Proses Asesoris TOYO Untuk Sintesis UREA

Proses Asesoris TOYO untuk Sintesis UREA
Laporan ini disampaikan ke jurusan Teknik Kimia,

Wah Engineering College, Universitas Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan
Untuk pemenuhan sebagian persyaratan untuk gelar Sarjana di
Indonesia
TEKNIK KIMIA
Sidang
2010-2014
Anggota kelompok
Hafiz Adeel Hassan
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-011
Muhammad Imran Salim
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-025
Noman Rasool
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-028
Muhammad Usman
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-036
Departemen Teknik Kimia

Wah Engineering College
Universitas Wah
DEDIKASI
Proyek ini didedikasikan untuk orang tua tercinta kita, yang dipelihara
kita dari masa kanak-kanak kita dan tidak hanya berdoa untuk kebaikan kita masa
depan tapi malah berjuang untuk sementara mendapatkan semua masalah kepala
mereka sendiri Selain itu, kami juga ingin mempersembahkan proyek ini kepada
kami guru terhormat dan terhormat yang membantu kami dalam kompilasi
laporan ini.
KATA PENGANTAR
UREA adalah produk PUPUK utama. Proses yang berbeda tersedia untuk produksi
dari urea Laporan desain ini adalah tentang "proses ACEL TOYO untuk sintesis
Urea". Ini laporan terbagi dalam bagian yang berbeda. Pertama-tama pengenalan
proses ACES diberikan, yang menyoroti pentingnya proses ini. Proses pembuatan
urea yang berbeda juga dijelaskan. Deskripsi detil "proses ACEL TOYO untuk
sintesis Urea". Setelah itu neraca material dan energi peralatan disajikan.
Pada bab sebelumnya diperkenalkan berbagai peralatan pabrik beserta
perancangannya lembar prosedur dan spesifikasi disajikan. Studi Hazop,
Instrumentasi & Kontrol dan Estimasi Biaya untuk pabrik ini juga disertakan
dalam laporan ini
ABSTRAK
Urea adalah dalam banyak hal bentuk yang paling nyaman untuk nitrogen tetap. Ini
memiliki nitrogen tertinggi Isi tersedia dalam pupuk padat (46%). Mudah diproduksi sebagai
prill atau butiran dan mudah diangkut dalam jumlah besar atau tas tanpa bahaya bahan peledak.
Tidak meninggalkan residu garam setelah digunakan pada tanaman. Bobot spesifiknya adalah
1,335, terurai pada mendidih dan cukup larut dalam air. Bahan baku utama yang dibutuhkan
untuk tujuan ini adalah NH 3 & CO 2 .Dua reaksi yang terlibat dalam pembuatan urea. Pertama,
amonium karbamat terbentuk di bawah tekanan oleh reaksi antara CO 2 & NH 3 .
CO 2 + 2NH 3 → NH 2 COONH 4 ΔH = -37,4 Kcal
Reaksi eksotermik ini diikuti oleh dekomposisi endotermik dari amonium karbamat
NH 2 COONH 4 ↔ NH 2 CONH 2 + H 2 O ΔH = + 6,3 Kkal
Berbagai proses pembuatan urea adalah:

1) Proses Penghematan Biaya dan Hemat Energi (ACES)
2) proses pengupasan CO2 Stamicarbon
3) proses pengupasan ammonia Snamprogetti
4) Sekali melalui proses urea
Kami memilih proses Advanced Cost and Energy Saving untuk pembuatan urea. Itu
Preferensi proses ACES ke proses pembuatan urea lainnya akan dibahas secara singkat terlebih
dahulu bab. Beberapa keuntungan dari proses ACES meliputi konversi CO 2 tinggi , pengupasan
yang efisien, pemulihan panas maksimum, kurang korosi dan kualitas produk. Saldo energi &
neraca material tanaman dilakukan. Kapasitas pabrik yang dipilih adalah 6,00.000 ton / tahun
urea menghasilkan 75, 583,33 kg / jam urea dengan kemurnian 98,5%. Reaktor Urea dirancang
secara mekanis. Volume reaktor dihitung dan ditemukan 129 m 3 . Itu Panjang & diameter
reaktor masing masing 25 m & 2,5 m. Reaktor yang digunakan adalah steker jenis aliran
Biaya canggih dan proses Penghematan Energi melibatkan tinggi NH 3 untuk CO 2 rasio dalam
reaktor, Biasanya konversi 4/1 dan 66-68% CO 2 dilakukan. CO 2 digunakan sebagai agen
pengupasan tanah. NH 3 (l) adalah masuk ke dalam reaktor dan CO 2 (g) ke penari telanjang.
Penggunaan Urea:
• Sekitar 56% Urea diproduksi digunakan dalam pupuk padat.
• Sekitar 31% Urea diproduksi digunakan dalam pupuk cair.
• Resin urea-formaldehida banyak digunakan sebagai perekat kayu lapis.
• Resin melamin-formaldehid digunakan sebagai alat makan dan untuk membuat permukaan
ekstra keras.
Sifat subjek yang luas dan batasan ukuran membuat banyak area disentuh dengan sangat baik
Secara singkat, namun upaya telah dilakukan untuk mencakup segi topik yang signifikan.
PENGAKUAN
Kami mengucapkan syukur dan memuji ALLAH YANG MAHA ESA, Pencipta alam
semesta, siapa dermawan dan penuh belas kasihan, menuntun kita dalam keadaan sulit, yang
memberi kita kemauan untuk melakukannya lakukan proyek desain ini Sangat menghormati
Nabi Suci kita Hazrat Muhammad (SAW), yang mengajarkan kita untuk belajar sampai pangkal
kuburan.
Kami sangat berterimakasih kepada Prof. Dr. AK Salariya yang terhormat yang
memberi kami kesempatan untuk mengerjakan topik menarik semacam itu. Saran
konstruktifnya, panduan konstan dan Sikap ramah mendorong kita untuk bekerja dengan cara
yang lebih baik. Kami berterima kasih kepada penasihat kelompok terhormat kami Prof. Dr.
GM Mamoor dan kelompoknya pengawas Mr Kashif Iqbal atas kerjasama bagus mereka
dalam karya desain kami. Kami juga menunjukkan apresiasi kepada teman-teman kami yang
terdorong dan bekerja sama dengan kami sepanjang pekerjaan kita.
BAB 1
PENDAHULUAN T O UREA
1.1 Pupuk
1.2 Karakteristik Urea
1.3 Produksi Komersial Urea
1.4 Pupuk Tersedia Di Pakistan
1.5 Permintaan dan Penyediaan Urea di Pakistan
BAB 2
PEMILIHAN P ROCESS S DAN D ESCRIPTION
2.1 Proses Konvensional
2.2 Perbandingan Proses
2.3 Pemilihan Proses
2.4 Uraian Proses Proses ACES
2.5 Diagram Alir Proses Proses ACES
BAB 3 3
M ASS B ALANCE C ALCULATIONS
3.1 Neraca Material pada Keseluruhan Tanaman
3.2 Saldo Reaktor
3.3 Saldo Stripper
3.4 Saldo sekitar Decomposer Tekanan Menengah
3.5 Saldo sekitar Kondenser Carbamate
3.6 Saldo sekitar Decomposer Tekanan Rendah
3.7 Saldo sekitar Penyerap Tekanan Bawah
3.8 Saldo sekitar Absorber Tekanan Menengah
3.9 Saldo sekitar Scrubber
3.10 Saldo sekitar Kondensor
3.11 Saldo sekitar Evaporator
3.12 Saldo sekitar Menara Prilling
BAB 4
E NERGY B ALANCE C ALCULATIONS

4.1 Perhitungan Panas Khusus
4.2 Saldo Energi di sekitar Reaktor
4.3 Neraca Energi di sekitar Stripper
4.4 Saldo Energi di sekitar Scrubber
4.5 Neraca Energi di sekitar Kondensor Karbamat
4.6 Neraca Energi sekitar Dekomposisi Tekanan Sedang
4,7 Energi Saldo sekitar Absorber Tekanan Rendah
4,8 Tabulated Heat Balance
BAB 5
P rocess D esign
5.1 Desain Reaktor
59
5.2 Lembar Spesifikasi
62
5.3 Desain Stripper
63
73
5.5 Desain Kondensor
74
81
5.7 Desain Evaporator
82
87
5.9 Desain Absorber
88
97
5.9 Pemilihan Pompa
98
101
5.11 Pemilihan Kompresor
102
104
BAB 6
M ECHANICAL D ESIGN
6.1 Desain Mekanik Reaktor
106
112
6.3 Gambar Mekanik Reaktor
113
BAB 7
Saya NSTRUMENTATION DAN P rocess C ontrol
7.1 Instrumentasi dan Kontrol
7.2 Komponen Sistem Pengendalian
7.3 Sistem Pengendalian Khas
7.4 Pertimbangan PFR di Pabrik Urea ACES
BAB 8
HAZOP S TUDY
8.1 Studi Bahaya dan Operabilitas
8.2 Langkah yang Dilakukan Dalam Studi HAZOP
8.3 Keselamatan Pabrik Urea
8.4 Identifikasi Bahaya
8.5 First Aid (Prosedur Darurat)
BAB 9
E NVIRONMENTAL I MPACT
9.1 Penilaian Dampak Lingkungan
9.2 Dampak Urea Plant terhadap lingkungan
9.3 Emisi ke udara
9.4 Emisi ke air
9.5 Emisi ke darat
Metode Penghapusan
BAB 10
STIMASI C OST E
10.1 Biaya Peralatan yang Dibeli
10.2 Total Penanaman Modal
10.3 Total Biaya Produk
10.4 Analisis Profitabilitas
BAB 11
S IMULATION I N A SPEN HYSYS
11.1 Pengantar ASPEN HYSYS
11.2 Simulasi Bagian Sintesis
R EFERENCES
➢ Referensi
1.1 PUPUK
Pupuk mengembalikan kesuburan tanah dengan sup dimanfaatkan oleh tanaman untuk
pertumbuhannya pupuk, hasil panen akan menjadi signi nutrisi utama, seperti, N, P & K. Min
konsentrasi unsur hara tanah dan digunakan oleh tanaman. Urea adalah sol yang paling
terkonsentrasi butiran berwarna putih berisi 46 persen amonium (NH 4 + N) di dalam tanah. Bec
cocok untuk digunakan dalam larutan pupuk o Urea adalah senyawa organik dengan
dikenal dengan nonpropriet internasional organisasi Kesehatan Dunia. Lain Karbonil Diamida,
dan
BAB 01: Pendahuluan
2
mengembalikan kesuburan tanah dengan menyediakan nutrisi ke dalam tanah. Kacang ini
oleh tanaman untuk pertumbuhan dan perkembangannya. Tanpa additio
Hasil panen akan berkurang secara signifikan seperti tanah kita
ients, seperti, N, P & K. Pupuk mineral digunakan untuk meningkatkan
Ketinggian tanah dan mineral ini bisa cepat diserap
Pupuk nitrogen padat padat yang paling pekat
warna dan bebas mengalir. Urea mudah larut dalam wa
6 persen Nitrogen dalam bentuk amida (NH 2 ) yang berubah
) di dalam tanah. Karena kelarutan airnya yang tinggi, itu i
se di larutan pupuk atau semprotan daun.
senyawa organik dengan rumus kimia (NH 2
nama nonproprietary internasional (INN) karbida, seperti yang ditetapkan
lth organisasi Nama lain termasuk Carbide R
dan Carbonyl Diamine.
Gambar 1.1 Struktur kimia dari molekul urea
APTER 01: Pengantar Urea
ents ke tanah Nutrisi ini
ment. Tanpa penambahan
Karena tanah kita kekurangan
s digunakan untuk meningkatkan
juga bisa cepat diserap dan
pupuk itrogen Yang prills atau
a mudah larut dalam air. Saya t
) bentuk yang diubah menjadi
Kelarutan dalam air, itu baik
2 ) 2 CO Urea juga
NN) karbida, sebagaimana ditetapkan oleh
Carbide Resin, Isourea,
molekul f urea
Halaman 12
Produksi Urea dengan proses ACES
3
Urea sintetis:
Ini adalah senyawa organik pertama yang disintesis secara artifisial dari anorganik
bahan awal, pada tahun 1828 oleh friedrich Wohler, yang menyiapkannya dengan reaksi
potasium sianat dengan sulfat maksimum. Meski Wohler sedang berusaha
Siapkan amonium bersinergi dengan pembuahan urea, dia secara tidak sengaja mendiskreditkan
vitalisme teori bahwa bahan kimia organisme hidup pada dasarnya
berbeda dengan benda mati, sehingga memulai disiplin organik
kimia.
Sintesis urea artifisial ini terutama relevan dengan kesehatan manusia karena
Siklus urea pada manusia. Urea ditemukan: sintesis pada hati manusia di Indonesia
untuk mengusir kelebihan nitrogen dari tubuh. Jadi di masa lalu urea tidak dipertimbangkan
sebagai bahan kimia untuk keperluan pertanian dan industri. Dalam 20
th
abad itu ditemukan
untuk menjadi yang terbaik untuk pupuk iatrogenik untuk tanaman dan digunakan secara luas
sebagai a
pupuk. Urea adalah pupuk utama di dunia pada tahun 1990an. Bagian dari
urea sedang digunakan di banyak industri lainnya.
