FILSAFAT ILMU DAN SEJARAH

PEMIKIRAN AKUNTANSI

History of
Chinese
Philosoph
y
OLEH:
HENGKY VERU PURBOLAKSETO (NIM.
041517147301)

WAHYU AGUS WINARNO (NIM. 041517147304

Filsafat Timur in Brief

Filsafat Timurmerupakan
sebutan bagi pemikiran-pemikiran
filosofis yang berasal dari
dunia Timur atau Asia seperti
Filsafat Cina,Filsafat
India,Filsafat Jepang, Filsafat
Islam, dll. Setiap jenis filsafat
merupakan suatu sistem-sistem
pemikiran yang luas dan plural.
(Leaman,2000). Sebagai contoh
filsafat India dapat terbagi
menjadi filsafat Hindu dan filsafat
Buddhisme, sedangkan filsafat
Cina dapat terbagi menjadi
Konfusianisme dan Taoisme
walaupun demikian filsafat
Buddhisme lebih berkembang di
Cina.

Filsafat Barat sejak masa Yunanitelah

menekankan akal budi dan pemikiran yang
rasional sebagai pusat kodrat manusia
(Driyarkara,1993).Filsafat Timur lebih
menekankan hati daripada akal budi, sebab hati
dipahami sebagai instrumen yang
mempersatukan akal budi dan intuisi, serta
intelegensi dan perasaan.Tujuan utama
berfilsafat adalah menjadi bijaksana dan
menghayati kehidupan, dan untuk itu
pengetahuan harus disertai dengan moralitas

Filsafat IlmuOntologi,Epistemologi,Aksi
ologi

Filsafat ilmu memiliki tiga cabang

kajian yaitu ontologi, epistemologi
dan aksiologi.

Ontologi membahas tentang apa

itu realitas. Dalam hubungannya
dengan ilmu pengetahuan, filsafat
ini membahas tentang apa yang
bisa dikategorikan sebagai objek
ilmu pengetahuan. Dalam ilmu
pengetahuan modern, realitas
hanya dibatasi pada hal-hal yang
bersifat materi dan kuantitatif. Ini
tidak terlepas dari pandangan yang
materialistik-sekularistik.
Kuantifikasi objek ilmu
pengetahuan berarti bahwa aspekaspek alam yang bersifat kualitatif
menjadi diabaikan.

Epistemologis membahas masalah metodologi

ilmu pengetahuan. Dalam ilmu pengetahuan
modern, jalan bagi diperolehnya ilmu
pengetahuan adalah metode ilmiah dengan pilar
utamanya rasionalisme dan empirisme.

Aksiologi menyangkut tujuan diciptakannya ilmu

pengetahuan, mempertimbangkan aspek
pragmatis-materialistis.

Refleksi

Filsafat Timur memiliki ciri-ciri

yang berbeda dengan filsafat
Barat, yang mana ciri-ciri agama
terdapat juga di dalam filsafat
Timur, sehingga banyak ahli
berdebat mengenai dapat atau
tidaknya pemikiran Timur
dikatakan sebagai filsafat
(Billington,1997).Di dalam studi
post-kolonialbahkan ditemukan
bahwa filsafat Timur dianggap
lebih rendah ketimbang sistem
pemikiran Barat karena tidak
memenuhi kriteria filsafat
menurut filsafat Barat, misalnya
karena dianggap memiliki unsur
keagamaan atau mistik
(king,1999).

Akan tetapi, sekalipun di antara filsafat Timur dan

filsafat Barat terdapat perbedaan-perbedaan,
namun tidak dapat dinilai mana yang lebih baik,
sebab masing-masing memiliki keunikannya
sendiri (King,1999)

Selain itu, keduanya diharapkan dapat saling

melengkapi khazanah filsafat secara luas.

