek yang berisl inti
cerita atau data. Pertanyaan yang perlu diajukan peneliti terhadap dirinya sendiri,
adalah "apakah yang tampak menonjol dari wilayah penelitian ini?", atau "apa
masalah utamanya".
c) Menyimpulkan dan memberi kode terhadap satu atau dua kalimat
sebagai'kategori inti.
1. Researchinitiation
2. Data selection
3. Data collection
4. Data analysis
5. Synthesisandtheorygeneration
6. Reserachpublication.
3. Instrumen Penelitian
Ciri utama penelitian GT adalah peneliti adalah instrumen dari penelitiannya.
GubadanLincoln (1981) dalam (Sudira, 2009) mengetengahkan tujuh
karakteristikyang menjadikan manusia sebagai instrumen penelitian dengan
kualifikasi baik. Kualifikasi seorang peneliti kualitatif sebagai instrumen adalah :
1. Memiliki sifat responsif;
2. Adaptif;
3. Lebih holistik;
4. Kesadaran pada konteks tak terkatakan;
5. Mampu memproses segera;
6. Mampu mengejar klarifikas dan mampu meringkas sesegera mungkin;
7. Mampu menjelajahi jawaban ideosinkretik dan mampu mengejar pemahaman
yang lebih dalam
BAB III
Judul Jurnal : A grounded theory study: Exploring health care professionals decision
making when managing end stage heart failure care
Penulis : Karen Higginbotham, Ian Jones & Martin Johnson
Publikasi : Journal of Advanced Nursing; 77:3142–3155, 21 Maret 2021
B. FORM CASP
Section A: Are The Results Valid?
1 Was there a clear statement of the aims Yes √ HINT: Consider
of the research? Can’t Tell What was the goal of the research
No Why it was thought important
Its relevance
Comments:
Dalam artikel relevansi yang terkandung antara latar belakang dan fokus penelitian secara garis besar
menjadi mudah dipahami karena paragraf awal artikel tersebut menceritakan tentang pasien yang
didiagnosis gagal jantung stadium akhir yang dirawat di rumah sakit dengan gejala dekompensasi akut
memiliki angka kematian yang tinggi, 1 dari 6 pasien akan meninggal di rumah sakit atau dalam waktu
30 hari setelah keluar dari rumah sakit. Banyak dari pasien ini tidak memiliki kesempatan untuk
melakukan percakapan di akhir hayat dan sebagai konsekuensinya memiliki akses terbatas ke layanan
perawatan paliatif.
Artikel ini pada bagian pendahuluan juga memberikan informasi/ulasan yang berkualitas dan sangat
penting bagi kesehatan khususnya bahwa percakapan akhir kehidupan antara profesional perawatan
kesehatan dan pasien sebaiknya dimulai jauh sebelum perburukan klinis untuk memastikan bahwa rencana
akhir kehidupan yang tepat didiskusikan. Fenomena tersebut yang melatarbelakangi peneliti untuk
melakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengeksplorasi pengambilan keputusan profesional perawat
saat mengelola pasien gagal jantung stadium akhir dan bagaimana keputusan ini berdampak langsung
pada pasien di akhir pengalaman hidup.
2 Is a qualitative methodology Yes √ HINT: Consider
appropriate? Can’t Tell If the research seeks to interpret or illuminate
No the actions and/or subjective experiences of
research participants
Is qualitative research the right metodology for
addressing the research goal
Comments:
Pada artikel peneliti berupaya untuk mengeksplorasi pengambilan keputusan profesional perawat
saat mengelola pasien gagal jantung stadium akhir dan melihat bagaimana keputusan ini berdampak
langsung pada pasien di akhir pengalaman hidupnya. Berdasarkan tujuan dari penelitian yang dilakukan,
peneliti telah menggunakan metodologi penelitian yang tepat yaitu metode kualitatif sehingga pada hasil
penelitian secara jelas menjawab tujuan penelitian.
Is it wort continuing?
3 Was the research design appropriate to Yes √ HINT: Consider
address the aims of the research? Can’t Tell If the researcher has justified the research
No design (e.g.have they discussed how they
decided which method to use)
Comments:
Dalam artikel peneliti menetapkan judul penelitian “Studi grounded theory: Mengeksplorasi
pengambilan keputusan profesional perawatan kesehatan saat mengelola perawatan gagal jantung
tahap akhir”. Secara jelas peneliti menuliskan sebuah judul yang menggambarkan pendekatakan
kualitatif yang digunakan dalam penelitian yaitu grounded theory. Pada latar belakang peneliti juga
menjelaskan fenomena yang melatarbelakangi mengapa penelitian tersebut dilakukan, tujuan yang akan
peneliti capai hingga menghasilkan kategori baru terkait pengambilan keputusan oleh perawat dalam
mengelola pasien gagal jantung tahap akhir. Kemudian teknik yang diterapkan untuk mengumpulkan
data dan menganalisis penelitian berdasarkan pendekatan graunded theory.
4 Was the recruitment strategy appropriate Yes √ HINT: Consider
to the aims of the research? Can’t Tell If the research has explaned how the
No participants were selected
If they explained why the participants the
selected were the most appropriate to provide
access to the type of knowledge sought by the
study
If there are any discussions around recuiment
(e.g. why somepeople chose not to take part)
Comments:
Dalam artikel telah dijelaskan prosedur pengambilan sampel yaitu berdasarkan teknik purposive
peneliti merekrut 47 partisipan dari Rumah sakit Distrik di Barat Laut Inggris, penelitian dilakukan selama
periode 1 tahun (2016-2017). 16 Partisipan terdiri dari perawat (Perawat umum), 15 dokter (Bekerja di
bidang pengobatan akut), 16 pasien gagal jantung berdasarkan hasil EKG (2minggu) dan mengalami
keterbatasan yang nyata dalam aktifitas fisik karena kelelahan, palpitasi, tingkat ketergantungan III dan
IV serta praksi ejeksi 35%. 3 Pasien menolak untuk berpartisipasi, tidak ada alasan yang diberikan.
5 Was the data collected in a way that Yes √ HINT: Consider
addressed the research issue? Can’t Tell If the setting for the data collection was justified
No If is clear how data were collected (e.g. focus
groub, semi-structured interview etc.)
If the researcher has justified the methods
chosen
If the researcher has made the methodsexplicit
(e.g. interview method, is there an indication of
how interview areconducted, or did they use a
topic guide)
If method were modified during the study, if so
has the researcher explained how and why
If the form of data is clear (e.g.tape recording,
video material, note etc.)
If the researcher has discussed saturation of data
Comments:
Dalam artikel peneliti secara transparan memberi rincian bagaimana metode pengumpulaan data
sehingga dapat memberikan informasi pada peneliti selanjutnya yang akan melanjutkan penelitian
tersebut. Dijelaskan dalam artikel pengumpulan data mengunakan wawancara semi-terstruktur yang
dilakukan bersama dokter, perawat dan pasien dengan tujuan untuk mengeksflorasi pengalam mereka
dalam pengmabilan keputusan ketika mengelola atau menerima perawatan gagal jantung di akhir hayat.
Awalnya pertanyaan bersifat terbuka tetapi menjadi lebih terfokus karena transkrip diberi kode. Kode
dibandingkan dengan katagori sampai tema muncul. Selama setiap tahap pengkodean, memo teoritis
ditulis untuk memfokuskan pengumpulan data lebih lanjut serta untuk menginformasikan dan
menyempurnakan analisis teoretis yang berkembang.
Wawancara pasien dilakukan di bangsal, baik di samping tempat tidur atau di ruangan yang tenang
yang berdekatan dengan ruang perawat. Wawancara profesional kesehatan dilakukan di tempat pilihan
mereka dirumah sakit. Untuk sekelompok kecil profesional perawatan kesehatan, lebih mudah untuk
diwawancarai bersama. Dua wawancara kelompok fokus diatur pada hari yang berbeda. Peserta didorong
untuk mendiskusikan pengalaman mereka secara bebas sehingga panduan wawancara digunakan secara
fleksibel untuk memungkinkan diskusi terbuka. Pertanyaan ditinjau secara teratur ketika konsep dan tema
mulai muncul dari data. Agar suara semua peserta dapat didengar dalam kelompok fokus, beberapa
strategi digunakan.
Pertama, kelompok fokus diadakan selama periode makan siang dan perwakilan medis dengan ramah
menyediakan makan siang. Ini menciptakan lingkungan yang ramah dan menghasilkan suasana yang lebih
santai. Kedua, pengalihan pertanyaan yang hati-hati memungkinkan peserta yang lebih junior dalam
kelompok untuk berpartisipasi dan berbagi pengalaman mereka sendiri dalam pengambilan keputusan.
Ketiga, check-in dengan peserta membantu memperjelas poin-poin diskusi yang sering menyebabkan
perdebatan lebih lanjut. Catatan lapangan berisi keterlibatan substansial dalam pertemuan dan kegiatan
sehari-hari. Buku harian digunakan untuk merekam refleksi dan pengamatan pribadi sehari-hari. Buku
harian, catatan lapangan, dan penulisan memo merupakan bagian integral dari perbandingan data yang
konstan dan hanya berakhir setelah terbukti bahwa kategori telah jenuh dan tidak ada tema baru yang
muncul. Semua wawancara direkam menggunakan aplikasi memo suara peneliti di iPhone dan segera
setelah wawancara diunduh ke dalam file di PC yang dilindungi kata sandi.