Urea diproduksi dalam skala sekitar 100.000.000 ton per tahun di seluruh dunia. Untuk
Penggunaan di industri, urea berasal dari memproduksi amonia sintetis dan karbon dioksida.
Urea bisa diproduksi sebagai prillers, granul, serpih, pelet, kristal dan larutan.
Lebih dari 90% produksi dunia ditakdirkan untuk digunakan sebagai pupuk. Urea memiliki
kandungan nitrogen tertinggi dari semua pupuk nitrogen yang umum digunakan (46,7%).
Oleh karena itu, ia memiliki biaya transportasi terendah per unit gizi nitrogen. Urea
sangat larut dalam air dan oleh karena itu, juga sangat cocok untuk digunakan dalam pupuk
larutan (dalam kombinasi amonium nitrat).
Halaman 13
BAB 01: Pengantar Urea
4
1.2 KARAKTERISTIK UREA
Urea berwarna putih tidak berbau padat. Karena ikatan hidrogen yang luas dengan air (naik
ke enam ikatan hidrogen dapat terbentuk - dua dari atom oksigen dan satu dari
setiap urea hidrogen sangat larut)
Tabel 1.1 Karakteristik Fisik Urea
Massa jenis
1,33 × 10
padat
Titik lebur
132,7 ° c (406 ° k) terurai
Titik didih
NA
Kelarutan dalam air
108
(20 ° c)
167
(40 ° c)
251
(60 ° c)
400
(80 ° c)
733
(100 ° c)
Tekanan uap
<10pa
Kepadatan massal
0,8
Tabel 1.2 Karakteristik Kimia Urea
Nama IUPAC
Di amino methanal
Formula kimia
(NH 2 ) 2 CO
Massa molekuler
60,07 g / mol
Momen dipol
4,56 p / d
pH
(100g.L-1 dalam air, 20ºC) ~ 9
Halaman 14
5
1.3 PRODUKSI KOMERSIAL UREA
Urea diproduksi secara komersial dari dua bahan baku, amonia dan karbon
dioksida. Sejumlah besar karbon dioksida diproduksi selama pembuatan
amonia dari batu bara atau dari hidrokarbon seperti gas alam. Ini memungkinkan
sintesis langsung urea dari bahan baku ini. Produksi urea dari
amonia dan karbon dioksida terjadi dalam reaksi kesetimbangan dengan
konversi reaktan yang tidak lengkap
Berbagai proses urea ditandai dengan kondisi di mana dengan
Pembentukan urea berlangsung dan cara reaktan yang tidak bertukar
diproses lebih lanjut Reaktan yang tidak bertukar dapat digunakan untuk pembuatan
produk lain, misalnya amonium nitrat dan sulfat, atau bisa juga
didaur ulang untuk konversi lengkap ke urea dalam proses daur ulang total. Dua
Reaksi utama terjadi dalam pembentukan urea dari amonia dan karbon
dioksida.
Reaksi pertama adalah eksotermik:
2NH 3 + CO 2
H 2 N-COONH 4 (amonium karbamat)
Sedangkan reaksi kedua adalah endotermik
H 2 N-COONH 4
(NH 2 ) 2 CO + H 2 O
Kedua reaksi gabungan bersifat eksotermik.
2NH 3 + CO 2
(NH 2 ) 2 CO + H 2 O
Molekul urea adalah planar dan mempertahankan simetri molekulernya, karena
konjugasi dari satu dari setiap nitrogen "sp orbits ke ikatan rangkap karbonil".
Setiap atom oksigen karbonil menerima empat ikatan hidrogen NHO, yang sangat biasa
fitur untuk jenis ikatan semacam itu. Hidrogen padat (dan sangat menguntungkan) ini
Halaman 15
6
Jaringan ikatan mungkin didirikan dengan biaya pengemasan molekuler yang efisien.
Strukturnya cukup terbuka, pitanya, membentuk terowongan dengan salib persegi
bagian. Urea stabil dalam kondisi normal.
Penggunaan Urea:
(1) Penggunaan industri
•
Sebagai bahan baku pembuatan plastik secara khusus, urea-
resin formaldehida.
•
Sebagai bahan baku pembuatan berbagai perekat (urea-
formaldehid atau urea-melamin-formaldehid). Yang terakhir ini tahan air
dan digunakan untuk kayu lapis laut.
•
Sebagai komponen pupuk dan pakan ternak, memberikan harga yang relatif murah
sumber nitrogen tetap untuk mendorong pertumbuhan.
•
Sebagai alternatif garam batu di deicing jalan raya dan landasan pacu. Saya t
tidak mempromosikan korosi logam sejauh garam itu tidak.
•
Sebagai bahan aditif dalam rokok, dirancang untuk meningkatkan rasa.
•
Sebagai bahan dalam beberapa hair conditioner, pembersih wajah, minyak mandi dan
lotion
•
Hal ini juga digunakan sebagai reaktan dalam beberapa kompres dingin siap pakai untuk
pertama-
penggunaan bantuan, karena reaksi endotermik yang tercipta saat dicampur dengan air.
•
Bekas, bersama dengan garam, sebagai agen penyemaian awan untuk memperlancar
kondensasi air di awan, menghasilkan presipitasi.
•
Kemampuan urea untuk membentuk katarses (juga disebut host-guest complexes,
senyawa inklusi, dan aduk) digunakan di masa lalu untuk memisahkan
parafin.
•
Sebagai agen penguji api.
•
Sebagai bahan bakar pembakaran bersih untuk kendaraan bermotor dan mesin stasioner.
Halaman 16
7
(2) Penggunaan laboratorium
Urea adalah protein denaturant yang kuat. Properti ini bisa dimanfaatkan untuk meningkat
kelarutan beberapa protein. Urea digunakan untuk secara efektif mengganggu non
ikatan kovalen dalam protein. Urea merupakan bahan dalam sintesis urea nitrat.
(3) Penggunaan medis
• Urea digunakan dalam produk dermatologis topikal untuk meningkatkan rehidrasi
kulit. Jika ditutupi dengan saus oklusif, sediaan urea 40% mungkin
juga digunakan untuk debridemen nonsurgical pada kuku.
• Lihat nitrogen urea darah ("BUN") untuk tes urea yang umum dilakukan,
dan penanda fungsi ginjal.
• Urea berlabel isotopik (karbon 14 - radioaktif, atau karbon 13 - stabil
isotop) digunakan dalam tes nafas Urea, yang digunakan untuk mendeteksi
adanya Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori, bakteri) di perut
dan duodenum manusia. Tes mendeteksi enzim urea karakteristik,
diproduksi oleh H. pylori, dengan reaksi yang menghasilkan amonia dari urea.
Hal ini meningkatkan pH (mengurangi keasaman) pada lingkungan lambung
sekitar bakteri.
Urea Permintaan:
Permintaan Urea dalam survei dunia tahun 2011 adalah sekitar 170,348 juta MT dan memang
demikian
diperkirakan akan mencapai 180 juta MT pada tahun 2015. Asia akan memberikan kontribusi
sebesar 68% dalam hal ini
kenaikan India 25%, China 24% dan Pakistan 5%. Di sisi lain, di
Amerika merupakan kontribusi utama dari Brasil (6%) dan AS 6%. Di
Kenaikan penting Eropa diperkirakan di Rusia (4%). Untuk memenuhi semua permintaan ini,
Investor mencoba memasang tanaman urea di negara-negara berpenduduk padat dimana saja
Permintaan makanan mencapai puncaknya.
Halaman 17
Gambar 1.2 Cross
Pakistan juga salah satu lokasi ini
meningkat dari hari ke hari Kami adalah i
Pakistan. Oleh karena itu perlu untuk kamu
Apalagi kita harus tahu ab
Pakistan serta permintaan urea w
1.4 PUPUK TERSEDIA
Sumber pasokan pupuk di Pa
Yang diproduksi secara lokal termasuk
amonium sulfat (AS) sebagai straigh
adalah satu-satunya pupuk fosfat lurus
Semua pupuk lainnya diimpor. R
telah dihentikan karena tingginya biaya pro
3,40%
1%
8,10%
0,80%
3%
5,90%
12%
Total Permintaan: 175.348 MT
BAB 01: Pendahuluan
8
Grafik Lintas Seksi Daerah Urea
s juga salah satu lokasi dimana permintaan urea ada a
hari demi hari. Kami tertarik untuk memasang proyektor baru kami
Oleh karena itu, penting bagi kita untuk belajar tentang pesaing kita di Pak
Kita harus tahu tentang kapasitas produksi Urea yang ada dari pla
Begitu juga permintaan urea yang harus kita penuhi.
LIZERS TERSEDIA DI PAKISTAN
Pasokan pupuk di Pakistan adalah produksi dalam negeri dan im
ufactured lokal termasuk urea, kalsium amonium nitrat (BISA
sulfat (AS) sebagai pupuk nitrogen langsung. Superfoid tunggal
Pupuk fosfat dan nitrofos adalah NP, fer kompleks
ertilizer diimpor Baru-baru ini produksi SSP dan A
karena tingginya biaya produksi.
31,50%
31,60%
4,90%
al Permintaan: 175.348 MT
APTER 01: Pengantar Urea
Permintaan Urea
Ada permintaan urea dan ada
memasang proyek baru kami di
keluar pesaing kita di Pakistan.
kapasitas produksi tanaman di Indonesia
produksi mestic dan impor.
ammonium nitrat (CAN) dan
rtilizers Superfosfat tunggal
hos adalah NP, pupuk kompleks.
produksi SSP dan AS
31,50%
Asia Selatan
Asia Timur
Cental Eropa
Eropa Barat
Eropa Timur &
Cental Asia
Oceania
Afrika
Halaman 18
9
Tabel 1.3 Grade Pupuk tersedia di Pakistan
Nama yang umum
Grade atau Analisis (%)
N
P2O5
K 2 O Sulfur
Pupuk nitrogen
Urea
46
0
0
0
Amonium sulfat
21
0
0
24
Kalsium amonium nitrat (BISA)
26
0
0
0
Pupuk fosfat
Single Superphosphate (SSP)
0
18
0
12
Triple superfosfat (TSP)
0
46
0
1.5
Diammonium phosphate (DAP)
18
46
0
0
Monoammonium Fosfat (MAP)
11
52
0
2
Pupuk majemuk
Sulfat dari kalium (SOP)
0
0
50
18
Muriate dari kalium (MOP)
0
0
60
0
Pupuk majemuk
Nitrofosfat (Nitrofos)
23
23
0
0
NPK lengkap
15
15
15
5
10
20
20
6.8
13
13
21
6.0
Micronutrients
Seng sulfat (Zn 36,0%)
0
17.8
Halaman 19
10
Lingkungan Pasar Urea di Pakistan:
Gambar 1.3 Partisipasi pasar Urea di Pakistan
Tabel 1.4 Pesaing Urea di Pakistan dan Kapasitas Produksi mereka
Sr. No
Perusahaan
Kapasitas (MT / tahun)
1.
Fauji Pupuk Company Ltd
2.32 × 10
6
2.
Perusahaan Pupuk Engro
2.275 × 10
6
3.
Fatima Pupuk Company Ltd
0,45 × 10
6
4.
Agri tech Ltd.
0,426 × 10
6
5.
Pupuk Fauji Bin Qasim Ltd.
0.501 × 10
6
6.
Dawood Hercules Ltd
0,445 × 10
6
Halaman 20
11
1.5 PERMINTAAN DAN PENYEDIAAN UREA DI PAKISTAN
Gambaran umum untuk permintaan urea 20 tahun terakhir dan produksi diberikan sebagai
berikut
grafik. Pakistan telah tertinggal permintaan selamanya. Sekarang hari tanaman baru
kapasitas 1,3 juta ton telah terpasang yang memungkinkan negara tersebut untuk memenuhi
kebutuhannya
kebutuhan. Namun permintaan meningkat sangat cepat karena tingginya populasi
konsentrasi dan ketergantungan pertanian terhadap PDB negara. Diharapkan itu
Pada 2014 permintaan Pakistan akan mencapai sekitar 9 juta MT dan kapasitas terpasang
akan tetap hanya 6,9 juta ton. Jadi permintaan yang besar ada untuk kapasitas baru
memasang.
Gambar 1.4 Permintaan dan produksi Urea di Pakistan
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
m
etrik ton
Permintaan
produksi
Halaman 21
Halaman 22
13
Beberapa proses digunakan untuk pembuatan urea. Beberapa dari mereka digunakan
Teknologi konvensional dan lainnya menggunakan teknologi modern untuk mencapai tingkat
tinggi
efisiensi. Proses ini memiliki beberapa keuntungan yang sebanding dan
kerugian berdasarkan biaya modal, biaya perawatan, biaya energi, efisiensi
dan kualitas produk. Beberapa proses produksi urea yang banyak digunakan adalah:
1. Proses Konvensional
2. Snamprogetti Amonia dan proses pengupasan diri
3. Proses daur ulang isobarik ganda
4. Proses Penghematan Biaya dan Hemat Energi (ACES)
2.1 PROSES KONVENSIONAL
(1) Sekali melalui Proses
Dalam proses ini amonia yang tidak dikonversi dinetralkan dengan asam seperti nitrat
asam untuk menghasilkan garam ammonium seperti amonium nitrat sebagai produk co
produksi urea Dengan cara ini, skema proses urea yang relatif sederhana adalah
menyadari. Kelemahan utama dari proses ini adalah jumlah besar
garam amonia terbentuk sebagai produk bersama dan jumlah karbon keseluruhan terbatas
konversi dioksida yang bisa diraih.