The Chinese
Philosophies:
Confucianism

Kung Fu-tzu (551

479 B.C.E)

* Born in the feudal

state of Liu
(Eastern China).
* He becomes a
teacher and
become
fascinated with
politics and how
the country is
governed.

At the age of 50
He gains a small post
in the duke of Lus
cabinet.
But he finds his role is
so inconsequential
that he quits soon
after.

The next thirteen years

He wanders from state to
state trying to put his
political theories into
practice (Bloom &
Solotko, 2003).
He eventually gives up,
and comes back to Lu
to teach.
His concern is for the
health of society, and
he focuses on human
relationships.

In the generation after

his death
His followers put
together a
collection of
his sayings and
teachings. This
collection,
called the
Analects
(Lun-yu), is
the main body
of his teaching.

Major Confucian Principles

Li -->

Rite, rules, ritual decorum

(Binding force of an enduring
stable society)

Ren -->

humaneness, benevolence,
humanity, Relationship between
"two persons

Shu -->

Reciprocity, empathy. Do not do

unto others what you would not
want others to do unto you.

Yi --> Righteousness
Xiao --> Filial Piety (Respect your elders!)

Confucius emphasis on
relationship parallels his
concern for proper behavior
5 Principle Relationships:

Ruler

<----->

Father

Husband

Older Brother <----->

Brother

Friend

Subject

<----->
<----->

Son

Wife
Younger

<----->

Friend

These relationships are complementary

and reciprocal.

Rainey, L. D. 2010.
Confucius and
Confucianism: the
essentials
John Wiley & Sons.

1.

Confuciuss Teaching I:
The Foundation of a
Good Person

Filial Piety Parents, should be served

when alive until dead.

2.

Dutifulness or Loyalty The virtue of

dutifulness or loyalty is implied in filial
piety.

3.

Honesty and Sincerity Honesty is

more than telling the truth; one says one
will do. Sincerity no distance between
what we think, what we say, and what
we do.

Confuciuss Teaching I:
The Foundation of a
Good
Person
4. Rightness and Knowledge knowing what is
proper, what is right, what is moral. Confucius did
not teach rule-based behavior, so what is right is
based on ones status, ones role, and the specifics
of the situation.
5.

Courage A noble who is courageous, but who

doesnt know what is right, will create political
trouble, while a lower-class man who is courageous,
but doesnt know what is right, will become a
criminal.

6.

Understanding, Sympathy, Compassion

treat the other person as you yourself would like to
be treated.

7.

Confuciuss Teaching I:
The Foundation of a
Good Person

Humanity is defined as the opposite

of self-interest, profit, and looking for
possessions.

8.

Ritual ritual is the external expression

of an inner morality.

9.

The Gentleman A person who can

practice both humanity and ritual.

Confuciuss Teaching II: The

Foundation of a Good Society and
Other Topics
1.

Setting words right We must all

name things by their proper names; we
must all use the correct word when we
discuss something.

2.

For the Benefit of the People

government exists for the benefit of the
people.

3.

Laws laws and punishments only

make people learn how to avoid being
caught ritual is better than law.

Confuciuss Teaching II: The

Foundation of a Good
Society and Other Topics
4.

Models Government officials act as models for the

people. Ideal government and society are based on
ritual and morality. Ex. like the wind and the grass.

5.

Education without Distinction In education

there are no different kinds.

6.

Women men and women are not to sit on the

same mat.

7.

The Gods, the Spirits of the Dead, and the

Afterlife believed in the power of the gods, the
spirits, and the ancestors. You do not understand life,
how can you understand death Confucius did not
consider these issues useful topics for his teachings.

Confuciuss Teaching II: The

Foundation of a Good
Society and Other Topics
8.

The Choice of Heaven and Heaven I do

not grumble at Heaven nor blame human
beings. I study what is around me so as to
follow what is above. It is only Heaven that
knows me.

9.

Fate There are things over which we have

no control: they are chosen or fated by
Heaven.
Way or Road Confucius says that it is
human beings who expand the Way (Dao) ,
not the Way that expands human beings.