6 Has the relationship between researcher Yes √ HINT: Consider
and participants been adequately Can’t Tell If the researcher critically ecamined their own
considered? No role, potential bias and influence during (a)
formulation of the research question (b) data
collection, including sample recuitment and
choice of location
How the reseaecher responded to events during
the study and whether they considered the
implications of any changes in the research
design
Comments:
Peneliti telah di pertimbangkan partisipan dengan jelas, pengrekrutan partisipan dan pemilihan lokasi
dipertimbangkan sebelumnya, dengan menetapkan kriteria partisipan agar menghindari bias saat
penelitian.
Beberapa strategi digunakan untuk meningkatkan kredibilitas dan kepercayaan dari temuan
penelitian ini. Begitu kata kunci mulai muncul dari data, ini dibagikan kepada peserta untuk melihat
apakah mereka selaras dengan pengalaman mereka sendiri dan apakah teori yang muncul masuk akal.
Kemudian kembali dan memeriksa dengan peserta menegaskan bahwa teori itu sebenarnya didasarkan
pada data. Pembandingan data, catatan lapangan dan memo yang terus-menerus membantu dalam proses
pengecekan ini dan membantu mengarahkan pertanyaan sampai semua kategori secara teoritis jenuh dan
tidak ada eksplorasi lebih lanjut dari fenomena tersebut. Selain itu, peneliti mendapat masukan dari
badan amal pasien 'Pumping Marvellous' yang memberikan tanggapan pasien dalam desain awal
penelitian ini.
Peneliti percaya bahwa kedalaman dan detail yang diperoleh cukup untuk memberikan validitas
substansial dalam hal kredibilitas dan relevansi dengan kategori yang dihasilkan.
Section B: What are the results?
7 Have ethical issues been taken into Yes √ HINT: Consider
consideration? Can’t Tell If the are sufficient details of how the research
No was explained to participants for the reader to
assess whether ethical standards were
maintained
If the researcher has discussed issues raised by
study (e.g. issues around informed consent or
confidentiality or how they have handled the
effectsofthe study on the participants during and
after the study)
If approval has been sought from the ethics
committe
Comments:
Dalam artikel masalah etik telah dipertimbangkan sebelumnya, persetujuan etis penelitian diberikan oleh
Komite Layanan Etika Riset Nasional-North West (13/NW0483), Komite Etika Universitas dan Departemen Tata
Kelola Riset Trust Rumah Sakit. Semua peserta juga diberitahu tentang peran dan latar belakang pewawancara,
memberikan persetujuan tertulis sebelum wawancara dilakukan. Semua data disimpan secara elektronik di
komputer yang dilindungi kata sandi.
8 Was the data analysis sufficiently Yes √ HINT: Consider
rigorous? Can’t Tell If there is an in depth decription of the analysis
No process
If thematic analysis is used. If so, it clear how
the categories/themes were derived from the
data
Whether the researcher explains how the data
prsented were selected from the original
sasmple to demonstrate the analysis process
If sufficient data are presented to support the
findings
To what extent contradictory data are taken into
account
Whether the researcher critically examined their
own role, potential bias and influence during
analysis and selection of data for presentation
Comments:
Dalam artikel metodologi penelitian yang digunakan adalah grounded theory. Peneliti menjelaskan
secara terperinci, bagimana peneliti mengkontrol kualitas dari data yang tekrumpul, langkah-langkah
dalam melakukan analisis peneliti terlibat dalam peroses pengumpulan data, pengelompokan data ke
kategori-kategori, pengumpulan data tambahan, dan membandingkan informasi-informasi yang baru
dengan membandingkan denan katogori-katagori yang muncul, proses pengembangan teori dilakukan
secara perlahan-lahan (Constant comperative procedure) sesuai dengan metodologi penelitian yang
dilakukan (grounded theory).Wawancara berlangsung rata-rata 40-60 menit direkam secara digital,
kemudian ditranskripsikan kata demi kata kedalam bentuk dokumen.
Pengkodean awal dilakukan secara manual untuk menghindari risiko membuat lompatan konseptual,
kemudian data dianalisis mengunakan Vivo untuk memperoleh makna, pandangan dan tindakan peserta.
Kemudian analisis melibatkan pengkodean terfokus untuk mengelola tahap pengkodean ini transkrip
diunggah ke Vivo. Kode-kode awal disaring, disortir, dan disentesis untuk mengidentifikasi kode-kode
yang dianggap memiliki jangakaun teoritis. Pengkodean aksial digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi
hubungan antara konsep dan kategori dan melibatkan terus menerus membandingkan transkrip dengan
catatan lapangan, buku harian dan memo.
9 Is there a clear statement of findings? Yes √ HINT: Consider
Can’t Tell If the findings are explicit
No If is adequate discussion of the evidence both
for and against the researcher hasdiscussed the
creadibility of their findings (e.g. triangulation,
respondent validation, more than one analyst)
Ifthe findings are discussed in relation to the
original research question
Comments:
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, artikel ini telah menjawab pertanyaan dalam penelitian secara jelas yaitu
ada 4 katagori bagaimana profesional perawat menegosiasikan proses pengambilan keputusan ketika
mempertimbangkan perawatan akhir kehidupan yaitu gejala penanda, mengatur perawatan, diberitahu dan
mengenali kematian. Tema dalam katagori ini disebut “Lingkaran setan perawatan gagal jantung”.
Section C: Will the results help locally?
10 How valuable is the research? Yes √ HINT: Consider
Can’t Tell If the researcher discusses the contribution the
No study makes to existing knowledge or
understanding (e.g. do they consider the
findings in relation to current practice or policy,
or relevant researchbased literature
If the researchershave discussed whether or how
the fidings can be transferred other ways the
research maybe used
Comments:
Dalam artikel peneliti menarik kesimpulan bahwa “Dalam penelitian ini, lingkaran setan perawatan
pasien gagal jantung ditemukan sebagai produk dari sistem perawatan kesehatan di mana tuntutan
organisasi dan aturan organisasi tidak selalu memfasilitasi”
Hasil temuan telah dijelaskan dengan dilengkapi oleh data yang didapatkan peneliti. Penelitian ini
merupakan penelitian pertama yang dilakukan peneliti tidak melanjutkan atau mengembangkan
penelitian sebelumnya yang sudah ada.
Peneliti menyatakan bahwa penelitian dilakukan dilokasi dengan budaya beragam etnis dan
partisipan kulit putih. Penting untuk menyelididki masalah ini dalam kaitannya dengan berbagai
minoritas. Tujuan penelitian ini bukan untuk memberikan teorit khusus untuk satu peserta tetapi satu
yang dapat diterapkan atau dibandingkan dengan data di pengaturan serupa lainnya.
Oleh karena itu, penting untuk mempertimbangkan bahwa teori subtantif ini dimasa depan
menyediakan platform untuk penelitian lebih lanjut untuk mengeksplorasi siklus perawatan dengan
pasien yang didiagnosis dengan gagal jantung stadium akhir dari berbagai pengaturan dan komunitas.
BAB IV
PEMBAHASAN
A. Artikel
Dalam artikel peneliti menetapkan judul penelitian “Studi grounded theory:
Mengeksplorasi pengambilan keputusan profesional perawatan kesehatan
saat mengelola perawatan gagal jantung tahap akhir”. Secara jelas peneliti
menuliskan sebuah judul yang menggambarkan pendekatakan kualitatif yang
digunakan dalam penelitian yaitu grounded theory, sehingga memberi
kemudahan bagi pembaca untuk menemukan informasi mengenai jenis
penelitian yang mereka cari. tujuan peneliti (Mengeksplorasi pengambilan
keputusan profesional perawat saat mengelola pasien gagal jantung stadium
akhir dan bagaimana keputusan ini berdampak langsung pada akhir pasien dari
pengalaman hidup), menggunakan pendekatakan kualitatif (grounded theory)
B. Analisa Metode Pengumpulan Data
Proses pengumpulan data pada penelitian kualitatif berbeda dengan penelitian kuantitatif,
walaupun beberapa metode menggunakan istilah yang sama. Beberapa metode
pengumpulan data pada penelitian kualitatif yang sering digunakan pada penelitian
keperawatan yaitu wawancara dan kuesioner, observasi, fokus grup diskusi, analisis
teks/studi dokumen, dan rekaman audio dan video.
c) Jenis Wawancara
1) Wawancara tidak berstruktur tidak berstandar, informal, atau berfokus
Jenis wawancara ini relatif memiliki tidak banyak pertanyaan yang
disiapkan, bahkan hanya dengan satu pertanyaan yang disiapkan peneliti
pada awal wawancara dan diikuti oleh suatu kata kunci. Misalnya untuk
pertanyaan "Ceritakan tentang pangalaman nyeri anda", maka dapat
menggunakan kata kunci: perasaan, pergi ke dokter, profesi kesehatan
lainnya, menggunakan pengobatan komplementer, dukungan sosial,
dukungan praktik, klinik nyeri, dan puncak nyeri.