(1) Proses Recycle Konvensional
Di sini semua amonia dan karbon dioksida yang tidak dikonversi didaur ulang ke
reaktor urea Pada generasi pertama proses ini resirkulasi tidak bertobat
NH 3 dan CO 2 dilakukan dalam dua tahap. Resirkulasi pertama dioperasikan
pada tekanan sedang (18-25 bar), yang kedua pada tekanan rendah (2-5 bar). Pertama
resirkulasi terdiri dari setidaknya pemanas dekomposisi, di mana karbamat
Halaman 23
BAB 02: Proses Seleksi dan Deskripsi
14
Dekomposisi menjadi gas NH 3 menguap secara bersamaan. Gas off dari ini
Langkah dekomposisi pertama dikenai rektifikasi, dari mana relatif
Amonia murni di bagian atas dan produk dasarnya terdiri dari aqueous
larutan amonium karbamat diperoleh. Kedua produk tersebut didaur ulang
secara terpisah ke reaktor urea. Karena efek air yang merugikan
konversi reaksi, mencapai minimum CO 2 daur ulang sehingga mencapai maksimum
Konversi CO 2 lebih penting daripada mencapai daur ulang NH 3 yang rendah. Semua
Proses konvensional biasanya beroperasi pada rasio NH 3 : CO 2 yang tinggi
(4-5mole / mole) untuk memaksimalkan konversi CO 2 per pass. Meski beberapa di antaranya
Proses konvensional sebagian dilengkapi dengan pertukaran panas yang cerdik
Karya telah bertahan sampai sekarang. Kepentingan mereka menurun dengan cepat karena
begitu-
Proses pengupasan tanah mulai dikembangkan.
Gambar 2.1 Setelah Melalui Proses Urea
Halaman 24
15
Proses pelepasan COOKarbonarbon (Belanda) CO 2 :
Kebaruan proses pengupasan CO2 terdiri dari fakta bahwa reaktor
efluen tidak diturunkan ke tekanan yang lebih rendah seperti pada daur ulang cairan
konvensional
urea, namun dilucuti pada tekanan sintesis oleh reaktor CO2 gas
aliran umpan dalam heat exchanger panas yang dipanaskan dengan uap. Stripper tekanan tinggi
beroperasi pada sekitar 140 atm & 190 o C. Solusi urea yang dilucuti masih mengandung
sekitar 15% karbamat yang belum dikonversi, & diturunkan sekitar 3 atm
Selanjutnya terjadi degassing pada steam decomposer tekanan rendah uap sekitar 120 o C.
Gas off yang dipulihkan dikondensasikan dengan air pendingin dalam tekanan rendah
kondensor, beroperasi pada suhu sekitar 65 o C & 3 atm. Solusi yang didapat adalah
dipompa ke kondensor tekanan tinggi dengan cara tekanan tinggi karbamat
pompa. Gas off yang dipulihkan dari stripper tekanan tinggi dikondensasi dalam
kondensor tekanan tinggi, yang beroperasi pada suhu sekitar 170 o C & 140 atm.
Panas kondensasi dilepaskan pada sisi shell kondensor oleh
menguapkan jumlah kondensat yang setara. 3,4 atm uap demikian
diproduksi dapat digunakan kembali di bagian lain tanaman.
Campuran gas & cairan yang dikeluarkan dari kondensor tekanan tinggi diumpankan ke
reaktor untuk pengeringan CO2 total untuk karbamat dan konversi berikutnya ke
urea Inerts dilepaskan dari reaktor melalui ventilasi air yang didinginkan
kondensator. Limbah reaktor, sekitar 185 o C & 140 atm, diberi makan sampai tinggi
penari telanjang tekanan seperti dijelaskan di atas.
Halaman 25
16
Gambar 2.2 Proses Stamicarbon
Snamprogetti (Italia) Amonia dan proses pengupasan diri:
Proses ini didasarkan pada prinsip daur ulang karbamat internal
teknik dan biasa disebut proses pengupasan Snam NH3. Dasar
Perbedaan antara proses Snam & larutan karbamat konvensional
Proses daur ulang urea adalah kenyataan bahwa dalam kasus ini karbamat yang belum dikonversi
dilucuti dan dipulihkan dari larutan efluen reaktor sintesis urea di reaktor
tekanan, dikondensasikan ke larutan berair dalam tekanan tinggi yang menghasilkan uap
kondensor, & daur ulang kembali ke reaktor dengan gravitasi. Bagian dari cairan NH3
pakan reaktor, diuapkan dalam alat penukar panas uap, digunakan sebagai gas inert untuk
dekomposisi & strip amonium karbamat dalam tekanan tinggi yang dipanaskan uap
penari telanjang
Halaman 26
17
Reaktor beroperasi pada sekitar 130 atm & 180-190 C dan penari telanjang beroperasi pada
sekitar 130 atm & 190 o C. Penari lepas-lepas dikondensasikan dalam rangka vertikal &
kondensor tabung, beroperasi pada suhu sekitar 130 atm & 148-160 o C. Tekanan uap rendah
diproduksi di kondensor karbamat tekanan tinggi. Produk urea
larutan, biarkan penari telanjang & masih mengandung 2-3% residu yang tidak bereaksi
karbamat, selanjutnya dihilangkan dengan penguraian dekomposisi tekanan rendah
sistem. Larutan ammoniak yang didapat dari amonium karbamat adalah
dipompa kembali ke reaktor.
Gambar 2.3 Proses Snamprogetti
Halaman 27
18
Proses ACES:
Proses ACES (Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving) telah dilakukan
dikembangkan oleh Toyo Engineering Corporation. Bagian sintesisnya terdiri dari
reaktor, penari telanjang, dua kondensor karbamat sejajar dan semua scrubber
dioperasikan di 175 bar
Reaktor dioperasikan pada 1900⁰C dan NH 3: CO rasio pakan 2 molar dari 4: 1.
Amonia cair diumpankan langsung ke reaktor, sedangkan gas karbon dioksida
Setelah kompresi diperkenalkan ke bagian bawah penari telanjang sebagai bantuan stripping.
Campuran sintesis dari reaktor, terdiri dari urea, tidak bertukar
amonia karbamat, amonia berlebih, dan air, diumpankan ke atas
penari telanjang Proses ini terdiri dari bagian berikut.
1) Bagian Sintesis
2) Bagian pemurnian
3) Bagian penyerapan
4) Bagian penguapan
5) Bagian perawatan kondensat
6) Bagian finishing
Bagian sintesis dioperasikan pada 175 bar. Ini memiliki komponen berikut:
➢ Reaktor
➢ Stripper
➢ Kondensor karbamat
➢ Scrubber
Halaman 28
19
2.2 PERBANDINGAN PROSES
Tabel 2.1 Perbandingan proses urea yang berbeda
Proses
Keuntungan
Kekurangan
Proses Konvensional-
Setelah melalui proses
• Proses yang sederhana
• Sejumlah besar amonia
Garam dibentuk sebagai co product.
• Karbon dioksida secara keseluruhan
konversi rendah
• Biaya produksi tinggi
• Biaya energi tinggi
• Pencemaran lingkungan yang tinggi
Proses Konvensional -
Daur ulang konvensional
proses
• CO 2 tinggi
konversi
• Pencemaran lingkungan yang tinggi
Stamicarbon CO 2 -
proses pengupasan tanah
• Memiliki urea tinggi
hasil per lulus
• Kemurnian tinggi
Snamprogetti Amonia
dan proses pengupasan diri
• Konsumsi rendah
dari tekanan rendah
uap
Isobarik daur ulang ganda
proses
• Proses yang rumit
Proses ACES
• Produksi rendah
biaya
• Energi tinggi
pemulihan
• Rendah
lingkungan
polusi
• Efisiensi tinggi
• Biaya modal yang tinggi
Halaman 29
20
2.3 SELEKSI PROSES
Diantara proses pembuatan urea di atas, proses ACES dipilih karena
Daripadanya memiliki kelebihan dibandingkan proses lainnya:
(1) Konversi CO 2 Tinggi dan Stripping yang Efisien
Proses ACES berfokus pada pengurangan penggunaan energi. Itu hanya mungkin lewat
Kombinasi konversi CO 2 yang tinggi dan pengupasan yang efisien. Itu menyebabkan
pengurangan konsumsi energi di bagian bawah. Ini sudah menjadi dasar
fitur proses ACES.
(2) Pemulihan Panas Maksimum
Proses ACES terbukti proses konsumsi energi paling rendah melalui mengikuti
teknologi.
➢ Panas kondensasi gas yang dilucuti digunakan untuk pembangkitan
5kg / cm
2
uap serta untuk memanaskan outlet penari telanjang.
➢ Panas kondensasi penyerap HP digunakan untuk menguapkan air di
bagian penguapan vakum
➢ Panas yang dibawa oleh gas pengupas uap kondensat dikonsumsi di
LPD
➢ Kondensat uap digunakan di MPD dan juga amonia dan urea
pra-pemanas
(3) Faktor On-stream tinggi
Proses ACES memungkinkan kita untuk memulai kembali pabrik kita menjadi 100% produksi
hanya dalam tiga
beberapa jam setelah masalah darurat shutdown. Ini semua karena amonia tinggi
untuk perbandingan molar karbon dioksida yang tidak hanya menurunkan pemadatan
suhu tapi juga membuat larutan sintesis tetap bertahan selama dua hari.
Halaman 30
21
(4) kurang korosi
Kondensor stripper dan karbamat beroperasi pada kondisi korosif. Namun,
Toyo Corporation telah mengembangkan duplex-12 yang paling stabil terhadap korosi
dalam kondisi tertentu. Hal ini juga mengurangi jumlah oksigen yang diperkenalkan ke udara.
(5) Fleksibilitas
Rasio molar tinggi N / C memberikan fleksibilitas operasional. Perubahan kecil pada pakan
tidak akan mempengaruhi banyak reaksi yang diberikan. Selanjutnya, dua kondensator karbamat
juga
memungkinkan kita memanaskan larutan urea pada suhu yang dibutuhkan.
(6) Kurang Perawatan
Terlepas dari dioperasikan pada kondisi korosif, bahan proses ACES
seleksi mengurangi perawatan yang dibutuhkan. Scrubber dan reaktor dibuat dari
316L stainless steel dan kondensor plus stripper diproduksi dari dupleks
besi tahan karat.
(7) Pengendalian Pencemaran
Udara dari menara pendingin dicuci dengan larutan urea 30% untuk menghaluskan debu urea
dalam sistem pemulihan debu yang terletak di atas kolom. Hanya ada satu titik
untuk bocornya amoniak. Ini adalah ventilasi kolom pencucian dari tempat inert
dihapus Namun, udara relatif rendah, sehingga emisi amonia juga rendah.
Air yang menguap juga mengandung fraksi urea dan amonia kecil
dilepas di bagian uap kondensat. Jadi drainase tanaman urea akhirnya
terdiri dari 5ppm urea dan amonia.
(8) Kualitas Produk
Ukuran prill ukuran prill adalah 1,7 mm, lebih tinggi dari 1,4 mm yang dihasilkan oleh yang lain
teknologi.
Halaman 31
22
Ukuran prill ini mungkin memiliki kelebihan sebagai berikut:
➢ Mudah penanganan produk
➢ Kekuatan menghancurkan yang tinggi
➢ Pembentukan debu yang kurang
➢ Kualitas yang diinginkan
2.4 PROSES DETAIL DESKRIPSI PROSES ACES
Proses ACES diperkenalkan oleh perusahaan TOYO in1980 sebagai pengganti
total proses daur ulang Sejak itu banyak pekerjaan telah dilakukan di
proses. Sekarang hari ini hanya menjadi biaya dan hemat energi karena prosesnya
efisiensi tinggi.
Proses produksi ini dimulai dengan dua bahan baku NH 3 dan CO 2. Amonia adalah
diumpankan ke reaktor ke bentuk cair pada suhu 55
()
C. Reaktor mengandung
pelat penyekat internal agar terhindar dari pencampuran kembali produk yang terbentuk. Urea ini
Solusi dikeluarkan dari reaktor melalui corong di atas. Saluran ini disimpan
dicelupkan ke dalam larutan untuk menghindari daur ulang dari penari telanjang. Aliran dari
karbamat
Kondensor yang dioperasikan pada suhu 176C juga diumpankan ke dasar reaktor. Aliran ini
terdiri
kebanyakan amonia, karbon dioksida. Melalui dua aliran ini, rasio molar N / C
Diumpankan ke reaktor adalah 4,1 dan kondisi operasi reaktor adalah 190c dan 175 bar. Saya t
memberikan 68% konversi CO 2 menjadi urea melalui dua langkah berikut:
CO 2 + 2NH 3 → NH 4 COONH 2
NH 4 COONH 2 → (NH 2 ) 2 CO + H 2 O
Sisa 32% bisa dikonversi hanya menjadi karbamat karena waktu tinggal.