10. The

Opponents Daoism
(Zhuangzi c.399 285
BCE)
The Dao pointed to in the Laozi is natural and
spontaneous different from Confucius.

The Dao itself is not a thing it is a process, a process

of birth, death, movement, and stillness.

Laozi uses to describe the Dao is the image of

water.

Civilization cannot succeed if It is an artificial and

unnatural thing. Everything that goes against the Dao
dies.

Zhuangzis major criticisms of Confucians right and

wrong are simply a matter of point of view and a
matter of taste. Confucians are wrong to think
otherwise (define right and wrong).

Opponents - The
Strategists
(Mo Tzu, 468-376 BC)

Sunzis Art of War Mohists Group

Sunzi argues that any method, moral or

immoral, can be used to win.

Warfare, for Sunzi, includes diplomacy,

economic measures, and the use of spies.

The Way that a successful ruler must

follow is the Way of dishonesty.

Strategists were not interested in morality,

ritual, or argument. Success, by any
means, was all that mattered.

Opponents - The
Logicians
(Hui Shi 380305 BCE)
The Logicians despised by Confucians, Daoists, and
ordinary people.

Logicians were not interested in looking to the past

to discover what was right and wrong they used
argument to decide things. For Confucius,
connection to the past was vital for life today.

Just like a modern lawyer who will defend anyone if

paid enough.

Logicians like Hui Shi and Gongsun Long were not

interested in talking about morality = Sunzis

Hui Shi have argued that morality was just a matter

of taste, just as his friend Zhuangzi did.

Opponents Legalism
(Han Feizi c. 280 - 233 B.C.E
Qin [Chin] Dynasty)

Human beings want to maximize pleasure and minimize

pain Legalists present their ideas as utilitarian and
logical. Confucian is not a utilitarian philosophy.

Politically, this means that a government can use

rewards and penalties to motivate people Everyone
must come to fear the ruler.

Han Feizis principles: (1) Government was to centralize

control in the hands of the ruler; (2) principle is law; (3)
The Power is used to make others obey.

Legalists that making people fear does not work in the

long run and that one has to make people internalize
morality for society to work.

Implications of
Confucianism for China
accounting
(Bloom and Solotko
2003)

General Issues
1.

The emphasis on loyalty to the state,

family, and friends can lead to an
accounting system with attributes of
nepotism and secrecy.

2.

Confucianism emphasis on family

enterprises Family businesses are not
inclined to provide disclosure of their
operating performance and financial
position to external auditors.

3.

Instead, the family firm would generally

prefer non-disclosure, if not secrecy.

General Issues

4.

The Confucian notion of honesty and truthfulness

suggest full disclosure in Chinese Report.

5.

The doctrine of benevolence refers to governing the

state by means of virtue and morality rather than the
law.

7.

The emphasis in Confucianism on a hierarchical order

in society would seem to suggest a lack of need for
accountants Accountants would have a limited
advisory role at best and a low degree of
professionalism in society.

8.

Every one should be able to take care of his/her own

and family finances and business transactions.

Special Issues Bookkeeping Techniques

The Chinese inputoutput method of single-entry

bookkeeping was widely used in western Zhou
governmental accounting until the mid-nineteenth
century.

The single entry method has three main features:

1.

the Chinese characters of Ru (meaning input) and

Chu (meaning output) were used as recording
symbols;

2.

accounts books were classified into Cao Liu, a type

of day book and Zong Qing, a type of ledger; and

3.

the three column method (i.e. newly received

payment = balance) was used to check accounts
(Aiken and Lu, 1993a: 111).

Special Issues Accounting Information

Collectivism have significant impact on the development

of Chinese accounting.

users of accounting information were predominantly

government and administrative bodies with
macroeconomic interests.

Information provided by accounting was mainly statistical

data and considered as part of government census.