Waktu wawancara. Waktu atau jadwal wawancara perlu juga ada kesepakatan
antara peneliti dan partisipan. Pilihlah waktu yang sekiranya partisipan tidak ada
kesibukan lainnya dan peneliti tidak terburu-buru. Sebagai contoh, seorang ibu
nifas atau menyusui biasanya mempunyai waktu yang terbatas sehingga
wawancara dilakukan dalam waktu yang singkat karena ia harus menyusui atau
merawat bayinya. Jika wawancara dilakukan di bangsal rumah sakit, pilihlah
waktu di luar jam kunjungan atau jadwal visitasi dokter.
Tempat wawancara. Wawancara dilakukan di tempat yang disepakati juga oleh
peneliti dan partisipan. Idealnya, wawancara harus dilakukan pada lingkungan
yang kondusif dan perlu menjaga privasi individu yang diwawancarai serta
terhindar dari gangguan dari pihak luar yang hadir, serta pertimbangan implikasi
akibat interaksi perempuan dan pria. Salah satu cara untuk melakukan hal ini
mungkin dengan menyewa ruang khusus. Pewawancara yang bekerja di
masyarakat perlu menemukan lokasi yang cocok. Contoh, akan tidak pantas bagi
seorang perawat lelaki untuk melakukan wawancara sendirian dengan partisipan
seorang siswa perawat perempuan di kamarnya di asrama perempuan.
f) Proses Wawancara
Pelaksanaan wawancara dapat bersifat formal yang direncanakan sebelumnya
dan dapat juga secara informal layaknya percakapan sehari hari. Saat wawancara
berlangsung, respons dan tanggapan para partisipan yang diwawancarai terhadap
pertanyaan peneliti menentukan kelancaran proses wawancara dan menentukan
pola kategorisasi data yang dihasilkan ketika menganalisis hasil wawancara
tersebut. Langkah-langkah yang perlu dilakukan peneliti dalam melakukan
metode wawancara (Kvale, 2011):
1) Rencanakan wawancara dengan menyeleksi individu yang akan
diwawancarai.
2) Lakukan wawancara sesuai dengan pedoman wawancara yang telah dibuat
secara sistematik. Waktu yang diperlukan tiap wawancara sekitar 45-60
menit dengan menggunakan alat recording.
3) Buat segera transkrip hasil wawancara sesegera mungkin setelah wawancara
4) Lakukan analisis dari transkrip yang telah dibuat dengan membuat
kategorisasi
5) Lakukan verifikasi dan konfirmasi hasil wawancara yang telah dilakukan
dengan para partisipan.
6) Buat laporan hasil wawancara.
2. Observasi
Terminologi kata observasi diturunkan dari bahasa latin yang berarti 'melihat' dan
'memerhatikan'. Kegiatan observasi meliputi memerhatikan dengan saksama,
termasuk mendengarkan, mencatat, dan mempertimbangkan hubungan antaraspek
pada fenomena yang sedang diamati. Observasi merupakan metode pengumpulan
data yang esensial dalam penelitian kualitatif. Untuk memperoleh hasil observasi
yang akurat dan tepat, peneliti diwajibkan memiliki keterampilan dalam melakukan
observasi dan mempunyai waktu yang cukup untuk melakukan pendalaman dalam
situasi yang akan diteliti. Observasi yang panjang menghasilkan pengetahuan yang
lebih mendalam terhadap kelompok atau keadaan yang sedang diteliti dan peneliti
dapat menghindari gangguan atau bias yang disebabkan oleh kurang hadirnya
peneliti dalam kelompok.
Melakukan observasi pada umumnya juga dilakukan dengan cara membuat denah
lokasi atau format lokasi dalam bentuk bagan atau grafik tempat dilakukannya
observasi. Sebagai contoh, membuat denah atau lay out ruangan ICU jika observasi
dilakukan di ruang ICU atau denah atau gambar ruang staf keperawatan, jika
dilakukan di ruangan tersebut. Membuat denah lokasi penting dilakukan terutama
pada studi-studi etnografi.
Partisipan sebagai observer adalah bagian dari kelompok yang diteliti. Bagi
perawat peneliti cara ini baik untuk melakukan penelitian karena mereka telah
terlibat dalam situasi kerja. Keuntungan jenis ini adalah mudahnya hubungan
peneliti-partisipan yang dapat disudahi atau diperluas. Selain itu, observer juga
dapat berpindah sekitar lokasi sesuka mereka sehingga dapat melakukan
observasi lebih detail dan dalam.
Untuk peneliti pemula, observasi lebih sulit dibanding wawancara karena adanya
berbagai isu etik. Pasien yang harusnya dilindungi dari gangguan ketika
berinteraksi dengan tenaga kesehatan, dieksplorasi. Untuk minta semua pasien di
bangsal tertentu izin berpartisipasi, meski sulit, mungkin saja bisa namun komite
etik sering kali enggan menyetujui mahasiswa muda untuk melakukan observasi.
Observer sebagai partisipan hanya secara marginal berada dalam situasi,
misalnya perawat melakukan observasi di suatu bangsal tetapi sebenarnya ia
tidak secara langsung bekerja di sana. Keuntungan dari jenis ini adalah
kemungkinan peneliti menanyakan beberapa pertanyaan dan diterima sebagai
kolega dan peneliti tetapi tidak disebut sebagai bagian dari tim kerja. Observer
terhindar dari memainkan peran asli di dalam setting. Pembatasan dari
keterlibatan ini tidaklah mudah, terutama pada situasi kerja yang sibuk. Peneliti
juga harus selalu minta izin untuk kemana-mana di dalam setting.
e) Hasil Observasi
Hasil observasi dituliskan oleh peneliti atau observer secara deskriptif dan
informatif, bukan secara interpretatif atau menyimpulkan hasil observasi. Hasil
observasi yang dituliskan dalam bentuk interpretasi peneliti dapat menyebabkan
kesalahan dan dapat menyebabkan data menjadi bias. Membuat deskripsi artinya
peneliti menuliskan data yang diamati secara konkret/nyata tentang fenomena
yang berhasil diobservasi sehingga para pembaca dapat memahami kondisi yang
terjadi pada lokasi yang diamati peneliti tanpa peneliti memberikan pendapat atau
pandangan tentang yang diamati.
Sebagai contoh, fenomena tentang sepasang suami istri yang berada dalam suatu
ruangan perawatan postpartum dan mereka merupakan keluarga yang baru saja
memperoleh kehadiran seorang bayi dan saat ini sedang berbahagia. Hasil
observasi peneliti dapat menuliskan tentang ruangan postpartum yang nyaman
dan sejuk, yaitu ruangan postpartum memiliki ukuran sekitar 3x4 meter dengan
dekorasi terdapat 3 lukisan yang menggambarkan aktivitas ibu merawat bayi,
terdengar suara musik lembut, dan ruangan tersebut berwarna pastel dengan
tercium pengharum ruangan dan udara sejuk berasal dari sistem pendingin/AC
yang dimiliki ruangan tersebut. Sementara, untuk mendeskripsikan sepasang
suami istri dengan bayinya, peneliti dapat menuliskan hasil deskripsinya sebagai
berikut: sepasang suami istri saling memerhatikan dan berbicara dengan bayi
yang baru saja dilahirkan oleh sang istri. Keduanya saling mengomentari kondisi
wajah dan tubuh bayi mereka, saling membelai bayi mereka, dan satu sama lain
saling berpelukan. Hal ini akan berbeda jika peneliti memberi interpretasi dari
hasil observasinya, misalnya, hasil interpretasi peneliti dapat menuliskan bahwa
ruangan postpartum sangat nyaman, indah, dan sejuk dan terdapat sepasang
suami istri dan bayinya yang sedang berba hagia.
Tujuan utama metode DKT adalah untuk memperoleh interaksi data yang
dihasilkan dari suatu diskusi sekelompok partisipan/responden dalam hal
meningkatkan kedalaman informasi menyingkap berbagai aspek suatu
fenomena kehidupan sehingga fenomena tersebut dapat didefinisikan dan diberi
penjelasan. Data dari hasil interaksi dalam diskusi kelompok tersebut dapat
memfokuskan atau memberi penekanan pada kesamaan dan perbedaan
pengalaman dan memberikan informasi/data yang padat tentang suatu
perspektif yang dihasilkan dari hasil diskusi kelompok tersebut.
b. Karakteristik DKT
Jumlah kelompok yang dapat menghasilkan data berjumlah 8 - 10 individu atau
pada kelompok yang lebih kecil (mini group) berisi 4 - 6 individu dengan
karakteristik individu yang sama. Selama diskusi, diperlukan moderator yang
handal untuk memfasilitasi kelancaran diskusi. Pengumpulan data dilakukan
dengan merekam dan disuplementasi oleh catatan lapangan. Jenis wawancara
yang berlangsung antara moderator dan para partisipan dilakukan secara
langsung, bersifat formal, dan menggunakan pedoman pertanyaan terstruktur
yang sudah disiapkan sebelumnya oleh peneliti.
c. Kelebihan dan Keterbatasan DKT
kelebihan metode DKT adalah: partisipannya bisa bebas berpendapat, cukup
hemat dan ekonomis untuk memperoleh hasil yang cepat, fleksibel, elaborasif
serta diperolehnya jumlah data yang lebih banyak dalam waktu yang singkat;
Memiliki face validity yang tinggi dibanding metode wawancara individual.