Jika waktu tinggal lebih banyak diberikan pada larutan di reaktor, dekomposisi urea mungkin
terjadi
mulai. Limbah ini dengan konsentrasi urea 54% disalurkan ke penari telanjang di bawah
aliran gravitasi
Halaman 32
23
Stripper dari Toyo Corporation memiliki desain unik dari film jatuh yang ditemani
dengan pelat pemanas di bagian atas. Pelat membantu menghilangkan amonia akses
menurunkan rasio N / C menjadi 3,1 yang ideal untuk tujuan pengupasan. Bahkan
karbamat juga didekomposisi dan menghasilkan campuran gas cair
dipisahkan dengan stripping Solusi yang keluar dari reaktor sekitar 60-63%
urea dan 12-14% gas amonia. Kondisi pengoperasian penari telanjang adalah 175 bar
dan 180C. Amonia dan karbon dioksida dari atas penari telanjang didistribusikan pada
tabung kondensor Solusi daur ulang karbamat juga didistribusikan ke sana dan
Ini menyerap gas dan mengembunkannya. Umpan ke karbamat kondensor dua disimpan
sehingga memanaskan limbah bawah striper hingga 180
()
Sisa panas yang tersisa digunakan
untuk produksi uap pada kondensor NO 1 karbamat.
Bagian atas reaktor terkontaminasi dengan inert dan digosok dengan scrubber
washing it with recycle from absorption section to remove any quantities of
reactants accompanied with.
Effluent of stripper is lead towards Decomposition section. This section is
composed of two stages mentioned below.
1) MPDS (Medium Pressure Decomposition stage)
2) LPDS (Low Pressure decomposition stage)
Bottom stream of stripper is relaxed to 18 bars and then heated up to 155
Hai
C in
2
nd
carbamate condenser. This solution is fed to top of MPD where flashed and
decomposed gas is separated. Urea solution flows across falling-film
Temperature is kept around 158
Hai
C to save urea product from side reactions.
Further decomposition of carbamate takes place by heating via condensate. Puncak
gases of MP decomposer are sent towards absorption section.
Halaman 33
CHAPTER 02: Process Selection and Description
24
Bottom effluent of MP decomposer contains 70 wt% ammonia and 30 wt% CO 2.
This is fed to LPDS at decreased pressure of 2.5 bars. LP decomposer is
composed of sieve trays, packed bed and falling-film sections. Gaseous
ammonia is separated by flash and pressure force of upward coming gas. SEBUAH
small portion of fresh CO 2 from compressor of synthesis section is introduced
from bottom of LPD. Its purpose is to strip out the residual ammonia and carbon
dioxide completely. Carbamate is decomposed and removed as head stream.
This head stream of LPD is directed to absorption section. Exit stream of LPD
bottom is 70% urea containing and 0.4% ammonia.
Overhead streams of both stages of decomposition section are condensed and
absorbed into water coming from Condensate Treatment Section. This
carbamate solution is recycled back to scrubber's top for washing overhead
gaseous stream of reactor.
Solution from purification section is fed to evaporation section. It incorporates
two steps:
(i) Vacuum concentrator
(ii) Final concentrator
Each concentrator consists of two sections lower and upper. Solution is fed to
lower section of vacuum concentrator which is operated at 150mmHg and 77C.
Heat required for evaporation of water is obtained from absorption section
(HPA). This solution is then transmitted to upper section where vaporized water
is separated and resultant urea solution achieves concentration of 84%. Maka itu
lead to final concentrator operating at 132C and 25mmHg. It gives further
rectification of product up to 97.7% accompanied with Biuret and a small
fraction of moisture content.
Halaman 34
Production of Urea by ACES process
25
Steam from concentration section contains urea as well as ammonia
contaminants. So it is further treated in Condensate Treatment Section. This
section prominently incorporates hydrolyser and stripper. Condensate is partially
sent towards absorption section and partly towards Condensate Stripper's top.
Steam is directly introduced from bottom. Stripped off gaseous mixture is sent
towards LPD. Rest of solution is ejected from mid of stripper and fed to
hydrolyser after heating. Effluent is returned to lower height of stripper. Saya t
practically gives water with CO 2 & NH3 fractions lower than 5ppm.
Molten urea from Evaporation Section is sent to finishing section. Solution is
sprayed into cooling tower and air is blown through the tower. Ini membantu
solidifying and production of prilled urea. Urea thus produced is collected on
scraper.
Table 2.2 List of ACES Urea Plants
KLIEN
NEGARA
PLANT CAPACITY
(MT/D )
ON-STREAM
FERTIBERIA SL
SPAIN
750
OCT. 1988
UREA FERTILIZER
FACTORYLTD.
BANGLADESH
1,422
FEB. 1993
PTPUPUK
SRIWIDJAJA
INDONESIA
1,725
MAR. 1994
PTPETROKIMIA
GRESIK
INDONESIA
1.400
MAY 1994
PTPUPUK
SRIWIDJAJA
INDONESIA
1,725
FEB 1994
WEIHE CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
CINA
1,760
MAY. 1996
WEIXIAN
CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
CINA
180
JAN.1997
PAK-AMERICAN
FERTILIZER
PAKISTAN
1050
SEP.1998
ENGRO CHEMICAL
PAKISTAN LTD
PAKISTAN
1,755
OCT. 1998
CHAMBAL
FERTILIZERS LTD
INDIA
2,350
OCT.1999
PT.PUPUK
ISKANDAR MUDA
INDONESIA
1,725
2001
Page 35
CHAPTER 02: Process Selection and Description
26
2.5 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF ACES PROCESS
Figure 2.4 Schematic of the original ACES Process
Page 36
27
Nomenclatures used in PFD:
a) Urea Reactor
b) High Pressure Ammonia Pump
c) Co 2 Compressor
d) Stripper
e) High Pressure Carbamate Condensers
f) High Pressure Scrubber
g) High Pressure Carbamate Pump
h) Medium Pressure Absorber
i) Medium Pressure Decomposer
j) Low Pressure Decomposer
k) Evaporator
l) Prilling Tower
Halaman 37
Halaman 38
29
Pakistan is an agricultural country. Its economy mostly depends upon agricultural production.
This need is increasing exponentially with time for multiplying population. More over for
many years continually Pakistan is facing natural disasters in terms of earth quack, flood and
storm. These disasters also reduce fertility and production capacity of a country. Karenanya
demand of food from rest of area increases to meat necessities.
All these needs of Pakistan can be met only if some agricultural aid is provided to nation.
There would be no best assistance other than installing a urea plant. This plant is not only a
suitable for nation but also more economical for investment. Urea has best vicinity for export
from Pakistan as mostly region is agriculture dependent.
3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND OVERALL PLANT
Plant capacity per day
:
2000 TPD (75583.33 )
Number of working Days :
300 days
Total capacity of plant
:
6
Komposisi Produk
Urea
=
98.85%wt
Biuret
=
0,9%
Kelembaban
=
0,25%
Component Amounts
Urea
:
(
.
) ×75583.33kg/hr
= 74714.12
Biuret
:
(0.9/100) × 75583.33kg/hr = 680.25
Kelembaban
:
(0.25/100)×75583.33kg/hr =188.9
Halaman 39
CHAPTER 03: Mass Balance Calculations
30
Raw Materials
2(NH 2 ) 2 CO →
NH 2 CONHCONH 2 + NH 3
103kg Biuret is produced by :
120 kg urea
1 kg Biuret is produced by :
680 Biuret is produced by :
( ) × 680.25 = 792.52
Total urea produced =
urea in product + used in Biuret production
74714.12 + 792.52
75506.64
Now, we calculate raw materials required for given production of urea.
We know:
CO 2 + 2NH 3
(NH 2 ) 2 CO + H 2 O
(NH 2 ) 2 CO produced : CO 2 consumed : 2NH 3 consumed
:
H 2 O generated
60g
: 44g
: 34g
: 18g
1
:
:
:
75506.64
: 55371.54
: 42787.1
:
22651.94
Urea=7414.12
Biuret=680.15
Water=188.9
CO 2 =55371.54
NH 3 =42787.10
Water=?
Urea Plant of
2000.37 TPD
Kapasitas
Halaman 40
31
Water in 4
th
stream is:
Total water produced – water in product =
4th stream
22651.94
- 188.95
= 22463.04
22463.04 is by-product of urea process.
3.2 REACTOR BALANCE
Assumptions : Raw materials are 100% pure basis.
Stream to Stripper
We know;
Pecahan
=
0,36
=
Total flow
=
.
(.)
= 209740.66
NH 3 = 42787.1 kg/hr
Fresh feed
CO 2 & NH 3
CO 2 =?
NH 3 =?
Carba=?
Total=?
UREA=75506.64 (36%
Water=22651.99
Ammonia=?
Carbamate=?
From Condenser
Untuk
Stripper
Halaman 41
32
Stream to Scrubber
Un-reacted CO 2
=
(0.1) feed CO 2
=
5537.154
Total top flow
= 5537.154 /0.39
=
14089.450
Un-reacted ammonia =
total- Un-reacted CO2 =
8552.296
Rests of unknowns are determined after applying balance on stripper and condenser.
3.3 STRIPPER BALANCE
Assumption: all of CO 2 entered from bottom of column is received out in top effluent.
Note that some symbols used are actually:
➢ E t effluent from top
➢ E b effluent from bottom
Total flow rate of bottom effluent =
Eb = 75506.64 / (54/100) = 139827.11
Given that ammonia is 14% of bottom effluent,
NH 3
=
(14/100) ×139827.11
=
19575.795
UREA=75506.64
Water=22651.99
Carba=? NH 3 =14%E b
UREA=75506.64
Water=22651.99
NH 3 =?
Carba=?
Total= 209740.66
CO 2 = 56% E t
NH 3 =44%E t
CO 2 = 55371.54
To MPD
To Condenser
From Reactor
Fresh CO 2
Halaman 42
33
Now carbamate in E b =
total flow – sum of known individuals
Carbamate in E b
=
139827.11 – (22651.99 + 75506.64 + 19575.795) = 22092.68
In-out + generation- consumption =
akumulasi
209740.66 +55371.54
=
139827.11+ E t
Et
=
125285.095
Component balance on top effluent
CO 2
= 56%E t
=
(56/100) 125285.095 =
70159.653
NH 3
= 44%E t
=
(44/100) 125285.095 =
55125.442
CO 2 generated within system =
total carbon dioxide in top effluent – CO 2 entered at
bawah
=
70159.653 – 55371.54
=
14788.113 CO 2 generated within stripper
CO 2 was produced by reaction;
NH 4 COONH 2
=
CO 2 + 2NH 3
CO 2 generated
:
Carbamate Consumed
:
2NH 3 Produced
44g
:
78g
:
34g
1g
:
1.773
:
0,773
14788.11
:
26215.29
:
11427.17
Begitu,
Total carbamate in stream from reactor (F r ):
Carbamate in F r
=
carbamate decomposed + carbamate in E b
Halaman 43
34
=
26215.29
+ 22092.68
= 48307.97
Begitu,
Ammonia in F r
=
ammonia in E b + ammonia in E t – generation of ammonia
Ammonia in Fr
=
55125.442 + 19575.795
-11427.17
Ammonia in Fr
=
63274.05
Total in
=
Total out
265112.20
=
265112.20
3.4 BALANCE AROUND MEDIUM PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Balance on stream “To LPD”
Total flow rate = E b
=
.
=
117979.125
Overall Balance:
Urea=75506.64
Water=22651.99
NH3=19575.79
Carbamate =
22092.68
Total= 139827.11
CO 2 =30%E t
NH 3 =70%E t
total=E t =?
Urea=75506.64
Water=22651.99
NH 3 =?
Carba=?
Total=E b =?
From stripper: F s
To MPA
To LPD
Halaman 44
35
Inflow
= outflow
Fs
=
Et+Eb
139827.11 =
Et + 117979.1
Et
=
21847.98
Now components of E t are:
CO 2
= 30% of E t
=
( ) ×21847.98
=
6554.39
The whole quantity of CO 2 is generated within decomposer
NH 3
=
70% of E t
=
( ) × 21847.98
= 15293.590
CO 2 is produced by Carbamate decomposition
Begitu,
CO 2 generated :
Carbamate Consumed
:
2NH 3 Produced
44g
:
78g
:
34g
1g
:
1.773
:
0,773
6554.39
: 11619.15
:
5064.76
3.5 BALANCE AROUND CARBAMATE CONDENSER
Bottom effluent
=
Feed +
generation -
konsumsi
Bottom effluent
=
22092.68
+
0
-
11619.15
Carbamate in E b
=
22092.68
-
11619.15
Carbamate in E b
=
10473.52
Halaman 45
36
Balance on NH 3
(Bottom effluent + top effluent) = Feed + generation - consumption
Bottom effluent
=
19575.79 + 5064.76-15293.590
=
9346.96
Total in
= Total out
139827.11
= 139827.11
3.6 BALANCE AROUND LOWER PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Carbamate is decomposed so
CO2 generated : Carbamate Consumed : 2NH3 Produced
44
:
78
:
34
0,56
:
1
:
0,43
5908.14
:
10473.52
:
4565.38
Another reaction that takes place in LPD is:
CO 2 =?