Cost measurement and profit calculation were rarely

found in ancient Chinese accounting system.

Conservatism is a crude approach for coping with

downside risk, showing losses as soon as reasonably
possible but deferring gains until they are clearly
realizable.

Special Issues Accounting

Profession/Accountants
Separated into accountants in private sector (LI) and
government accountants (YI).

Officials accountants were recognized as noblemen,

private accountants were treated as common people.

Merchants and private accountants were stipulated

by laws to be the lowest social class.

Confucius once exclaimed that he had never talked

about LI.

Professional public accountants first appeared in

China in 1918 when the Northern Warlord government
issued the Accounting Provision the development of
public accounting evolved at a very slow.

Special Issues Accounting Regulations

There is no written evidence that regulating and

standardizing accounting practice existed in
ancient China before the Qin dynasty (221 BC206
BC).

Highly developed government accounting rules

ex/ After the First Emperor of Qin unified China, he
standardized Chinese characters, the currency,
and the system of weights and measures; thus
eliminating obstacles to pursuing the Qins form
and method of accounting throughout the nation

Government control in Standard Setting.

No written private accounting standard.

Special Issues Government Accounting

Feng Shui was an important factor in

influencing government and government
accounting in ancient China.

Feng Shui, Taoisme,

dan Budhisme

Sumber : Confucius & Confucianism The Essentials (Lee Dian Rainey, 2010)

ADA BANYAK BUKTI YANG MENUNJUKKAN

BAHWA PERKEMBANGAN AKUNTANSI CINA TIDAK
HANYA DIPENGARUHI OLEH KONFUSIANISME,
TAOISME DAN BUDDHISME, TETAPI JUGA OLEH
MERATANYA KEPERCAYAAN FENG SHUI DI CINA
KUNO SELAMA RIBUAN TAHUN.

(gao AND Schachler : 2003)

The Chinese
quintessential idiom
Destiny
Luck
Feng

Shui
Philanthropy
education
Sumber :

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTING IN CHINA: THE

EFFECTS OF CULTURE

(Solas and Ayhan, 2007)

Makna Feng Shui

Feng Shui, bangsa Cina kuno terlebih

dahulu menggunakan nama Ham Yu.

Ham memperoleh energi dari surga,

sedangkan

Yu menghubungkan bumi dengan

benda-benda luar angkasa lain.

Ham Yu bisa diartikan menghubungkan

bumi agar memperoleh energi dari surga

Feng Shui
Feng Shui is
not a
superstition
because it has
a logical
relationship
between
cause and
effect
Sumber : The influences of Confucianism, Feng Shui and Buddhism in Chinese accounting history
(Gao and Schchler, 2003)

Two fundamental
systems

A theoretical system of Yin/Yang and five

elements (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and
Earth);

An ideological belief system of the unity

of man and nature.

Taoism

Lao Tzu*
(6th century BC)
and the

Tao Te Ching
(Dow Duh Jing)

Wu Wei

Yu Wei

Tzu Jan

*Also known as
Laotse, Laozi, LaoZi, Li Erh, Li Tan, &
Lao Tan.

Konsep Ajaran Taoism

Wu Wei Kelembutan sebagai tujuan

utama. Sebagai bentuk pasrah terhadap
hidup yang dijalani. Wu Wei lebih bersifat
Filsafat Tao.

Yu Wei Tindakan, bahwa hidup perlu

aturan dan hukum. Disini Yu Wei lebih
mendekati sebagai Agama Tao

Tzu Jan Spontanitas. Bahwa hidup ini

spontan (alami).Kepercayaan bahwa alam
semesta dan kehidupan sosial akan
berkembang secara spontan,

Buddhism

The fundamental teachings

of Buddhism

Suffering comes from

selfish desires;
overcoming desire ends
suffering; follow Eightfold
Path to overcome desire.