Keterbatasan metode DKT, peneliti memiliki keterbatasan dalam mengontrol
para partisipannya, terutama jika terdapat individu yang mendominasi diskusi
kelompok yang dapat memengaruhi pendapat individu yang lainnya. Selain itu,
analisis data pada metode ini lebih sulit di analisis, kualitas data yang dihasilkan
sangat bergantung pada kemampuan moderator, dan membutuhkan lingkungan
yang kondusif
d. Peran Peneliti dalam DKT
DKT sebaiknya dilakukan oleh minimal dua orang peneliti (disebut juga dengan
fasilitator). Fasilitator mempunyai tanggung jawab individu maupun bersama.
Satu orang berperan sebagai moderator diskusi dan yang lainnya sebagai
penulis catatan lapangan. Kedua fasiliator harus dipersiapkan sebelum
melakukan perannya, karena mungkin saja selama proses DKT dapat saling
bertukar peran. Secara umum moderator bertanggung jawab memimpin DKT,
menyikapi semua pertanyaan yang ditentukan dalam pedoman DKT,
mempertahankan diskusi sesuai dengan jalurnya dan mendorong kontribusi
partisipan. Penulis catatan lapangan secara umum bertanggung jawab
menuliskan seluruh rincian proses diskusi termasuk apabila proses diskusi
direkam secara audio maupun visual. Catatan ini merupakan pelengkap dari
dokumentasi observasi diskusi dan sebagai back up bila perekaman gagal.
Seorang penulis catatan ini juga bertanggung jawab dalam tugas yang berkaitan
dengan perekaman seperti mengoperasikan alat, member label dan tanggal hasil
rekaman bila kegiatan usai. Tugas selanjutnya adalah memfasilitasi logistik
yang berkaitan dengan kedatangan dan kepulangan partisipan, atau apabila
partisipan ingin mengundurkan diri dari penelitian.
4. Studi Dokumen
Studi dokumen dapat memberi informasi tentang situasi yang tidak dapat diperoleh
langsung melalui observasi langsung atau wawancara (Hammersley & Atkinson,
2007). Yang termasuk dokumen adalah buku harian pribadi, surat, otobiografi dan
biografi serta dokumen dan berbagai laporan dinas. Sumber dokumen bisa dari yang
informal sampai formal. Penelitian keperawatan bisa menggunakan jadwal, laporan,
dan catatan kasus, standar asuhan dan lainnya sebagai sumber. Peneliti
memperlakukan sumber tersebut layaknya transkrip wawancara atau catatan hasil
observasi, yang nanti dapat dianalisis dengan memberi kode dan kategori.
a. Jenis Dokumen
Tujuan utama dari metode dan analisis dokumen adalah interpretasi maknanya.
Pembagian jenis dokumen didasarkan pada (Scott, 1991): dokumen tertutup,
dokumen terbatas dan arsip terbuka, serta dokumen yang dipublikasi terbuka.
Dokumen tertutup mempunyai akses yang terbatas pada orang tertentu, misalnya
penulisnya atau orang yang berwenang lainnya. Pada dokumen terbatas, peneliti
hanya mendapatkan akses dengan izin pada kondisi tertentu. Izin ini dapat
diperoleh dari penulis yang masih hidup atau dari orang yang menyimpan
dokumen tersebut. Dokumen arsip terbuka tersedia bagi siapa pun dengan
prosedur administrasi tertentu atau waktu tertentu.
Studi dokumen ini sering dibuat sebagai triangulasi untuk metode lainnya, seperti
pada berbagai studi yang menggunakan pendekatan grounded theory. Pada
pendekatan ini pengumpulan data yang menggunakan berbagai metode sangat
dipentingkan. Sebagai contoh, perawat dapat melakukan penelitian tentang
pengobatan yang dilakukan terhadap pasien melalui wawancara dengan pasien
dan tenaga kesehatan, observasi apa yang terjadi di ruang rawat dan studi
dokumen dari rekam medis dan catatan lainnya.
1. Probability sampling
Pengertian probability sampling menurut Sugiyono (2014). Menurut Sugiyono,
probability sampling adalah teknik pengambilan sampel yang memberikan
peluang sama bagi setiap unsur atau anggota populasi untuk dipilih menjadi
sampel.
Probability sampling adalah teknik pengambilan sampel yang memberikan
peluang yang sama bagi setiap unsur (anggota) populasi untuk dipilih menjadi
anggota sampel. Teknik ini meliputi :
a. Pengambilan sampel acak sederhana (Simple random sampling)
Teknik probability sampling ini dianggap sebagai metode pengambilan
probability samplin yang paling mudah. Untuk dapat melakukan metode ini,
yang harus dilakukan peneliti adalah memastikan bahwa semua anggota
populasi sudah dimasukkan ke dalam daftar induk dan subjeknya dipilih
secara acak dari daftar induk tersebut.
Artinya, dalam sampel acak sederhana ini, setiap anggota populasi diberi
tanda pengenal, misalnya nomor dan lain sebagainya. Kemudian mereka yang
terpilih dalam sampel diambil secara acak atau dengan menggunakan program
perangkat lunak otomatis.
b. Pengambilan sampel acak bertingkat (Stratified random sampling)
Jenis pengambilan sampel probability sampling yang kedua adalah
pengambilan sampel proportionate stratified random sampling. Pengambilan
sampel dengan metode ini subjek awalnya dikelompokkan ke dalam
klasifikasi yang berbeda, misalnya berdasarkan jenis kelamin, tingkat
pendidikan, atau status sosial ekonominya.
Dalam pengambilan sampel ini, peneliti harus memperhatikan bahwa
klasifikasi yang dilakukan tidak boleh memiliki subjek yang tumpang tindih.
Setelah itu, peneliti akan secara acak memilih daftar akhir subjek dari berbagai
kategori yang ditentukan untuk dapat memastikan sampel yang lengkap.
BAB V
PENUTUP
A. Kesimpulan
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Anggito, A., & Setiawan, J. (2018). Metode penelitian Kualitatif. Sukabumi: CV Jejak.
Pelajar
content/uploads/2015/12/3_Metpen-Kualitatif.pdf
Laird, Y. (2018). A grounded theory of how social support influences physical activity in
Rahardjo, M. (2011, Juni 10). Materi Kuliah Metodologi Penelitian PPs. UIN Maliki
Malang.
(April). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18448.71689
http://repository.uin-malang.ac.id/1984/2/1984.pdf
Pustaka Pelajar.
| |
Received: 30 August 2020 Revised: 16 March 2021 Accepted: 21 March 2021
DOI: 10.1111/jan.14852
ORIGINAL RESEARCH:
E M P I R I C A L R E S E A R C H – Q U A L I TAT I V E
1
School of Nursing and Allied Health,
Liverpool John Moore University, Abstract
Liverpool, UK
Aim: To explore how healthcare professionals in an acute medical setting make deci-
2
School of Health and Society, University
of Salford, Manchester, UK
sions when managing the care of patients diagnosed with end stage heart failure, and
how these decisions impact directly on the patient's end of life experience.
Correspondence
Karen Higginbotham, School of Nursing
Design: A constructivist grounded theory approach was adopted.
and Allied Health, Liverpool John Moore Method: A purposive sample was used to recruit participants that included 16 regis-
University, Rm2.21, Tithebarn Building,
81, Tithebarn Street, Liverpool, L2 2ER,
tered nurses, 15 doctors and 16 patients. Data were collected using semi-structured
UK. interviews and focus groups over a 12-month period of fieldwork concluding in 2017.
Email: k.higginbotham@ljmu.ac.uk
The interviews were recorded and transcribed and the data were analysed using con-
stant comparison and QSR NVivo.
Findings: Four theoretical categories emerged from the data to explain how health-
care professionals and patients negotiated the process of decision making when con-
sidering end of life care. These were: signposting symptoms, organizing care, being
informed and recognizing dying. The themes revolved around a core category ‘a vi-
cious cycle of heart failure care’.
Conclusion: Healthcare professionals need to engage in informed decision making
with patients to break this ‘vicious cycle of care’ by identifying key stages in the ter-
minal phase of heart failure and correctly signposting the patient to the most suitable
healthcare care professional for intervention.
Impact: This study provides a theoretical framework to explain a ‘vicious cycle of
care’ for patients diagnosed with end stage heart failure. This theory grounded in
data demonstrates the need for both acute and primary care to design an integrative
end of life care pathway for heart failure patients which addresses the need for early
shared decision making between the healthcare professional, family and the patient
when it comes to end of life conversations.