NH 3 =?
Total=?
Urea=?
H 2 O= 22651.99
Biuret=679.55
Urea = 75506.64
Water= 22651.99
NH3 = 9346.96
Carbamate = 10473.52
Total = 117979.125
CO 2 = 6312.35
From MPD=F d
Fresh feed=F f
To LPA=E t
To Evaporation
Halaman 46
37
2(NH2)2CO = NHCONHCONH2 + NH3
Biuret Formed
: urea decomposed : ammonia produced
103
:
120
: 17
1
:
1,16
: 0.165
679.55
:
791.71
: 112.15
Total Ammonia generated =
4677.54
Urea Balance
Feed - effluent + generation – consumption
= accumulation
75506.64 - effluent + 0 - 791.7
=
0
Tembusan
=
74714.92
Ammonia Balance
Feed - effluent + generation - consumption
= accumulation
9346.96 – N t
+ 4677.54 - 0
=
0
Nt =
14024.51
Carbon dioxide Balance
Feed - effluent + generation - consumption = accumulation
6312.35 - Ct + 5908.144 - 0
=
0
Ct
= 12220.50
Total in
=
Total out
124291.48
=
124291.48
Halaman 47
38
3.7 BALANCE AROUND LOWER PRESSURE ABSORBER
Following reaction will take place in absorber:
2NH 3 +
CO 2
=
NH 4 COONH 2
CO 2 consumed
:
2NH 3 consumed
:
Carbamate generated
44
:
34
:
78
1
:
0,773
:
1.773
12220.50
:
9443.11
: 21663.61
Ammonia Balance
Feed -
effluent
+
generation – consumption = accumulation
14024.5101 -
Ne + 0 -
9443.113865
=
0
Ne =
4581.39
Total in
= Total out
26245.01
= 26245.010
CO2 = 12220.50
NH3 = 14024.51
Total = 26245.01
NH 3 =?
Carba=?
Total=?
From LPD = F l
Effluent= E
Halaman 48
39
3.8 BALANCE ON MEDIUM PRESSURE ABSORBER
Reaction also takes place in MPA:
CO 2 consumed
:
2NH 3 consumed
:
Carba generated
44
:
34
:
78
1
:
0,773
:
1.773
6554.39
: 5064.76
: 11619.15
Carbamate Balance
In - out - consumption + generation = accumulation
21663.61416 - Carbamate in Es - 0 + 11619.15625 = 0
Carbamate in Es =
33282.77
NH3 Balance
In - out - consumption + generation
=
akumulasi
NH3 = 4581.39
Carbamate = 21663.61
Total = 26245.01
CO2 =
6554.39
NH3 =
15293.59
Total =
21847.98
NH 3 =?
Carba=?
Total=?
To scrubber=
From MPD=F d
From LPA=F a
Halaman 49
40
19874.98651 - NH 3 in Es - 5064.760417 + 0 =
0
NH3 in Es
=
14810.22
Total in
= Total out
48092.99
=
48092.99
3.9 BALANCE AROUND SCRUBBER
Reaction in Scrubber:
2NH 3 +
CO 2
=
NH 4 COONH 2
CO 2 Consumed
:
NH 3 Consumed
:
Carba generated
44
:
34
:
78
1
:
0,773
:
1.773
NH3
=14810.22
Carbamate =
33282.7
Total
=48092.9
kg/hr
CO 2 = 5537.1
NH 3 = 8552.2
Inerts=6424.5
Total: 20513.9
Carba=?
NH3=?
Total?
From reactor=F r
Vent
To condenser
From MPA=F m
Halaman 50
41
5537.1
: 4278.7
: 9815.8
Carbamate in effluent
=
43098.63432
NH3 in effluent
=
19083.81257
Vent (top outlet flow)
=
6424.5
Total in
= Total out
68606.97
= 68606.97
3.10 BALANCE AROUND CONDENSER
Assumption: efficiency of condenser is 70%.
CO 2 converted to carbamate by reaction:
(70/100) 70159.6
=
49111.75
CO 2 consumed
:
2NH 3 consumed
:
Carba generated
44
:
34
:
78
Co2= 70159.6kg/hr
NH3 =55125.4kg/hr
Total =125285.0kg/hr
Carbmate 43098.63
NH3= 19083.81
Total 62182.44
NH 3 =?
CO 2 =?
Carba=?
From scrubber=F u
From stripper=F s
To reactor=E r
Halaman 51
42
1
:
0,773
:
1.7
49111.75
: 37949.9
: 87061.7
Carbon dioxide balance
In - out - consumption + generation = accumulation
70159.65351 - CO2 in Er -
49111.75746 +
0
=
0
CO 2 in Er
= 21047.89
NH3 Balance
In - out - consumption + generation
= accumulation
74209.25461 - NH3 in Er - 37949.9944 + 0 =
0
NH3 in Er = 36259.26
Carbamate Balance
In - out - consumption
+ generation = accumulation
43098.63432 - Carba in Er - 0 + 87061.75186 =
0
Carba in Er = 130160.38
Total in
= Total out
187467.54
= 187467.54
Halaman 52
43
3.11 BALANCE AROUND EVAPORATOR
Material Balance
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x=
0,76
y=
0,902
Making urea balance:
Fx
= Py
74714.92 = P × 0.902
P(outlet) = 82832.50
Overall material balance gives:
F
=P+E
98046.47
=
83274.80 + E
15213.96
=
E (vapor Flow rate) top outlet
Water outlet with Urea = 7438.02 (from water balance)
Urea= 74714.92 kg/hr
H 2 O = 22651.99 kg/hr
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
Total= 98046.47kg/hr
Vapour =?
H 2 O =?
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
Halaman 53
44
Total in
= Total out
98046.47
= 98046.47017
3.12 BALANCE AROUND PRILLING TOWER
Bottom outlet (to Prilling Tower)
Air 26C
Air (25C)
Material Balance
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x = 0.98
y = 0.9885
Making urea balance:
Fx = Py
H 2 O =845.23 kg/hr
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
H 2 O =?
Biuret=679.55 kg/hr
Vapour = 655.5 kg/hr
Halaman 54
45
74714.92
= P × 0.9885
P (out let bottom) = 75584.14 kg/hr
Overall material balance gives:
F=P+E
E (Vapor)
= 655.57
Total in
= Total out
76239.71
= 76239.71
Halaman 55
Page 56
47
4.1 SPECIFIC HEAT CALCULATIONS
2 NH 3 + CO 2
NH 2 COONH 4 + HEAT
-84
NH 2 COONH 4 + HEAT
NH 2 CONH 2 + H 2 O
+23
2NH 3 + CO 2
NH 2 CONH 2 + H 2 O
-60
Ammonia Liquid
T (ºC)
60
80
112
Cp (
.
)
5.6
5.87
8.6
Ammonia Vapor
T (ºC)
87
127
167
207
Cp (
.
)
2.2
2.3
2,37
2.44
CO 2 (g)
T (ºC)
27
127
227
Cp (
.
0,84
0,94
1.01
Urea Vapour
T (ºC)
80
120
200
Cp (
.
1.26
1,36
1.56
Urea Liquid
T (ºC)
80
120
200
Cp (
.
)
1.4
1.6
2.1
Halaman 57
CHAPTER 04: Energy Balance Calculations
48
Urea Solid
T (ºC)
27
77
127
Cp (
.
1.56
1.8
2.04
Water Liquid
T (ºC)
27
127
177
Cp (
.
4.18
4,26
4.39
Cp of the Carbamate = 2.3
.
For NH 3 liquid:
Cp
=
a + bT + cT
2
5.6
=
a + 333b + 333
2o
C (1)
5.87
=
a + 353b + 353
2o
C (2)
8.6
=
a + 385b + 385
2o
C (3)
From (1), (2) & (3)
a = 163.44
b = - 0.9338
c = 1.38× 10
For NH3 gas:
Cp
=
a + bT + cT2
2.2
=
a + 360b + 360
2o
C (4)
2.3
=
a + 400b + 400
2o
C (5)
2.44
=
a + 480b + 480
2o
C (6)
From (4), (5) & (6)
a = 0.4
b = 7.25×10
c = -6.25×10
halaman 58
49
For CO2 gas:
Cp
=
a + bT + cT
2
0,84
=
a + 300b + 300
2o
C (7)
0,94
=
a + 400b + 400
2o
C (8)
1.01
=
a + 500b + 500
2o
C (9)
From (7), (8) & (9)
a = 0.36
b = 2.05×10
c = -1.5×10
For Urea:
Cp
=
a + bT + cT
2
1.4
=
a + 353b + 353
2o
C (10)
1.6
=
a + 393b + 393
2o
C (11)
2.1
=
a + 473b + 473
2o
C (12)
From (10), (11) & (12)
a = 1.08
b = -2.77×10
c = 1.04×10
4. 2 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND REACTOR
=
42787.1× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
=
42787.1×785.6
=
33617261.05
=
42787.1× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
=
42787.1×500.13
Page 59
50
=
21399137.89
Low pressure steam load at 5 bar pressure and 151.8 ºC for ammonia heating
×2109 =
33617261.05
=
15939.90
Medium pressure steam load at 13 bar and 191.6 ºC for ammonia heating
×1972 =
21399137.89
=
10851.48
Urea formation heat by decomposing Ammonium Carbamate
Δ
=
75506.64×
Δ
=
28944.21
Ammonium Carbamate formation heat
Δ
=
48307.97 ×
Δ
=
-52023.97
Heat required for increasing raw materials to 190 ºC
=
(42787.1+
36259.26)× (163.44 − 0.9338 +
1.38 × 10 ) + 130160.38×2.3× (463-443) +21047.89605× (0.36 +
2.05 × 10 − 1.5 × 10
)
=
36713240.09+5987377.764+412959.7206
=
43113577.58
Halaman 60
51
Energy required to reactor
Q
=
43113577.58 + 28944.21 - 52023.97
Q
=
43090497.81
Medium pressure steam load at 15 bar and 198.3ºC for reactor heating
×1947 =
43090497.81
=
22131.74
4.3 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND STRIPPER
Decomposition energy of Ammonium Carbamate
=
(48307.97-22092.68) ×
=
28231.85
Heat released from Urea
= 75506.64× (1.08 − 2.77 × 10
+ 1.04 × 10
)
= 75506.64 × -23.83
=
-1799713.586
Heat released from Ammonium Carbamate
= 22092.68556×2.3× (451- 463)
=
-609758.1213
Halaman 61
52
Heat released from Water
= 22651.99×4.4× (451- 463)
=
-1196025.072
Heat absorbed by Carbon Dioxide
= 55371.54× (0.36 + 2.05 × 10 − 1.5 × 10
)
= 55371.54×76.63
= 4243481.816
Heat absorbed for Ammonia vaporization
= {(63274.05 – 19575.79) ×2× (463-383)} + {(55125.44)-
(63274.05-19575.79)} ×2× (463-383)
= 8820070.727
Atau
= 55125.44 × 2 × (463-383)
= 8820070.727
Energy required for stripper
Q
= 28231.85 -1799713.586-609758.1213-1196025.072+
4243481.816 + 8820070.727
Q
=
9486287.617
Medium pressure steam load at 13bar and 191.6 ºC for heating
×1972 = 9486287.617
= 4810.490678
Halaman 62
53
4.4 ENERGY BALANCE ON SCRUBBER
Heat released from up flow
= 6424.525 ×1.024× (462-463)
=
-6578.71 Kj/hr
Heat released from down flow
= {19083.81×2.48× (426-463)} + {43098.63432×2.3× (426-463)}
=
-1751130.641 -3667693.781
= -5418824.422 Kj/hr
Heat absorbed by Ammonia and Ammonium Carbamate
=
14810.22× { (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 ) }
+33282.77 × 2.3× (426-463)
= 698479.883 + 229651.1158
= 928130.99
Energy loss
Q
=
-6578.71 -5418824.422 + 928130.99
Q
= -4497272.13
4.5 ENERGY BALANCE ON CARBAMATE CONDENSER
Formation energy of Ammonium Carbamate at 170
Hai
C
= 130160.38 - 43098.63×
= -93758.80
Halaman 63
54
Heat absorbed by Ammonium Carbamate
=
43098.63×2.3× (443)-(423)
=
1982537.179
Heat absorbed by Ammonia
=
19083.81× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
=
19083.81×310.55
=
5926477.992
Condensation heat and sensible heat released by Ammonia
=
55125.44× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
=
55125.44× - 473.25
=
-26088115.45
Heat released by Carbon Dioxide
=
70159.65× (0.36 + 2.05 × 10 − 1.5 ×
10
)
=
70159.65 × -19.615
=
-1376181.604
Heat released from Carbamate condenser
Q
=
-93758.80 + 1982537.179 + 5926477.992 -
26088115.45-1376181.604
Q
=
-19649040.69
Halaman 64
55
Production of steam load at 5bar
Assume Cp of water at 145
0
C - 150
0
C
=
4.27
×2109 + ×4.29× (151.8-145)
= 19649040.69
=
9189.64 kg/hr
4.6 ENERGY BALANCE ON MEDIUM PRESSURE DECOMPOSER
Decomposition energy of Ammonium Carbamate
=
(22092.68 - 10473.52) × (84/78)
=
12512.93
Heat released from Urea
= 75506.64× (1.08 − 2.77 × 10
+ 1.04 × 10
)
=
75506.64 × -90.68
=
-6846942.115
Heat released from Ammonium Carbamate
=
22092.68×2.3× (430-451)
=
-1067076.712
Heat released from Water
=
22651.99 ×4.3× (430-451)
=
-2045474.69
Halaman 65
56
Heat released by Ammonia
=
9346.96× (163.44 − 0.9338 + 1.38 × 10 )
=
-165391847.3
Heat absorbed for Ammonia vaporization
=
14024.5101× 200
=
2804902.01
Energy loss
Q
= 12512.93 -6846942.115 -1067076.712-2045474.69- 165391847.3
+ 2804902.01
Q
=
-172533925.9
4.7 ENERGY BALANCE ON LOW PRESSURE ABSORBER
Formation energy of Ammonium Carbamate at 129 C
=
21663.61×
=
-23330.04
Condensation heat released by Ammonia
=
14024.51× (-210)
=
-2945147.12 Kj/hr
Heat released from LP Absorber
Q
=
-23330.04 -2945147.12
Q
=
-2968477.166
Halaman 66
57
4.8 TABULATED HEAT BALANCE
Total Input
KJ/hr
Heating of Ammonia due to low pressure
uap
33617261.05
Heating of Ammonia due to high pressure
uap
21399137.89
Heat supplied to Reactor
43090497.81
Heat supplied to Stripper
9486287.617
Total input energy
107593184.4
Difference between input and output energy = 92055531.53
Total heat output greater than the total heat input. So this difference is due to
heat generated in the reaction. But the amount of theoretical heat generated in
the reaction is much higher than this value. That difference between actual and
theoretical value happens because of the heat losses occurred during the process.