Inti Ajaran Budha

Inti sari dari ajaran Budha adalah kebenaran

mulia.

hidup adalah menyakitkan, awal dari sakit adalah

keinginan, penghentian dari rasa sakit adalah
dengan menghilangkan keinginan.

Umat Buddha Cina mengatakan bahwa keinginan

rakyat adalah akar kejahatan.

Buddhisme mengajarkan bahwa jika seseorang

ingin menyingkirkan penderitaan dan kesusahan,
mereka harus menyerahkan semua keinginan
akan material (termasuk uang, harga diri, dll).

Evolusi Akuntansi di China

Pengaruh
Budaya

Sumber :

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTING IN CHINA: THE

EFFECTS OF CULTURE

(Solas and Ayhan, 2007)

Analisis Teori Hofstede

Sumber :

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTING IN CHINA: THE

EFFECTS OF CULTURE

(Solas and Ayhan, 2007)

Analisis Teori Dimensi

Budaya Hofstede
1.

Power Distance: Large

Luasnya power distance ini disebabkan
oleh struktur masyarakat China yang
hierarkis (pengaruh kerajaan)
Dampaknya: konservatisme dalam
perhitungan dan disclosure tinggi.

Sumber: On the Construction of Chinas Accounting Standard System

with International Convergence in Accounting Standards (Zhang
and Liu, 2010)

2. Individualism vs Colectivism
China cenderung pada hidup secara
kolektif. Kondisi ini dipengaruhi oleh
ajaran-ajaran Budha, Konfusianisme, dan
ajaran lain yang mengajarkan harmonisasi
dan kerja sama. Akibatnya mereka mudah
berkomitmen dan profesionalisme juga
meningkat. Namun secrecy menjadi
tinggi. Contoh: related party transaction
tidak banyak didisclosure.

3.

Maskulinity vs Feminity
China cenderung feminim dimana
mengutamakan hubungan sosial,
kesopanan, dan perhatian. Terlihat dari
hirarkis yang tinggi dan cara China
bersosialisasi. Akibatnya menjadi
kurangnya transparansi sebagai akibat
dari kurangnya kompetisi.

4. Uncertainty Avoidance
Kebanyakan negara Asia seperti China,
Jepang, dan Indonesia termasuk ke dalam
negara-negara yang menghindari
ketidakpastian. Akibatnya mereka
cenderung konservatif.
Contoh: dalam ASBEs penilaian aset
hanya diperbolehkan menggunakan
historical cost

5. Long Term Orientation

Sebagai akibat dari ajaran-ajaran yang
banyak berkembang di China, masyarakat
China cenderung berorientasi jangka
panjang. Salah satu tandanya adalah
kebanyakan masyarakat China lebih suka
hemat, hidup sederhana dan harmonis.

Timeline Akuntansi
China
Abad 20M

Tahun 2200
SM

15 Februari 2006

Masuknya
Single entry
Tahun 1992
methode

Dinasti Hsiu &

Xia

MOF menerbitkan
ASBE

11SM1644M
Perkenalan
ide
akuntansi
sederhana
di China

MOF
memperkenalkan
ASBEs

Sebelum 2005
BUMN diwajibkan
mengadopsi ASBE

Tahun 1949

Tahun 2012

Perekonomia
n China
dipengaruhi
Marxisme

Konvergensi ke IFRS
(sumber: AICPA
Update)

Evolusi Perkembangan
Akuntansi China

Bookkeeping Technique

Single Entry

Double Entry

Sistem The Three Feet Bookkeeping

Sistem The Longmen Bookkeeping

Sistem The Four Feet Bookkeeping

Single Entry

Periode Dinasti Zhou Barat (1100-771 SM)

Periode Dinasti Qin dan Han (221 SM220

M)

Periode Dinasti Tang dan Song (6181279

M)

Periode Dinasti Ming dan Qing (1368-1912

M)

Periode Dinasti Zhou

Barat (1100-771 SM)

Digunakan pertama kali digunakan oleh akuntansi

pemerintahan.