KEYWORDS
end of life care, end stage heart failure, grounded theory, healthcare professional, heart
failure, nurse, nursing care, palliative care, recognizing dying, vicious cycle
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Advanced Nursing published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N (Wiskar et al., 2018). Equally concerning is that little is known about
the decision making of these professionals when caring for such
The National Institute for Cardiovascular Outcomes Research (2019) patients (Meyers & Goodlin, 2016). End of life decision-making re-
defines heart failure as the pathophysiological state in which an ab- search has traditionally focused on primary care and barriers to
normality of cardiac function is responsible for the heart's inability to communication with very few studies exploring the decision making
pump blood sufficiently to meet the body's metabolic requirements. of healthcare professionals in acute medical environments (Barclay
The impaired cardiac function occurs as a consequence of damage to et al., 2011; Selman et al., 2007).
the heart tissue caused by, for example, a myocardial infarction, car-
diomyopathy, valve disease and/or hypertension. They go on to say
that the most prevalent form of heart failure is characterized by poor 2.1 | Advance care planning and heart failure
contraction of the left ventricle, termed heart failure with a reduced
ejection fraction (National Institute for Cardiovascular Outcomes In ‘Ambitions for Palliative and End of Life Care’ The National
Research, 2019) However, heart failure can also be caused by re- Palliative and End of Life Care Partnership (2015) proposed a frame-
duced filling of the left ventricle referred to as heart failure with pre- work detailing six ambitions for the delivery of excellent care to the
served ejection fraction. dying and their families. The main purpose of this document was that
Heart failure is estimated to affect 23 million people worldwide, each person should be seen as an individual and have access to fair
including 10 million people in the USA, 15 million people in Europe care which is coordinated and reviewed regularly by staff who are
(Lawson et al., 2019) and over 900,000 people in the UK (Conrad competent. For those patients diagnosed with a non-malignant ill-
et al., 2019). In addition, the cost of managing heart failure accounts ness this was a major step forward in recognizing the need for equal
for 2% of the UK healthcare budget and has been shown to be re- access to palliation.
sponsible for 5% of unplanned Emergency Department admissions However, the disease trajectory for heart failure, unlike many
(Cowie, 2017). The unpredictability of the disease-trajectory means cancers, is not linear and therefore it makes it very difficult to prog-
that some patients will live well for several years before requiring nosticate and plan end of life care. Heart failure often follows an
hospital admission (Sobanksi et al., 2020). However, worsening unpredictable course with periods of stability interrupted by ex-
symptoms and reduced quality of life can often ensue with around acerbations which may lead to instability and ultimately death
50% of heart failure patients dying within 5 years of diagnosis (Taylor (Mcllvennan & Allen, 2016).
et al., 2019). Patients diagnosed with end stage heart failure who are Once diagnosed with heart failure the patient often overesti-
admitted to hospital with symptoms of acute decompensation have mates their own survival making it difficult to engage in conversa-
high mortality rates: up to 1 in 6 patients will die in hospital or within tions about end of life care planning. In a study comparing patient
30 days of discharge (Dhamarajan et al., 2015; Parenica et al., 2013). predicted life expectancy and model predicted life expectancy,
Many of these patients will not have had the opportunity to have patients overestimated their life expectancy by 40% (Allen et al.,
end of life conversations and as a consequence have limited access 2008).
to palliative care services (Hill et al., 2020; Jaarsma et al., 2009). It is Advance care planning (ACP) is a “voluntary process of discus-
therefore imperative that end of life conversations between health- sion about future care between an individual and their care provid-
care professionals and the patient begin well in advance of clinical ers, irrespective of discipline” (NHS End of Life Care Programme,
deterioration (Asano et al., 2019) to ensure that appropriate end of 2008, p. 5). The aim of the ACP discussion is accurately to document
life plans are discussed. individuals’ concerns, record care planning goals and to clarify pref-
erences and wishes towards the end of life.
Studies undertaken in both primary and secondary care suggest
2 | BAC KG RO U N D that there is several barriers to initiating ACP which may be pre-
cluding patients and families from having these important conver-
Despite a plethora of guidance documents (Department of Health, sations. De Vleminck et al.’s (2014) qualitative study involved five
2008, 2010, 2015; NHS Improving Quality, 2014) aimed at improv- focus group interviews of General Practitioners (GP) (n = 36) with
ing end of life care for patients diagnosed with heart failure there the aim of understanding barriers to initiating the ACP. This study
appears to be little improvement in this area of heart failure care. suggests that barriers occurred more frequently with heart failure
Decisions are made too late in the disease trajectory or not made patients due to a lack of familiarity of the GP with the terminal phase
at all, leaving the patient and their families unable to make informed of the illness. The surprising lack of patient awareness about their
choices (Allen et al., 2012; LeMond et al., 2015). As a consequence diagnosis and prognosis was cited by the GPs as a further barrier to
many of these patients die in an acute hospital bed (National initiating ACP conversations (De Vleminck et al., 2014). Similar find-
Institute for Cardiovascular Outcomes Research, 2019) rather than ings were reported by Ahluwalia et al. (2013) who, in a prospective
their preferred place of care. In the hospital, patients are rarely given observational study, set out to evaluate the extent to which physi-
an opportunity to discuss their preferred end of life choices with a cians working in a busy out-patient department engaged in ACP with
heart failure nurse, cardiologist or indeed a palliative care consultant heart failure patients.
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3144 HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al.
Data analysed included audio tapes of patients aged 65 years the reality is that people with heart failure rarely access these ser-
and older (n = 52) and their physicians (n = 44). The findings con- vices in numbers.
curred with De Vleminck et al. (2014) that physicians were reluctant A survey undertaken in the UK by Cheang et al. (2015) with
to engage with ACP because of lack of time, not knowing what as- 499 respondents reported that 47% of palliative care providers
pects of ACP to discuss and a lack of skill and confidence in having received <10 referrals of patients with heart failure annually and
end of life discussions (Ahluwalia et al., 2013). only 3% received more than 50 referrals. According to Selman
et al. (2007) the lack of palliative care models for heart failure in
primary and acute care may explain why service provision remains
2.2 | Decision making and heart failure woefully inadequate.
In a detailed review of the situation, Puckett and Goodlin
End of life decision making in acute care is complex, involving dif- (2020) make a strong case for the integration of palliative
ficult choices which can often be emotionally demanding for health- care into the management of people with heart failure. They
care professionals, patients and their families (Barclay et al., 2011). illustrate the extent to which heart failure patients endure
The prognostic uncertainty of heart failure makes it extremely dif- breathlessness, anxiety, depression and significant ischaemic
ficult for physicians to know when is the best time to involve the pain, with more than 50% of people having four or more co-
patient in the decision-making process. morbidities. They suggest that it is not inconsistent to integrate
Nurses are recognized as having particular insight into patients’ palliative care principles within an approach which also aims to
wishes as they spend much more of their time with patients and modify the course of heart failure as both have relief of symp-
their families and as a consequence can develop a trusting relation- toms as the aim.
ship (Puntillo & McAdam, 2006). The unique relationship between Improvement in quality of life at its end is clearly important
the nurse, the patient and their family can allow information to be and there is consensus that it reduces demand on acute health-
shared and can broker the gap between the patient's lack of under- care services. Evidence suggests that this needs to coincide
standing and the doctor's potential over-medicalization of the dying with the preferences of patients and their families and that this
process (Costello, 2001; Hockley et al., 2005). In theory, the nurse's is by far the best option (Metzger et al., 2013). A large cohort
therapeutic proximity and the close relationship with the patient can study (N = 113,540) in Ontario comparing the use of health ser-
assist in signalling the patient's readiness to discuss end of life issues. vices towards the end of life in cancer and non-c ancer patients
Making this less likely is evidence which suggests that patients demonstrated that, in heart failure (and other non-c ancer ter-
may currently prefer to play a passive role in decisions about their minal illnesses) palliative care was associated with a 12% reduc-
care and treatment, especially at the end of life. Rodriguez et al. tion in emergency department visits and hospital admissions and
(2008) conducted a telephone survey of 90 adults diagnosed with 41% diminution in intensive care unit admission (Quinn et al.,
heart failure. Using the ‘Control Preferences Scale’ the researchers 2020).
showed that 48% of patients preferred a passive role, with just 21% In summary, a wide international literature makes clear that,
hoping for an active role. Similar findings were reported by Matlock despite some reluctance to refer patients arising from interdisci-
et al. (2010) who interviewed 22 patients with symptomatic heart plinary boundaries, heart failure patients being involved in deci-
failure using semi-structured interviews. Questions posed were “Can sions about their care has good outcomes for both patients and
you tell me about any important or difficult decisions you have had to health services. Studies seem to suggest that good outcomes for
make about your heart condition”? Two distinct styles emerged: ac- the patient include optimal symptom control and improved quality
tive decision makers (55%) who were able to consider treatment op- of life at the end of life, and for the health services a reduction in
tions and consider impact on quality life and passive decision makers hospital costs due to reduced hospital admissions (Greener et al.,
(45%) who did not identify difficult decisions and were happy to trust 2014; Sahlollbey et al., 2020). Our study aimed to examine the
in the physician to make treatment choices. Both Rodriguez et al.’s extent to which this is happening and what participants’ attitudes
(2008) and Matlock et al.’s (2010) studies are limited in that they had and experiences were.
relatively small sample sizes. In both studies, the patients recruited
were predominantly male and white with a mean age of 65 years so
although these results are not widely generalizable they are indica- 3 | TH E S T U DY
tive of key elements of the population of people with heart failure.