Total Out put
KJ/hr
Heat out from Scrubber
4497272.137
Heat out from Carbamate condenser
19649040.69
Heat out from HPD
172533925.9
Heat out from LP Absorber
2968477.166
Total Output energy
199648715.9
Page 67
Halaman 68
59
5.1 REACTOR DESIGN
Chemical reactor is the heart of the chemical reaction process. Chemical reactors are vessels
that are designed for a chemical reaction to occur inside of them. Kinerja dari
reactor influences overall performance of the whole urea plant in production capacity and
utilities consumption.
Reactor Selection Criteria:
➢ Phase
➢ Operating conditions (Temperature and pressure)
➢ Feed condition
➢ Rector types (batch ,continuous, plug flow)
➢ Catalyst
➢ Size
Table 5.1 Reactor Comparisons
Batch Reactors
CSTR
Plug Flow Reactors
➢ Used for small scale
operation.
➢ For testing new
processes that have
not been fully
dikembangkan.
➢ Manufacturing of
produk mahal
➢ Pharmaceutical
industri.
➢ Used for liquid
phase reactions
➢ Organic chemical
industri.
➢ Normally used for gas
phase reactions.
➢ High pressure conditions.
➢ No back mixing required
karena
untuk
reversible
reaksi.
➢ Careful control of
waktu tinggal
PFR is the best choice for our process.
Page 69
CHAPTER 05: Process Design
60
Design parameters:
Operating Temperature =
190 ℃
=
463 k
Operating Pressure
=
175 bar
=
17.5
Designing Pressure
=
(17.5-1) × 1.1
=
18.15
Reactions:
2 NH 3 (g) + CO 2 (g) → NH 2 COONH 4 (aq)
ΔHR
0
= -84 kJ/mol
NH 2 COONH 4 (aq) → NH 2 CONH 2 (aq) + H 2 O (liq)
ΔHR
0
= 23 kJ/mol
Volume of reactor:
Second reaction is slow reaction so volume of rector will depend on this reaction. For Plug
flow reactor Performance Equation is given as:
=
-
Now, Reaction Kinetics for the urea formation reaction:
=
pasangan
Dimana,
= exp (
)
= 1.9 × 10 5
–. ×
.×
= 3.46921 hr
-1
Above Plug flow reactor Performance Equation can be written as:
=
× ×(1− )
Taking the constants out of integration term:
×
=
1
(1 − )
Halaman 70
61
Seperti kita ketahui itu
= (volumetric flow rate) and conversion of carbamate to urea is 68%,
so above equation becomes:
=
1
(1 − )
.
Volumetric flow rate =
=
.
372.55
Now, integrate the rate equation:
372.55
=
1
3.46921
− |ln(1 − )|
0,68
0
V=
.
. – ln (1 − 0.68) = 122.42 m
3
Apply safety factor of 20%
V (volume of reactor) = 122.42 × 1.20 = 147 m
3
Length and Diameter of Reactor:
= 10 (For high pressure vessels)
Reactor is cylindrical and Volume of Cylinder is × L
Volume
=
147 =
. × 10
D
3
=
.
Diameter of the reactor (D) =
2.6 m
Length of the reactor (L)
=
10D =
2.6×10
=
26 m
Halaman 71
62
Resistance time:
=
ℎ
=
147
372.55
= 0.39 ℎ = 24
Number of Stages:
Asumsi:
➢ Sieve trays are used
➢ Plate spacing is 2.5m
Number of Sieve trays
=
Number of Trays
=
.
Number of sieve Trays
=
10
2.2 SPECIFICATION SHEET
Name of equipment
Reactor
Operating Pressure
17.5
Operating Temperature
463 K
Rate Constant
3.46921 hr
-1
V (volume of reactor)
147 m
3
Diameter of the reactor (D)
2.6 m
Length of the reactor (L)
26 m
Resistance time
24 mint
Plates used
Sieve tray
Number of sieve Trays
10
Halaman 72
63
5.3 STRIPPER DESIGN
It is a unit operation in which one or more components of liquid stream are removed by
placing them in contact with a gas stream that is insoluble in liquid stream.
Functionality in the ACES loop:
➢ To strip ammonia (solute) in the urea synthesis effluent, where it is transferred from
the liquid phase to the gas phase, with the help of stripping agent which is carbon
dioxide here.
Selection criteria:
For using the stripper in ACES process several characteristics should be focused upon:
➢ Flow rate of liquid and gas streams, here our flow rates are very high and also the
liquid holdup is more so we are not using the packed column.
➢ Pressure within the column is very high; therefore our main preference should be the
use of plates within the column.
Within the choice of packing or plates the main factors governed are:
1.
Factors that depend on the system ie scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
2.
Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.
3.
Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and
its internals ie maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
➢ The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
1.
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates
without flooding.
2.
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than
plate column.
3.
If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning.
In packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
Halaman 73
64
4.
Design information for plate column is more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
5.
When large temperature changes are involved, tray column are often
preferred because thermal expansion or contraction of the equipment
components may crush the packing.
➢ Vertical tubes have been used to provide heat from the external source (indirect
heating) within the stripper.
➢ The efficient stripper been used by us is TRAY FALLING FILM STRIPPER.
Utilization:
In our stripper the urea synthesis effluent firstly drops on plates and then after passing through
the tray stages, fall in two passes onto the tubes via swirl plate. There the tubes are placed
vertically, where CO 2 is coming from the bottom of the tubes as the stripping agent where it
strips NH 3 which is been present in excess and also form from the decomposition of
ammonium carbamate (with the help of steam) with CO 2 itself.
On plates presence of excess ammonia in urea synthesis effluent is even stripped off with the
help of gases coming out from the tubes.
Choice of Plate Type:
There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the
counter flow trays. We have selected sieve tray because:
1.
They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
2.
Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
3.
Peak efficiency is generally high.
4.
Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
5.
Tray geometry is available widely in literature.
Halaman 74
65
Figure 5.1 Structure of Tray Falling Film Stripper
Design procedure for stripper:
➢ Calculating number of tubes
➢ Calculating tube bundle diameter
➢ Calculating shell ID
➢ Conforming U D
➢ Pressure drop within the tubes
➢ Calculating number of plates
➢ Calculating number of Holes
➢ Determining shell OD & Shell Thickness
➢ Length of shell
➢ Volume of shell
Halaman 75
66
No of tubes:
Steam entering temp
=
471.3 K
Steam condensate leaving temp
=
471.3 K
Fluid temp at bottom
=
451 K
Fluid temp above tubes
=
463 K
LMTD
=
24.49 K
Suppose;
Overall Heat transfer coefficient (U d )
=
0,550
Heat load
=
2635.07 KW
So, Trial Area
=
×
Trial area
=
195.627 m
2
Surface area of 1 tube
=
DL
Here OD of tube (D)
=
0.025 m
Length of tube (L)
=
5m
Hence, surface area of 1 tube
=
0.39m
2
Number of tubes
=
Number of tubes
=
497.96 ≈ 498
Confirming U D :
As we have,
Tube OD
=
0.025 m
Thickness (t)
=
16 BWG
Halaman 76
67
From this, surface per lin m S
=
0.0243 m
2
So, Total Surface Area (A)
=
no of tubes × t × S
Total Surface Area
=
194 m
2
From here; Heat Transfer Coefficient
=
×
Heat Transfer Coefficient (U d )
=
.
.×.
Heat Transfer Coefficient (U d )
=
0,556
As we firstly suppose our U d to be 0.550 which tallies with U d find above
So our taken U d is correct.
Calculating Tube Bundle Diameter & Shell ID:
D b (Tube Bundle Diameter)
=
×()
As, we are using square pitches
Pt
=
1.25×OD
=
0.031 m
So, for no of passes
=
1
Constant (k 1
)
=
0,215
n1
=
2.107
Db
=
25× (
.
.
).
D b (Tube Bundle Diameter)
=
0.988 m
Now from graph in b/w bundle diameter Vs shell ID-bundle diameter (Coulson & Richardson,
ED 3; volume 6, Pg 647)
We found that,
Clearance
=
73 mm
Halaman 77
68
Putting value of tube bundle diameter we get,
Shell ID
=
988.285 + 73
Shell ID
=
1061.285 mm
Shell ID
=
1.061 m
Pressure drop within the tubes:
Firstly finding flow area;
sebuah t
=
no of tubes ×
For 25mm tube having 16 BWG;
Flow Area per Tube
=
0.594 in
2
=
0.00037 m
2
sebuah t
=
497.96×
.
=
0.190 m
2
As mass velocity, Gt
=
W
= 55371.54
kg/hr
Gt
= 290159.2285 .
= 59429.35168 .
Kembali
=
×
At, temperature
=
360 F
Viskositas
=
0.021 cp = 0.000021 . = 0.0508
.
Kembali
=
84814.08441
f
=
0.00016 ft2/in2
Berat jenis
=
1,29
ΔP t
=
×××
.××××
Halaman 78
69
ΔP
=
0.001898798 psi
For return losses,
At Gt from graph;
=
1
ΔPr
=
4×()
=
3.100 Psi
Total pressure drop within the tubes
=
ΔP t + Δ P r
Total pressure drop within the tubes
=
3.102 Psi
=
21.38kpa
Calculating number of plates:
Y1 =
mol ratio of NH3 coming in gas phase
0
Y2 =
mole ratio of NH3 leaving in gas phase
0,670
X1 =
mol ratio of NH3 entering in liquid phase
0,542
X2 =
mole ratio of NH3 leaving in liquid phase
0,291
Our equation is:
Lm(X1-X2) = Vm (Y2e-Y1)
Here Y2e=K(X1)
K1 =
equilibrium at top temp and constant pressure = 0.59
K2 =
equilibrium at bottom temp and same pressure = 0.39
K
=
( 1 × 2)
=
0,486
K
=
0,48
Y2e =
0,26
Putting values in above eq,we can find
Halaman 79
70
=
0,952
As, actual
=
1.4 - 1.6 ( )
Taking 1.4
Hence ( ) actual
=
1,33
Stripping factor Si =
K()
=
0,648
Now taking Kresmer Equation:
Fraction strip =
(from Perry page 1180)
Dimana;
Fraction strip =
= 0.463
0,463
=
If Ne=1.51then,
0,46
=
0,46
By putting Ne
=
1.51 above equation is proved
So, No of theoretical plates
=
2
As in stripper plate efficiency tends to be in b/w 40-70% (from Perry pg 1181)
By taking efficiency =
60%
Actual no of plates =
.