Menggunakan 2 bentuk buku harian, Cao Liu dan

Zong Qing.

Cao Liu digunakan untuk mencatat transaksi yang

sering terjadi kemudian dicatat lagi pada

Zong Qing sesuai dengan kategori judul akun.

Simbol Cina Ru (masuk) dan Chu (keluar) digunakan

sebagai simbol pencatatan.

Metode 3 kolom untuk mencari saldo akhir.

Penerimaan BaruJumlah Yang dikeluarkan = Saldo

Akhir

Periode Dinasti Qin dan

Han (221 SM220 M)

Simbol Cina Ru (masuk) dan Chu (keluar)

digunakan oleh akuntansi pemerintahan dan
simbol Shou (penerimaan) dan Fu (pengeluaran)
digunakan oleh akuntansi non-pemerintah.

Periode ini sudah terdesain akun penjualan,

pengeluaran, klasifikasi piutang dan hutang.

Dengan adanya satu mata uang maka

pencatatan sudah mencamtukan nilainya.
Setelah berakhirnya Dinasti Han Barat (25 S.M221 Masehi), kertas sudah ditemukan dan
populernya penggunaan Simpoa.

Periode Dinasti Tang dan

Song (6181279 M)

Zaman ke-emasan kerajaan Cina.

Simbol Cina Ru dan Chu dan simbol Shou

dan Fu digunakan oleh akuntansi
pemerintahan maupun non-pemerintah.

Pelaporan akuntansi disusun berdasarkan

harian, bulanan dan tahunan dengan
menggunakan 4 kolom.

Saldo Awal + Penerimaan - Pengeluaran =

Saldo Akhir

Periode Dinasti Ming dan

Qing (1368-1912 M)
Saldo Awal + Penerimaan Pengeluaran = Saldo
Akhir, atau
Saldo Awal + Penerimaan = Pengeluaran + Saldo
Akhir, atau
Penerimaan Pengeluaran = Saldo Akhir Saldo
Awal

Double Entry - The Three

Feet Bookkeeping

transaksi tidak tunai dicatat dengan 2 baris, sedangan

transaksi tunai dicatat dengan 1 baris.

Sebagai contoh adalah apabila persediaan sutra

digunakan untuk membayar hutang toko B, maka
transaksinya akan dicatat:

Receipt: silver from silk

Disbursement: silver to B firm

Contoh transaksinya secara tunai : pembelian teh secara

tunai, maka pencatatannya sebagai berikut:

Disbursement: silver to the purchasing of tea

Buku tunai digunakan untuk mencatat kenaikan dan

penurunan uang dengan metode 4 kolom. Koreksi jumlah
uang yang ada dengan cara menghitung jumlah fisiknya.

Double Entry - The

Longmen Bookkeeping

Terdapat 3 buku akun, Cao Liu, Xi Liu, dan Zong Qing.

Keunggulan dari penggunaan The Longmen

Bookkeeping adalah:

Sou dan Fu digunakan sebagai simbol rekaman sesuai

dengan prinsip. Hal ini digunakan untuk mencatat
entri ganda pada setiap transaksi.

Semua judul akun dikelompokkan berdasarkan 4

kategori: Penerimaan (Receipt), Pembayaran
(Payment), Simpanan (Keeping) dan Hutang (Owing).
Masing-masing kategori memiliki sub-item. Kategori
penerimaan dan pembayaran sangatlah penting
karena sebagai dasar perhitungan laba.

Double Entry - The

Longmen Bookkeeping

Check:
Receipts - Payments = Keeping

Double Entry - The Four

Feet Bookkeeping

dikenal sebagai metode The Heaven and Earth Matching

Bookkeeping (Tian Di He Zhang).

Merupakan pengembangan dari metode The Three Feet

Bookkeeping dan The Longmen Bookkeeping.