3.1 | Aim
2.3 | Palliative care in heart failure To explore how healthcare professionals in an acute medical setting
make decisions when managing the care of patients diagnosed with
Despite claims that modern hospice and palliative care services ex- NYHA Ⅲ and NYHA Ⅳ heart failure, and how these decisions impact
tend to all people with an incurable disease (Sobanksi et al., 2020) directly on the patient's end of life experience.
HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al. |
3145
3.2 | Design and setting IV (The Criteria Committee of the New York Heart Association,
1994). Patients were included in this study if they had an ejection
A constructivist grounded theory design (Charmaz, 2006) was em- fraction ≤35% (Ponikowski et al., 2016; Table S1).
ployed to understand how healthcare professionals made decisions Patients were identified following daily checks of the Electronic
when managing the care of patients diagnosed with end-stage heart Records System along with bi-weekly reviews of echocardiograms.
failure. The setting for this study was an acute medicine department There was twice weekly attendance at the board rounds in the
in a 524 bed District Hospital in the North West of England. Medical Assessment Unit by the heart failure nurse, plus weekly
attendance by KH on the cardiology ward rounds. The age and gen-
der profile of the sample was broadly in keeping with the UK heart
3.3 | Sample and participants failure population (British Heart Foundation, 2020); there were 12
males with a mean age of 70 years and 3 females (n = 3) with a mean
47 participants were purposefully recruited to the study over a average age of 67 years (see Table 3). Healthcare professionals were
1-year period concluding in 2017. The sample included registered included in this study if they were a registered general nurse or a
nurses (n = 16; Table 1), doctors (n = 15; Table 2) and patients (n = 16; medical doctor working in acute medicine. The registered nurses
Table 3). Three patients declined to participate, no reasons were (n = 16) included; staff nurses (n = 5), ward managers (n = 2), ward
given. Patients were included if they had a diagnosis of heart failure
confirmed by echocardiography and they were experiencing marked TA B L E 2 Characteristics of the doctors
limitations in their physical activity due to fatigue, palpitations or
Clinical
dyspnoea, were at NYHA functional classification stage III, or expe-
Pseudonym Grade of doctor Gender specialism
riencing symptoms of heart failure at rest, NYHA classification stage
Shabib FY1 (foundation Male Medicine
year 1) (cardiology)
TA B L E 1 Characteristics of the nurses
Fiona ST2 (speciality Female Medicine (care
Pseudonym Grade of nurse Gender Clinical area trainee) of elderly)
Ella Staff nurse Female Care of elderly Tim ST2 (speciality Male Medicine (care
Joanne Staff nurse Female Acute medicine trainee) of elderly)
Danielle Staff nurse Female Acute medicine Liam StR1 (specialist Male Medicine
(respiratory) registrar year (cardiology)
1)
Bob Staff nurse Male Acute medicine
(respiratory) Andrew StR1 (specialist Male Medicine
registrar year (cardiology)
Jade Staff nurse Female Acute medicine 1)
Liz Ward sister Female Cardiology ward Steve StR1 (specialist Male Medicine (care
Debbie Ward manager Female Acute medicine registrar year of elderly
Ann Ward manager Female Medical 1)
Assessment John StR2 (Specialist Male Medicine (care
Unit Registrar Year of elderly)
Pauline End of life Female Acute medicine 2)
co-ordinator Paul StR2 (specialist Male Medicine (care
Sarah End of life Female Acute medicine registrar year of elderly)
specialist 2)
nurse David StR2 (specialist Male Medicine (care
Jane Cardiology Female Cardiology registrar year of elderly)
specialist 2)
nurse Amina StR2 (specialist Female Medicine
Steve Heart failure Male Cardiology registrar year (cardiology)
specialist 2)
Jenny Trainee advance Female Acute medicine Geoff Consultant Male Emergency
practitioner department
Kelly Trainee advance Female Acute medicine Simon Consultant Male Palliative care
practitioner Siddiqui Consultant Male Medicine (care
Mary Trainee advanced Female Acute medicine of elderly)
practitioner Patel Consultant Male Medicine (care
of elderly)
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3146 HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al.
sister (n = 1), palliative care nurse (n = 1), end of life coordinator Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with the doctors,
(n = 1), end of life specialist nurse (n = 1), heart failure specialist nurse nurses and patients with the aim of exploring their experiences of
(n = 1), cardiology specialist nurse (n = 1) and trainee advanced prac- decision making when managing or receiving heart failure care at
titioners (n = 3). Similarly, the doctors (n = 15) included FY1 (founda- the end of life. Initially, questions were open-ended (Table 4) but
tion year 1) (n = 1), ST2 (speciality trainee, care of elderly medicine) became more focused as transcripts were coded. Codes were com-
(n = 2), specialist registrars (years 1–6) (n = 7), consultant cardiolo- pared with categories until themes began to emerge. During each
gist with a specialist interest in heart failure (n = 1), consultant in coding stage theoretical memos were written to focus further data
care of elderly medicine (n = 3) and a consultant in emergency care collection as well as to inform and refine the developing theoretical
(consultants were generally qualified over 9 years). A palliative care analysis (Charmaz, 2006).
consultant (n = 1) was recruited to the study who was based in the The patient interviews were conducted on the ward, either at
local hospice and provided two sessions per week for the hospital. the bedside or in a quiet room adjacent to the nurses’ station. The
There was one GP who worked primarily in the community who had healthcare professionals’ interviews were undertaken in a place of
a special interest in emergency care medicine. their choice on the hospital campus. For a small group of health-
care professionals, it was more convenient to be interviewed to-
gether. Two focus group interviews were arranged on separate
3.4 | Data collection days. A total of 12 doctors and 3 trainee advanced practice nurses
were recruited as follows. Focus group 1 (n = 7, acute medicine)
Over a period of 12 months fieldwork such as attendance at relevant had two ST2 specialist trainees, two consultant physicians (care
clinical meetings, ward rounds and training events was undertaken. of elderly) and three specialist registrars. Focus group 2 (n = 8,
TA B L E 3 Characteristics of the
Ejection
patients
Pseudonym Gender Age Ethnicity Diagnosis fraction NYHA
Abbreviations: HFpEF, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF, heart failure with a
reduced ejection fraction.
• How would you approach end of life discussions? • What do you understand about the term long-term condition?
• How do you involve the patient and families in those discussions? • What do you understand about the term heart failure?
• How are you developing your heart failure service? Do you actively • Did you have the opportunity to discuss what was important to you
engage patients in user groups? in the management of your heart failure?
• What do understand about advance care planning and Gold Standard • Have you been involved as much as you wanted in the decision
Framework? Would you consider the tool to be easy to use and to about your care and treatment?
navigate? Do you think it is relevant to patients diagnosed with heart
failure?
HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al. |
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cardiology) included one consultant, two stR year one registrars, sifted, sorted and synthesized to identify those codes which were
two stR year two registrar and three trainee advanced practi- considered to have theoretical reach (Charmaz, 2014). Axial cod-
tioners (see Table S2). An interview guide was used to provide con- ing provided a way to identify relationships between concepts and
tinuity and to act as a prompt when asking more probing questions categories and involved constantly comparing transcripts with field
(see Table 3). Participants were encouraged to discuss their expe- notes, diaries and memos.
riences freely and so the interview guide was used flexibly to allow
for open discussion. Questions were reviewed regularly as con-
cepts and themes began to emerge from the data (Charmaz, 2014). 3.7 | Rigour
To enable all participants’ voices to be heard in the focus groups
several strategies were employed. Firstly, the focus groups were Several recognized strategies were employed to enhance cred-
held over a lunchtime period and medical representatives kindly ibility and trustworthiness of this study's findings. Once the cat-
provided lunch. This created a welcoming environment and gen- egories began to emerge from the data these were shared with
erated a more relaxed atmosphere. Secondly, careful redirecting participants to see if they resonated with their own experiences
of questions allowed those more junior participants in the group and if the emerging theory made sense. This constant going back
to participate and share their own experiences of decision mak- and checking with the participants confirmed that the theory in
ing. Thirdly, checking in with participants helped to clarify points fact was grounded in the data. The constant comparing of data,
of discussion which often led to further debate. Field notes were field notes and memos helped in this checking process and assisted
kept of substantial involvement in day-to-day meetings and activi- in directing the questions until all categories were theoretically
ties. Diaries were used in capturing day to day personal reflections saturated and there was no further exploration of the phenom-
and observations. The diaries, field notes and memo writing were ena. In addition, we had input from a patient charity ‘Pumping
an integral part of the constant comparison of data and only ended Marvellous’ which provided the patient voice in the initial design
once it was evident that categories had been saturated and no new of this study. We believe that the depth and detail gained are suf-
themes emerged. All interviews were recorded using the research- ficient to lend substantial validity in terms of credibility and rel-
er's voice memo application on the iPhone and immediately post evance to the categories generated (Long & Johnson, 2000). This
interview downloaded into a file on a password protected PC. study was conducted with COREQ qualitative criteria clearly in
mind (Tong et al., 2007).