=
3.3
≈
Shell Thickness & Outer Diameter (OD):
Shell thickness is given by:
t
=
11
1
-+
-+
NeS
S
NeS
11
1
-+
-+
NeS
S
NeS
Halaman 80
71
As material of construction of stripper is duplex stainless steel, for this
Stress value (S)
=
95000 kPa
Operating Pressure (P)
=
17500 kPa
Design Pressure
=
19248.9 kPa
Ej
=
1
Allowance for corrosion (C)
=
0.003 m
Put all these values in above equation
Thickness of shell
=
0.119 m
Outer diameter of shell is given by:
Outer Diameter (OD) =
Inner Diameter (ID) + thickness (t)
Outer Diameter
=
1.061 + 0.119
Outer Diameter
=
1.18 m
Calculating No of holes on sieve plate:
Cross sectional area of column
=
Ac
= 1.101
Down corner area
=
cross sectional area x plate cross section
Ad
=
0.165
(Plate cross section 15%, From Perry Book page 1198)
Net area used = cross sectional area of column – A d
An
=
Ac-Ad
= 0.936 m^2
Active area
= A c - 2A d
Active Area
=
0,770
Halaman 81
72
Hole area (A h )
=
Active area x 0.1
Hole Area
=
0,077
Diameter of hole (D h )
= 0.0052 m
(From Perry Book Page 1199)
Area of single hole Ai
=
Area of Single Hole
= 1.96429 × 10
Total no. of holes
=
Total no. of holes
=
3924.701
≈
Calculating Length of Shell
No of plates
=3
Tray spacing
= 0.61 m
Distance b/w 3 plates
=
1.83 m
Let plate thickness
= 0.005 m
Total plate thickness
=
0.005 ×3
=
0.015 m
Length of tubes
=5m
Total Shell length
= 7.455 m
Upper clearance
=
0.745 m
(10% of total length)
Below clearance (below tubes) = 1.118 m (15% of total length)
Length of column
=
9.31 m
Volume of Column:
Volume of column
=
Volume of column
=
8.246
Halaman 82
73
Name of equipment
Stripper
Pressure in column
17500 kPa
Temperature at bottom
451 K
Temperature at top
463 K
Number of tubes
498
Tube bundle dia
0.988 m
Shell Internal dia
1.061 m
Pressure drop within tubes
21.38 kPa
Length of tubes
5m
Actual number of plates
3
No of holes per plate
3900
Plates used
Sieve tray
Sieve tray material
Stainless steel 316
Thickness of shell
0.122 m
Shell outer dia
1.183 m
Height of shell
9.31m
Volume of shell
8.246 m
3
Material of shell
Ferrite Austenic (duplex stainless
steel)
Halaman 83
74
5.5 CONDENSER DESIGN
A condenser is a two-phase flow heat exchanger in which heat is generated from the
conversion of vapor into liquid (condensation) and the heat generated is removed from the
system by a coolant.
Types of Condensers:
➢ Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers / surface condensers
➢ Plate Condensers
➢ Air-Cooled Condensers
➢ Direct Contact Condensers
➢ Shell & tube type
Selection of Condenser Configuration:
Four Condenser Configurations are Possible,
➢ Horizontal with condensation in shell side and cooling medium in the tubes.
➢ Horizontal with condensation in tube side cooling medium in shell side.
➢ Vertical with condensation in the shell.
➢ Vertical with condensation in the tubes.
Horizontal shell side and vertical tube side are the most commonly used types of condensers.
In this process we have used the horizontal with condensation in shell side & cooling medium
in tube.
Process Design of Carbamate Condenser:
The ACES process has two parallel carbamate condensers. One is for low pressure steam
generation and the other is for heating urea solution for MP decomposition stage. Karena itu,
each carbamate condenser size is relatively small compared to the reactor and the stripper.
Both are vertical falling film type condensers.
Carbamate Condenser functions to condense NH 3 and CO 2 gas from the stripper to form
ammonium Carbamate and synthesize urea by dehydration of ammonium Carbamate.
Vertical submerged design is employed for the Carbamate condenser from process view point.
Halaman 84
75
This provides the following advantages:
➢ High gas velocity, appropriate gas hold up and sufficient liquid depth in the bubble
column promote mass and heat transfer.
➢ A vertical design inevitably requires smaller plot area .
Designing Steps of Condenser:
➢ Heat Balance.
➢ Assumed Calculations.
➢ Calculations of Heat Transfer Coefficients.
➢ Calculations of Pressure Drops.
Heat balance:
Formation energy of ammonium carbamate at 170
Hai
C
Q
=
(Outlet to reactor) – (inlet of scrubber) (
Δ
.)
Q
=
(130160.3862) – (43098.63432) (
)
Q
=
- 93758.80969
Heat absorbed by ammonium carbamate
C p of ammonium carbamate
=
2.3
Q
=
43098.63432× 2.3(443 -423)
Q
=
1982537.179
Heat absorbed by ammonia
Q
=
19083.81257× 310.55
Q
=
5926477.992
Condensation heat and sensible heat released by ammonia
Q
=
(163.44 − 0.9338 + (1.38 × 10 ) ^2)
Page 85
76
Q
=
(-473.26) (55125.44204)
Q
=
-26088115.45
Heat released by carbon dioxide
Q
=
0.36 + 2.05 × 10
– (1.5
×10 ) dT
Q
=
(70159.6531) (-19.616)
Q
=
-1376232.812
Heat released from carbamate condenser
Q
=
-93758.80969 +1982537.179 +5926477.992 -26088115.45 -
1376232.812
Q
=
-1969040.69
Total heat load
Q
=
-1969040.69
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference:
ΔT 1
=
38.2k
ΔT 2
=
25k
ΔT LMTD
=
Δ
(
)
=
31.135 K
Area of Condenser:
SEBUAH
=
×
By using, U =
550
=
=
0,55
Q
=
5699.733 KW
ΔT LMTD
=
31.135 K
Put all these values in equation
Page 86
77
SEBUAH
=
318.732 m
2
Outer diameter of the tube (D 0 ) = 0.025 m
Length of the tube
=
6.096 m
One tube area A
=
π DL = (3.14) (0.025) (6.096)
One tube area A
=
0.4789 m
2
No. of tubes
N
T
=
NT
=
665
OD
=
0.025 m
Ketebalan
=
16 BWG
Surface per linear ft
=
0.029 m
2
(0.312 ft
2
)
Total surface area
=
No of tube × Thickness× surface per linear ft
Total surface area
=
308.56 m
2
Equivalent Diameter:
Equivalent Diameter (D e ) =
×
Pt
=
0.0275 m
D0
=
0.0220 m
De
=
0.172 m
Confirmation U
Q
=
5699.733 KW
ΔT LMTD
=
31.135 K
Halaman 87
78
Total surface area
=
322.4 m
2
Put all these value,
U
=
0.567
For 25 mm tube having 16 BWG;
Flow area (A t )
=
×
Flow area per tube
=
0.594 in
2
Nt
=
665
No of passes
=
1
Flow area (A t )
=
395.278 in
2
=
2.744 ft
2
(ID) t
=
0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
Mass velocity:
Gt
=
W
=
9189.644561
Gt
=
.
.
=
36035.25892 .
Calculate Reynolds Number:
Kembali
=
×
Di
=
0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
μ
=
0.25 cp ( temperature at 151.8
Hai
C of CO 2 )
Kembali
=
884.453
Halaman 88
79
Total Pressure Drop within the Tube:
f
=
0.0002
()
)
10
22.5
(
10
2
2
1
t
Dis
Ln
fG
Pt
φ
×
=
Δ
= 4.463 × 10 psi
Also for return losses
From Graph,
=
1
∆p r
=
4× ( )
∆p r
=
0.1085 psi
Total Pressure Drop =
∆p r +∆p t
=
0.109 psi
Thickness of tube (t):
t
=
(.)
Allowable stress for Duplex- stainless steel (S)
=
762 atm
t
=
×.
( . ( ))
t
=
0.162 cm
Outer diameter of tube (d 0 ) =
d i + t =0.0220 +0.00162
Outer diameter of tube (d 0 ) =
0.024 m
Shell diameter:
No of tube at bundle diameter:
ND
=
[ 4 N T -0.333]
0,50
ND
=
51.75 ≈ 52
Halaman 89
80
Total no of bundle =
= 12.89
≈ 13
Ds
=
p t (N D +1)
For square pitch,
Pt
=
1.25× d 0
=
1.25×0.024
=
0,03
ND
=
52
Ds
=
2m
Equivalent diameter:
De =
.
× (P t
2
– 0.917 d o
2
)
Pt
=
0.0275 m
D0
=
0.0236 m
Put all these values in above equation:
De
=
0.0172 m
Viscosity calculation:
NH 3 (Gas)
=
0,27
CO 2
=
0,42
Carbamate
=
0,307
NH 3 (liquid)
=
0,692
μ
=
7.78× 10 Kg/m sec
Kembali
=
Gsde/µ
Re
=
8400
Friction factor for shell side f =0.0025 sq ft/squ inch
Page 90
81
Gs
=
shell side mass velocity
=
38.06kg/sec.m
2
L
=
length of tube
=
20ft
No of passes =
1
De
=
Equivalent diameter=0.0172 m
t
10
2
s
s
Deφ
5.22x10
Ln
fG
ΔP 
ΔP S = 0.125 psi
5.6 SPECIFICATIONS SHEET
Name of Equipment
Carbamate Condenser
Area (A)
318.732 m
2
Over-all heat transfer coefficient (assumed
0.55 KW/m
2.
K
Over-all heat transfer coefficient (calculated)
0.567 KW/m
2
k
No of tubes
665
Material of construction
Duplex stain less steel
Type of Pitch
Kotak
Baffle Cut
25%
Wall thickness
0.00162 mm
Calculated Surface Area
308.56 m
2
Page 91
82
5.7 EVAPORATOR DESIGN
In case of climbing film evaporator, the liquid feed enters the evaporator through bottom
header and moves upward through tubes. It receives heat from the heating media on shell side.
The vapour is generated in the tubes which start rising up pulling the liquid in the film form.
The vapour and liquid enters the vapour-liquid separator where they are separated. Vapour
moves upward to vapour nozzle while the concentrate moves down to concentrate nozzle.
This is useful during evaporation of highly viscous and fouling solutions.
Figure 5.2 Structure of climbing-film type evaporator
Features:
➢ Cost effective construction, ideal for simple evaporation, concentration applications.
➢ Ideal for volume reduction of dilute streams.
➢ Can be used under recirculation mode.
➢ Continuous operation.
➢ Good for moderately heat sensitive products.
Halaman 92
83
Energy Balance:
Inlet Flow Rates are:
Komponen
Panas Tertentu
(.)
Flow Rate
()
Flow Rate
(
)
Mole Fraction
Urea
107.76
74714.92
1245.2487
0.496058
air
75.37
22651.99
1258.4439
0.501314
Biuret
149
679.5566
6.5976373
0.002628
Total
98046.47
2510.2903
1.00
Cp of mixture =
∑ x Cp i
= 91.63082 .
Q
=
18401597.32
Inlet T
= 80
Hai
C
Outlet Liquid T
=
85
Hai
C
Stream T
=
147.165
Hai
C
Vapour space pressure
=
0.23 atm
Vapour space temperature =
63.1
Hai
C
Outlet Flow Rates are:
Komponen
Panas Tertentu
(.)
Flow Rate
()
Flow Rate
(
)
Mole Fraction
Urea
109.28
74714.92
1245.2487
0.747866
air
75.37
7438.029
413.22385
0.248172
Biuret
149
679.5566
6.5976373
0.003962
Total
82832.51
1665.0702
1.00
Cp of mixture
=
∑ xCpi
=
101.0218722 .
Q
=
mCp∆t
=
14297723.37
Halaman 93
84
Heat balance:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam
=
heat carried by water vapour + energy of
the bottom product
For steam at 147.165;
λs1 (Heat input by steam)
=
2123.2
Putting the values we get
:
Heat input (feed)
= 18401597.32
S1λs
=
S1 × 2123.2
E1 (vapour Flow rate)
=
15213.960
H1
=
2614.97
E1HE1 (heat carried by water vapour)
=
39784050.84
Energy of the bottom product
=
14297723.37
After putting in Equation we get:
S1λs1
=
35680176.89
S1
=
16804.90622
Ekonomi
=
=
0,90
U1value is obtained from fig-11.21(From Perry's Chemical Engineer 8th Edition page 18) At
63.1
0
C U1 is 270 .
.
U
=
5519.308 kj/hr m2 k
∆T1
= 147.165- 85
=
62.165
Hai
C
Page 94
85
A1
=
λ
Δ
Heat Transfer Area A1
=
103.9
Assuming:
Tube Length
=6m
Tube OD inch
= 0.0254 m
Tube ID [14 BWG]
= 0.021 m
Minimum pitch
=
1.25 x OD = 0.03175 m
One tube area A
= 0.478971429
No. of tubes (N):
=
217.1135
≈ 217
N0 0f passes
=
1
K1
= 0.215
N1
= 2.107
Db
= 0.677 m (tube bundle diameter)
Clearance
= 64 mm
Shell ID
= 0.74 m
Down comer area
=
0.5 × {N t × ( ) × } = 0.055
Down comer diameter
= 0.264 m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator
= down comer area + area
occupied by tubes
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator
= 0.149
Tube sheet diameter
= 0.436 m
Page 95
86
Wall Thickness Calculation:
:
Mild steel
f
=
0.93 x 10
J
=
0,85
P
=
4.5 Atm
Design P
= 3.905 bar =
380500
t (thickness)
=
0.0017 m
Shell Outer Dia
=
ID + thickness
Shell Outer Dia
=
0.74 + 0.0017 =
0.741 m
Page 96
87
Name of equipment
Evaporator
Pressure in Evaporator
4.5 atm
Steam T
420.165 k
Inlet Temperature at bottom
353 k
Out let Temperature of Liquid
358 K
Number of tubes
217
U1
5519.308 .