Ada 4 jenis buku akun/ laporan:

1.

Xi Liu untuk mencatat jurnal umum, jurnal pembelian dan

penjualan tunai.

2.

Zong Qing digunakan untuk mencatat jurnal piutang dan

hutang.

3.

Cai Xian Jie Ce Untuk mencari laba, berisi laporan tentang

penerimaan (Jin) dan pengeluaran (Jiao) barang.

4.

Cun Chu Jie Ce, yaitu daftar seluruh modal, hutang dan
aset.

The Four Feet

Bookkeeping- Cai Xian
Jie Ce

Profit:
Receipt (lin) - Payment (liao) --- Cina
Income - (Expense + Loss + Tax) --Western

The Four Feet

Bookkeeping- Cun Chu
Jie Ce

Owing (Gai) + Profit = Keeping (Cun) atau

Capital + Creditors + Profit = (Inventory + Fixed asset +
Cash + Debtors)

Cultural
factors
influencing
Chinese
accounting

The Differences of China

Accounting and Western
Accounting

Perbedaan Akuntansi di
China dengan Italia

Simbol pencatatan, Cina menggunakan

simbol Shou (penerimaan) dan Fu
(pengeluaran) sedangkan italia Debit dan
Kredit.

Klasifikasi Akun, Cina mengkalsisfikasikan

akun Penerimaan (lin), Pembayaran (liao),
Simpanan (Cun) dan Hutang (Gai),
sedangkan italia Aktiva, Hutang dan
Modal Pemilik.

Perbedaan Akuntansi di
China dengan Italia
Receipt (lin) - Payment (liao) = Keeping (Cun) - Owing
(Gai)
(Four Feet account)
Keeping (Cun) = Owing (Gai) Profit or Loss (lishi) =
Owing (Gai)+ Receipt (Jin) - Payment (liao)
(Four Feet account)
Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity
(Italia)

Perbedaan ASBEs dengan IFRS

Kos Model VS Revaluation (Asset)

Kapitalisasi Borrowing Cost
Kos model vs Fair Value (Biological
Asset)
Impairment loss
Related party transaction

Perbedaan Akuntansi di
China dengan Metode Barat

financial
Statement

Accounting
Law

balance sheet
profit and loss accounts
cash flow statements
notes to the accounts and a profit and
loss appropriation account

Certified Public Accountant Law

Budget Law
Audit Law
Company Law
Law on Negotiable Instruments
Enterprise Bankruptcy Law
Economic Contract Law
Tax law

Perbedaan Akuntansi di
China dengan Metode Barat

ASBEs

(Efektif 1
Juli 1993)

commodity distribution
construction
real estate
finance and insurance
transport and communications
foreign economic cooperation
tourism and catering
and agriculture

Perbedaan Akuntansi di
China dengan Metode Barat

General
principle
s

general principles for

evaluating the quality of
accounting information
general principles for
recognizing and measuring
accounting elements
and general principles for
revising the above two sets of
principles

Penutup: Kajian Filsafat dalam

perkembangan Akuntansi di
China

Accounting in China
Modern Era

having realized the need for establishing acceptable

accounting principles to enable PRC enterprises to
attract foreign investment or have their stocks listed on
overseas markets, the MOF promulgated a separate set
of accounting regulations for selected joint stock
companies in January 1992 ASBE

Until 1994 China lacked a regulatory framework on

which accounting and auditing standards could be set
since the country's first nationalCompanies Lawswere
not effective until 1 July 1994. The lack of such a
framework also rendered the formulation of other
regulations, such as the nationalSecurities
LawsandListing Regulations, more difficult and time
consuming.

The Aims of ASBE

These standards form the basis for establishing

accounting principles, and perhaps conventions, that
allow enterprises flexibility in formulating their own
accounting policies best suited to their individual
circumstances. The ultimate objective, in a nutshell, is
to produce a set of financial statements that are 'true
and fair'.