Following a plan
Providing continuity
Distressing care
Organising care Individualising care
Have the right mind set
Right place to care
Personalising care
They will just try everything they can medically off- diagnosing dying and so there was a tendency to prescribe potentially
loading the fluid you know to the point where the unhelpful treatments for the patients. The continuation of these fu-
renal function is impaired, probably because the dis- tile treatments occasionally led to patients’ lives being unnecessarily
ease trajectory is so unpredictable. Even the cardiol- prolonged; this was distressing for both the patient and their families.
ogists don't like to commit to days or weeks. I know
people who I have seen in the clinic on Tuesday and “I think that is our failing, I think it is the medics’ fail-
they sadly passed away on the Thursday. I would be ing, … from my point of view. This patient in particular,
thinking what's wrong with them but they are either we really have to be sensible about this and how long
going to die from pump failure or an arrhythmia so do we sensibly have to continue doing things for this
it's what gets you first unfortunately.” (Steve, Heart gentleman which is inappropriate and we have to bear
Failure Nurse) in mind what he wants. Does he want to spend his last
days in a hospital or does he want his symptoms looked
Despite the availability of the New York Heart Association func- at in an appropriate setting, and I think yeah, and I think
tional classification score to assist in the decision-making process, very other than that we can all reflect and improve.” (Liam,
few doctors were observed recording the patient NYHA classification Registrar)
in the medical notes. The reason given for this was: ‘it isn't very helpful’,
‘patients find it difficult to understand’ and ‘(it's) not always as reliable as The barrier to expert end of life care was perceived by some doc-
blood tests and echocardiogram’ (Ahmed, Consultant, Cardiologist). There tors involved to be the lack of clear guidance. For many doctors having
were very few nurses both on the cardiology and acute medical wards defined guidance provided the necessary support and assurance to
who understood NYHA or knew about the classification. know when to refer onto the palliative care team. In heart failure pa-
tients this lack of certainty in recognizing dying and referring them for
“No, I never see that on the ward but I think the nurses palliative care often delayed the patient's transfer and consequently
do ask some of the questions, but maybe not all of the patient died unnecessarily in a hospital bed. The cardiology doc-
them. For me they are either out of breath or not out of tors often referred to this as being the ‘vicious cycle’.
breath; they are either breathless when walking or not
out of breath when walking.” (Liz, Ward Sister) “…We don't have a policy of guidelines to recommend
co-operation with the palliative care team … so you
The withdrawal of the Liverpool Care Pathway (Neuberger et al., know if a patient is going to die very soon with severe
2013) and the lack of clarity surrounding the implementation of the LV (left ventricular) dysfunction 20 or below of ejec-
individualized end of life care plan (Leadership Alliance for the Care tion fraction, 20 or below with lots of symptoms, (it)
of Dying People, 2014) had made some doctors nervous about would be beneficial if the palliative team were involved
HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al. |
3149
and the heart failure nurses. One patient was here for couldn't handle it’. This practice was observed amongst the more senior
6 months. She was in the side ward and we were not nurses who took a gatekeeper role in keeping the patient emotionally
doing anything … we hardly made any changes … it is safe.
a vicious cycle … and it was difficult to get her out of
the hospital … these patients are very costly.” (Andrew, “Yes, probably more so I think with spouses than with
Specialist Registrar) the patients themselves, I think somebody who is very
close to somebody can see that they are not getting
better and they want to know the answers and they
4.2 | Being informed want to know what is coming. They don't always want
to discuss that in front of the patient but they want to
‘Being informed’ was found to be multi-factorial and revealed dif- know the answers and I think sometimes possibly the
ferent emotions in both patients and healthcare professionals. For fear with patients, they almost don't want to know.
example, it was important for patients to be informed about what They won't ask the question because they don't want
was ‘going on’ by a healthcare professional whom they considered to know the answer. I think there is a slight element of
to be trustworthy. For the healthcare professional ‘being informed’ that sometimes.” (Jane, Specialist Nurse)
was about balancing the risks and being able to deliver safe and ef-
fective care. We found ‘giving information’ to patients about their In contrast, palliative care nurses took a different approach to
end of life care to be dependent on several factors; the expertise of information giving; there was an understanding that the patient
the person giving the information, professional status, suitability of had a right to know their fate. It was accepted that ‘being sad’ and
the information and how the information would be received by the ‘being upset’ were part of a normal response to being given a terminal
patient and their families. Nurses described patients falling into two diagnosis.
categories; ‘those who could handle’ the information and those who
‘couldn't handle the information’. Occasionally nurses would refer to “I have seen over a thousand patients … I must have
this intuitive knowing which was described as ‘a gut feeling’ that pa- done … most people, yes they are sad but they are ok
tients were ready to receive information. … they are ok … yes of course they are sad they (are)
approaching the end of their life … but they are ok.”
“I think you can come across some patients who you (Rebecca, Palliative Care Nurse)
would get the feeling, who you know can handle the
information you are going to give them and they are A consensus amongst some healthcare professionals was that
to handle it well and they are going to take it on board, information was not given because of a ‘lack of confidence’. This was
but there are other patients; how are they going to observed in non-cardiology areas like care of the elderly and respira-
respond to this?” (Bob, Staff Nurse) tory medicine where healthcare professionals were considered ‘not the
experts’.
Often nurses were found to link this ‘intuitive knowing ‘to their
years of clinical experience and an ability to sense when it was the right “I think it is a confidence thing with the person who is
time to give information to the patient and their families. giving that information because sometimes you see it
yourself; people sitting on the fence a bit and sort of
“I can remember saying to a student nurse this patient I what you think, well this is … they need to know the
can't see going out of hospital. She said how you know facts.” (Kelly, Trainee Advanced Nurse Practitioner)
that? I said it's just intuition, it's just experience … you
just know when the right time is to give information.” In this study, both nurses and doctors stated that they found the
(Debbie, Ward Manager) task of explaining the diagnosis and prognosis to the patient very chal-
lenging. They spoke about the ‘need to be honest’ about the seriousness
To avoid upsetting the patient nurses would initially use the family of the condition and were mindful that this could raise patient anxiety.
as a ‘sound board’ to test the patient's understanding about their ter- To avoid giving information to patients about their terminal condition
minal condition. This technique was well-rehearsed and meant nurses emotional blockers were used like ‘I don't want the patient ‘to lose hope’.’
could avoid unintentionally upsetting the patient. It was not clear what (Specialist Registrar, Cardiology). This left many patients in a situation of
nurses considered to be the accepted or the right time to give end of ‘not knowing’ and having ‘false hope’.
life information to the patient. Generally, information was observed to
be given on a need to know basis. The only time nurses would deviate “Really it's a problem to be honest. We should tell them
from this practice was when a direct question was asked by the pa- everything at that time but we just don't want to upset
tient. The rationale given for not giving end of life information was that them all in one go and then go: ‘you're going to die’.”
patients would ‘not want to know’, it would be too upsetting or ‘they (Shabib, FY1)
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3150 HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al.
4.3 | Signposting symptoms FY1). It was unanimously agreed amongst the doctors that conversa-
tions about end of life should already have been initiated with the pa-
It was common for patients to present initially to the GP with acute tient before reaching the end stages of the disease. This was felt to be
symptoms of decompensation (failure of the heart to maintain ad- the responsibility of the heart failure team but in many cases is just did
equate circulation). Patients spoke about making multiple visits to not happen.
their GP where their medications would be reviewed and then being
sent home.
4.4 | Organizing care
“I went to doctors because I couldn't breathe. At
times they gave me some tablets which they said take Patients did not always have access to a community heart failure
for 10 days so I took them for 10 days. They worked to nurse so relied on the GP or practice nurse for advice and support.
an extent because it all settled down. Once I stopped If symptoms did not improve the GP would refer the patient to the
taking them it went back up again … I went back to on-call physician or the emergency department. For the patient, this
doctors they gave me the same again only for longer cycle of care often resulted in readmission to hospital within weeks
and they didn't seem to do anything at all. Next thing of discharge.
I know 2 more weeks down the line I’m going back
getting another load of tablets twice as strong as the “Oh, I had swollen legs a bit then but they still sent
last lot and I mean, you have seen my legs.” (Patrick, me home and I went downhill a bit, I was sick like.
Patient) Before I had my breakfast this morning I was heaving
and bringing up all different sorts of stuff so I knew
There were common ‘markers’ or ‘signposts’ which the patient I was going down really as I said to them “I am not
would describe. Often these markers or signposts would be described blaming anybody” because it's bad enough (to) report
‘gasping for breath’, ‘swollen legs’, ‘loss of appetite’ and ‘lack of sleep’. to higher authority here, and they want to know why I
Often patients were observed self-referring to the emergency depart- was sent home in the first place and why I have come
ment when symptoms became progressively worse and the markers or back again”. (Patrick, Patient)
symptoms were not picked up by the GP.