With the introduction of theAccounting Lawin 1999,

theRegulations on Financial Reporting of Enterprisesin
2000 and theAccounting Systems for Business
Enterprisesin early 2001, which harmonizes the
different accounting standards and regulations
applicable to different enterprises, the framework of
modern Chinese accounting has finally become clear.

The accounting concepts and

China's accounting
regulations Convergence

The general accounting principles or concepts

employed in China's accounting regulations
include accuracy, completeness, consistency,
comparability, timeliness, materiality, accrual
basis, matching, prudence, substance over form
and going concern. By and large, the principles
mirror those of IAS. Other major features of these
regulations are as follows:

The historical cost convention is prescribed. Assets

are required to be recorded at purchase cost (less
any necessary impairment provision) and
revaluations are strictly prohibited except when
allowed by other State provisions.

The accounting concepts and

China's accounting
regulations Convergence

The concept of fair market value is not commonly used

due to the limited existence of open markets.

These regulations also require companies to use the

calendar year, that is January 1 to December 31, as
their financial year.

The double-entry bookkeeping method should be

adopted. Records in accounts and books have to be
made in renminbi (yuan) (the lawful currency of the
PRC). Transactions and balances denominated in foreign
currencies have to be converted into renminbi at the
official rate, which may differ from the current market
rate. All records and balances of transactions made in
foreign currencies and the exchange rate used must be
maintained for reference.

The accounting concepts and

China's accounting
regulations Convergence

A clause in these regulations specifically requires

the appropriation of a collective Welfare Fund and
a Statutory Reserve Fund from profit after tax.

Due to the infancy of the new systems, certain

footnote disclosures may not be as comprehensive
as those acceptable elsewhere in the world. Yet, in
certain areas, the Chinese standards are
extremely stringent. This includes disclosing the
corporate identity of related parties and
commenting on the fairness of transactions
conducted between related parties, and preparing
the cash flow statements using both the direct and
indirect methods.

Closing remarks

The choice of convergence, in my opinion, is make sense for

making the existence of entity or country still exist. China
choose this convergence strategy to protect his interest.

However, the needs of information about the current value

are insisted by the investors. as business investors include
many countries, to facilitate their financial statements
comparable across countries. They want all countries adopt
IFRS

Who actually the investor? I can state it from the country:

Europe and USA.

Does China still can convince investors to invest in China,

although the standard of their financial statements are
converging of IFRS? let us follow the continued development
of accounting standards china. history has not ended yet.

Further reading

The Institure of Chartered Accountants of

Scotland,2010,Chinese Accounting Reform :
Towards a principle-based global regime

Liu Yuting,2010.The Experience of Chinas

Accounting Standards Setting and Its
Convergence With IFRSs, Presentation of
Finance Ministry

Herz,Petrone,2005. International Convergence

of Accounting Standards-Perspectives from the
FASB on Challenges and Opportunities,
Northwestern Journal of International Law &
Business,Volume 25,Issue 3 Spring,631.

References

Bloom, R., and J. Solotko. 2003. The foundation of Confucianism

in Chinese and Japanese accounting. Accounting, Business &
Financial History 13 (1):27-40.

Cigdem, S., and A. Sinan. 2007. The historical evolution of

accounting in China: the effects of culture. Spanish Journal of
Accounting History 7.

Gao, S., and M. Handley-Schachler. 2003. The influences of

Confucianism, Feng Shui and Buddhism in Chinese accounting
history. Accounting, Business & Financial History 13 (1):41-68.

Solas, C., and S. Ayhan. 2008. The historical evolution of

accounting in China (novissima sinica): effects of culture (2nd
part). De Computis: Revista Espaola de Historia de la
Contabilidad (8):138-163.

Rainey, L. D. 2010. Confucius and Confucianism: the essentials:

John Wiley & Sons.

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