For the doctors responsible for the care of the elderly ‘sign- The emergency department was considered by healthcare pro-
posting symptoms’ involved treating the acute episode of de- fessionals to be the lowest common denominator when it came to
compensation. It involved controlling symptoms rather than patients being readmitted back into hospital. The healthcare profes-
acknowledging or trying to change the patient's prognosis or sionals often commented that the department was often used to pro-
referral to palliative care. In some cases a patient's symptoms vide ‘crisis intervention’ for patients which was seen as unsatisfactory.
would improve to allow discharge home. For many patients it was This often meant treating the symptoms of decompensation and then
common to be readmitted with worsening symptoms only weeks discharging the patient either to a ward or back home into the care of
after being discharged back home. This ‘vicious cycle of care’ the GP. Often opportunities to engage in end of life conversations or
would then be repeated over and over again; treatment, review, refer to the palliative care team was missed.
discharge and readmission.
“I don't think there is any joined up thinking. Patients
“If patients are stage 3 and 4 they are usually on with long-term conditions whether chest, heart, what-
maximal medical therapy and are never going to ever, they are given their treatment, they go home
get any better so it's about symptom control as with it and then as they deteriorate and when there is
opposed to like making their prognosis any better. a crisis the lowest common denominator is Emergency
They are probably going to die in the next 6 months Department and MAU (Medical Admissions Unit). In
but they continue to come back into hospital be- the acute phase it's just sticky plaster medicine you
cause they become more breathless. We tinker get them over the hump and discharge them home
around with the diuretics and then they go home but there is not much in the way of follow-up, what's
and then they come back with acute kidney infec- the long-term plan, is palliation an option?” (Geoff,
tion because the Frusemide has been upped, so it is Emergency Department)
a recognition that the person is probably dying and
that it is symptom control.” (Fiona, ST2) Furthermore, there was recognition by the emergency care team
that meeting the government four hourly wait target meant for some
This type of medical model of managing heart failure patients was heart failure patients being discharged from the department without
considered by doctors to be “sticky plaster medicine” (Geoff, Consultant) having the opportunity to be seen by the cardiologist or palliative care
and that often it was just a case of “cracking on until the end” (Shabib, team.
HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al. |
3151
“Meeting the four hourly ED target means patients once failure (Figure 2). Our findings show how the absence of a struc-
reviewed will need to be discharged either home or into tured management plan and a fragmented care system leads to the
beds … we probably keep people with severe heart fail- disabling of the shared decision-making process between healthcare
ure 48–72 h till they are over the worst then get them professionals and the patient, resulting in a consistent failure to tran-
home but if there's a 4 day wait for a cardiology bed sition patients to a palliative care approach as might more often hap-
then they don't make it we do refer them all to the heart pen in cancer care, for example, where prognoses are in many cases
failure nurse… (Geoff, Emergency Department) more certain. We describe this as a ‘vicious cycle’ of care.
To try to negotiate this cycle of care participants were found
to adopt several different strategies which were neatly packaged
5 | D I S C U S S I O N within the four theoretical categories; signposting symptoms, or-
ganizing care, being informed and recognizing dying. These themes
We believe that this is the first study to illustrate in detail how health identified by the participants and grounded in data were found to be
professionals often fail to negotiate modern, open, communication important landmarks in the negotiation process and assisted partici-
and decision making with patients within the cycle of end stage heart pants in making sense of each stage of the cycle.
Transfer to
Medical
Assessment Unit
Organising Care
Transfer to
Referral to Hospital Cardiologists
Medical Ward
Self-Referral to ED Signposting
Being Informed
Symptoms
Heart Failure Nurse
Palliative Care
Recognising Dying
GP assessment and
treatment of patient Discharged Home
The findings suggest that for the nurses knowing when to give present study, the delay in recognizing dying led directly to delays in
information to the patient about their heart failure condition was referring patients to the palliative care team. Consequently, patients
enabled by a process they described as ‘intuitive knowing’. This pro- were unable to make informed decisions with their families about
cess of intuitive knowing was seen by the nurses as a way of protect- their end of life care.
ing the patient from any information which could potentially cause In this study, the Emergency Department was observed to be the
any harm or distress. Equally, intuitive knowing was what the nurses most common point of entry into the cycle for patients presenting
used to decide the patients’ readiness to receive information. This with acute symptoms of decompensation. This was particularly ev-
process was carefully orchestrated to allow the nurse's time to flag ident for those patients without community heart failure services.
any concerns to the doctor and suppress what may be perceived un- For the healthcare professionals this cycle of care was recognized
wanted information. These findings are congruent with Taylor et al. as being unsatisfactory. The competing demands of resources and
(2017) who found that nurses and doctors used an iterative process, pressure to meet government targets meant that patients were
which involved intuitive knowing, collecting clinical data and the use often pushed through the cycle without any time to organize care
of prognostic models to inform the diagnosing dying decision. and refer to either a cardiologist or community heart failure services.
There was a genuine concern by the doctors that giving pa- Moreover, many healthcare professionals recognized that the op-
tients too much information could result in the patient giving up portunity to refer patients to palliative care was lost because of the
hope. These findings supplement those of Clayton et al. (2007) and need to meet government targets. Several studies concur with this
Brighton and Bristowe (2016) who found that doctors were reluc- finding agreeing that Emergency Departments could provide the
tant to disclose prognosis because they wanted to preserve hope initial assessment and referral to a palliative care team potentially
and avoid harm to the patient. The principles of non-maleficence reducing the number of potential re-admissions (Lipinski et al., 2018;
and beneficence (Beauchamp & Childress, 2008) were important Pang et al., 2014).
to the doctors in this study who described the giving of informa-
tion as a careful balancing act between meeting patient expectation
and avoiding harm. Gordon and Daugherty (2003) argue that these 6 | LI M ITATI O N S
principles may be misguided and that beneficence would ideally still
entail full disclosure of prognosis without necessarily causing harm. The transferability of these study findings should be evaluated
Likewise, nurses were of the opinion they would be more comfort- in the context of its geographical location and its modest sample
able raising discussions and giving prognostic information if it was size. The sample recruited to this study was limited to only one
perceived to benefit the patient and their families. A moral frame- District General Hospital in the Northwest of England, therefore
work privileging autonomy, in this case the meeting of patient and these findings may not be transferable to other healthcare organi-
family preferences and the relief of suffering might perhaps play a zations. However, it could be argued that the process of gathering
stronger role in the future. rich and contextualized data on the human experience compli-
Interestingly, in this study very few patients were observed pro- ments and adds to existing literature on the topic of end stage
actively seeking out information from healthcare professionals, they heart failure. This study was undertaken in a location of ethnic
preferred to take a more backstage passive role in the process of diverse cultures and yet the sample recruited were all white par-
being informed. Literature around the topic of health information ticipants. This was not intentional and this issue was raised as a
seeking behaviour seems to suggest that avoiding information is a concern to the cardiologists who were aware that ethnic minori-
common strategy used to protect oneself from the burden of knowl- ties in the area were not attending the outpatient clinics. It will be
edge (Klindtworth et al., 2015). Other factors observed to influence important to investigate this issue in relation to various minorities
patients’ information seeking were found to be the physical symp- such as South Asians who are known to be particularly vulnerable
toms of heart failure, for example breathlessness, which made it dif- to heart disease (Davis et al., 2020). The aim of this study was not
ficult for many patients to engage in questioning or conversation. to provide a theory specific to one participant but one that could
The demise of the Liverpool Care Pathway along with an un- be applied or compared with data across other similar settings.
predictable disease trajectory were reasons given by the doctors Therefore, it is important to consider that this substantive theory
for delaying or avoiding end of life discussions with their patients. will in the future provide a platform for further research to explore
There was a belief held amongst some of the doctors that recog- cycles of care with patients diagnosed with end stage heart failure
nizing dying was equivalent to failure and so they felt morally justi- from a range of setting and communities.
fied in continuing to provide medical intervention. Several doctors
recognized that prolongation of life was not right but at times felt
obliged to meet the treatment expectations of both the patient and 7 | CO N C LU S I O N
their families. The difficulties in recognizing end of life have been
highlighted in the literature where doctors have failed to recognize In this study, the vicious cycle of care for heart failure patients
dying and been overly optimistic with treatment plans (Momen & was found to be a product of a healthcare system where organiza-
Barclay, 2011; O’Leary et al., 2009; Willard & Luker, 2006). In the tional demands and organizational rules do not always facilitate the
HIGGINBOTHAMIAN et al. |
3153
delivery of best care. The cycle allows the patient to enter and exit T WITTER
the cycle randomly without any barriers leading to the patient mov- Karen Higginbotham @K_Higginbotham1
ing back and forth within the cycle until the patient's untimely death. Ian Jones @ProfIanJones
The knowledge about cycles of care in heart failure is limited and so Martin Johnson @martinjohnson33
further work needs to be undertaken with multiprofessional teams
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