Tube bundle dia
0.677 m
Heat Transfer Area
103.9
Shell Internal dia
0.74 m
Length of tubes
Tube OD
Total Area of Tube Sheet
6m
0.025 m
0.149
Thickness of shell
0.0017 m
Shell outer diameter
0.741 m
Material of shell
Mild steel
Page 97
88
5.9 DESIGN OF ABSORBER
The removal of one or more component from the mixture of gases by using a suitable solvent
is second major operation of Chemical Engineering that based on mass transfer.
In gas absorption a soluble vapors are more or less absorbed in the solvent from its mixture
with inert gas. The 'purpose of such gas scrubbing operations may be any of the following;
Sebuah)
For Separation of component having the economic value.
b)
As a stage in the preparation of some compound.
c)
For removing of undesired component (pollution).
Types of Absor5srs:
There are two major types of absorbers which are used for absorption purposes:
➢ Packed column
➢ Plate column
Comparison Between Packed And Plate Column:
1)
The packed column provides continuous contact between vapor and liquid phases
while the plate column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise basis.
2)
SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 3 ft. It is more usual to
employ packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small trays. But if the
column is very large then the liquid distribution is problem and large volume of
packing and its weight is problem.
3)
PRESSURE DROP: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate column. Di
plate column there is additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the
liquid on each tray. If there are large No. of Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may
be quite high and the use of packed column could effect considerable saving.
4)
LIQUID HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be an Urge
quantity of the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flows as a
thin film over the packing.
5)
SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 3 ft. packed tower require lower
fabrication and material costs than plate tower with regard to height, a packed column
is usually shorter than the equivalent plate column.
Page 98
89
From the previous consideration packed column is selected as the absorber, because in our
case the diameter of the column is approximately 0.8 meter which is less than 3 ft. As the
solubility is infinity so the liquid will absorb as much gases as it remain in contact with gases
so packed tower provide more contact. It is easy to operate.
Selection of Packed Column:
➢ Continuous contacting device.
➢ Packed columns operate over a wide range of air flow rates.
➢ Packed columns are suitable for foaming liquids.
➢ In packed columns two streams never reach equilibrium
Thus most packing is made of cheap, inert, fairly light materials such as clay, porcelain, or
graphite. Thin-walled metal rings of steel or aluminum are some limes used.
Common Packing's are:
➢ Berl Saddle.
➢ Intalox Saddle.
➢ Rasching rings.
➢ Single spiral ring.
➢ Double - Spiral ring.
➢ Triple - Spiral ring .
Designing Steps For Absorption Column:
➢ Determining the approximate dia of the column
➢ Selection of column.
➢ Selection of packing and material
➢ Calculating the size of packing
➢ Calculating the actual dia of column
➢ Finding the no. of transfer units (No G )
➢ Determining the height of packing
➢ Determining the height of the column
➢ Determining the pressure
Page 99
90
Design parameters:
• Column Diameter
• Area of column
• Height of packing
Flow Rates and Physical Properties:
Flow rate of un-reacted carbon dioxide in (from Reactor)
= 1.53kg/sec
Flow rate of un-reacted ammonia
= 2.37 kg/sec
Flow rate of carbamate (To condenser)
= 11.97kg/sec
Flow rate of ammonia
= 5.29kg/sec
Flow rate of carbamate in MPA
= 9.24 kg/sec
Flow rate of ammonia in (MPA)
= 4.11 kg/sec
Temperature of gases in T 1
= 463K
Temperature of gases out T 2
=
462 K
Temperature of liquid in t 1
= 423 K
Temperature of liquid out t 2
= 426 K
Density of gases ρ g
= 77.26kg/m3
Viscosity of gases µ s
=
0.00014 kg/m.sec
Density of Liquid ρ L
= 1690 Kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid µ L
=
0.00015 kg/m.sec
Halaman 100
91
Packing Specifications
:
• Packing Type
= ceramic Intalox Saddles
• Packing Size d p
= 1.00 inch = 0.0250 m
• Surface area of packing 'a'
= 253.00 m
2
/m
3
• Packing factor (Fp)
= 300.00
Column Area and Diameter:
Ac = V/V* w
To find V* w
V* w
= [{K 4 *ρ g *(ρ L - ρ g )}/{13.1*Fp( µ L /ρ L )
0,1
}]
0.5
Now we will find k 4 and k 4 is finding from graph against F LV
For F LV
F LV
= (L w /G w ) * (ρg/ρ L )
0.5
By putting the values we get
F LV
= (9.24/2.37) * (77.26/1690)
0.5
= 0.83
Floading Velocity =
Floading Velocity = 0.06
Pressure drop taken 20 mm of water/m of packing (it should b/w 15-50)
At 0.83 we find the value of k 4 from figure below
1690/26.77
37.2
24.9
Halaman 101
92
Above Figure Generalized pressure drop correlation, adopted from a fig by the Norton Co. with
izin
For pressure drop of 20 mmH 2 O/m packing
K 4 (y-axis)
= 0.58
At flooding K4
= 0.85
Now putting the value in equation 7.2
V w * = [{0.58*77.26*(1690 - 77.26)}/{13.1*300(.00015/1690)
0,1
}]
0.5
V w * = 9.66kg/m
2
.sec
For Area
Putting the values in equation
Column area required
SEBUAH
= V/Vw* = 9.24/9.66
SEBUAH
= 0.95m2
Diameter of column
=
(4/π * A)
0.5
Diameter
=
[(4/3.14) * 0.95]
0.5
Diameter of column
=
1.10 m
Halaman 102
93
Column area
=
3.14/4 * (1.10)
2
A =0.95 m
2
Estimation of H OG:
By Onda's method
H OG
= H G + (mG m /L m )*H L
H OG
= height of an overall gas phase transfer unit
HG
= height of a gas phase transfer unit, m
HL
= height of a liquid phase transfer unit, m
HG
= G m /K G * a W * P
HL
= L m /K L * a W * Ct
For H G
Find
a w =? , k G =? , G m =?
For a w
L
*
w
=
liquid mass flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kg/m2s
sebuah w
=
effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m
2
/m
3
Sebuah
=
actual area of packing per unit volume m
3
/m
3
σc
=
critical surface tension for Ceramic= 61 mN/m
σL
=
liquid(ammonia solution) surface tension=0.005 mN/m
By putting the values in equation
a W /a=1-exp[-1.45*{(61*10
-3
/0.005)
0,75
}*{(12.6/253 *0.00015)
0,1
}*{(12.6
2
*253/1690
2
*9.8)}
-
0,05
*{(12.6
2
/1690*0.005*253)
0,2
}]
sebuah w
=
0.93*253
Page 103
94
sebuah w
=
226 m
2
/m
3
Now we find the value of K G for calculating H G
(K G /a)*(R*T/Dg) = {K5}*{(Vw/a*µg) 0.7}*{(µg/ρg*Dg)
0,33
}*{(a*dp)
-2
}
Sini
K5
=
5.23
[31]
Dp
=
packing size, m
R
=
0.08314 bar m3/kmol k
T
=
426 K
Kinematic viscosity of gases D V = µv/ρv
By putting the values
D g = 1.81*10
-6
By inserting the values in the equation, we get
(K G /253* 1.81*10
-6
)*(0.08314*426) = {5.23}*{(5.30/253*0.00014)
0,7
}*
{(0.00014/77.26*1.81*10
-6
)
0,33
}*{(253*0.025)
-2
}
K G = 5.75 * 10
-5
Kmol/sm
2
bar
Now we find the value of K L for calculating H G
K L *{(ρ L /µ L *g)
.33
} = {0.0051}*{(Lw/a W *µ)
2/3
}*{(µ L /ρ L *D L )
-0,5
}*{(a*dp)
0.4
}
Here g = 9.8 m/sce
2
Kinematic viscosity of amine solution D L= µL/ρL
By putting the values
DL
= 0.00015 /1690
DL
= 8.88*10
-8
m
2
/sec
By putting the values in the equation (7.9), we get
K L *{(1690/0.00015*9.8)
0,33
} = {0.0051}*{(11.97/226*0.00015)
2/3
}*{(0.00015/1690*8.88* 10
-8
)
-
0.5
}*{(253*0.025)
0.4
}
KL
= 0.453/99.26
Halaman 104
95
KL
= 5.43*10
-3
m/sec
Now we estimate the value of H OG
H OG = H G + (m G m /L m ) * H L
For this first we calculate the value of H G and H L
HG
=
G m /K G * a w * P
Gm
=
molar gas flow-rate per unit cross-sectional area
Gm
=
5.30/17* 0.95=0.328Kmol/m
2
s
Tekanan
=
175 bar
Now putting the value in equation
G m = 0.328/5.75* 10
-5
* 226 *175
H G =0.144m
HL
=
L m /K L *a W *Ct
Lm
=
molar liquid flow rate per unit cross-sectional area
=
9.24/78* 0.95=0.125 kmol/m2s.
Ct
=
total concentration, as solution
Ct
= density of liquid/molecular weight of liquid
=
1690/78
Ct
=
21.67 kmole/m
3
By putting the values in equation
HL
=
0.125/5.43* 10
-3
* 226 *21.67
HL
=
0.0047 m
Value of H OG :
Now value of H G and H L putting in equation
H OG =
0.144 + 0.75*0.0047
H OG =
0.145m
Halaman 105
Estimation of N OG :
y1
=
mole fraction of g
y2
=
mole fraction of g
y 1 /y 2
=
0.68/0.01= 69
Now take the value of N OG
Number of transfer units N OG
Begitu,
N OG = 13 m
Height of packing (Z)
Z
=
H OG *N OG =
Z
=
1.872 m
Allowance for internals = 0.25* D+ 1 =
Height of column = 1.872+1.275
= 3.14 m
CHAPTER 05:
96
mole fraction of gas at inlet
= 0.68
mole fraction of gas at outlet
= .01
0.68/0.01= 69
from Fig.16
OG as a function of y 1 /y 2 with mG m /L m as parameter
= 0.144*13
internals = 0.25* D+ 1 = 1.275 m
mn = 1.872+1.275
= 3.14 m
as parameter
Page 106
Pressure Drop calculations:
F LV
=
0,58
Vw*=
9.66kg/m
2
.sec
K4
=
0,85
For these values of F LV see the value of p
water per meter of packing.
5.10 SPECIFICATION SHEET O
Equipment Name
Fungsi
No-of transfer units
Height of transfer unit
Diameter of column
Height of packing section
Size and type of packing
Total height of the column
Packing arrangement
Type of packing support
Liquid distributors
rea by ACES process
97
calculations:
.sec
see the value of pressure drop from fig 11.44 the pressure dro
.
IFICATION SHEET OF SCRUBBER
Equipment Name
Packed scrubber
Fungsi
To absorb ammonia in carbamat
of transfer units
Height of transfer unit
0.144 m
Diameter of column
1.10 m
packing section
1.872 m
ize and type of packing
Ceramic intalox saddle
tal height of the column
3.14 m
Packing arrangement
Dumped
ype of packing support
Gas injection support
Liquid distributors
Orifice type
aterial of construction
316 L stainless steel
fig 11.44 the pressure drop is 20mm of
Packed scrubber
orb ammonia in carbamate solution
13
0.144 m
1.10 m
1.872 m
Ceramic intalox saddle
3.14 m
Dumped
Gas injection support
Orifice type
besi tahan karat
Halaman 107
98
5.11 SELECTION OF PUMP
Pumps are used to transfer fluids from one location to another. The pump accomplishes this
transfer by increasing the pressure of the fluid and, thereby, supplying the driving force
necessary for flow. Power must be delivered to the pump from some outside source. Demikian,
electrical or steam energy may be transformed into mechanical energy which is used to drive
pompa. Part of this mechanical energy is added to the fluid as work energy, and the rest is
lost as friction due to inefficiency of the pump and drive.
The different types of pumps commonly employed in industrial operations can be classified as
berikut:
➢ Reciprocating or positive-displacement pumps with valve action: piston pumps,
diaphragm pumps, plunger pumps.
➢ Rotary positive-displacement pumps with no valve action: gear pumps, lobe pumps,
screw pumps, eccentric-cam pumps, metering pumps.
➢ Rotary centrifugal pumps with no valve action: open impeller, closed impeller, volute
pumps, and turbine pumps.
➢ Air-displacement systems: air lifts, acid eggs or blow cases, jet pumps, barometric
legs.
Factors influence the final choice of a pump:
Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular operation. Itu
following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection:
1. The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of pump (or
pumps) necessary.
2. The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity of the fluid influence the
power requirement for a given set of operating conditions; corrosive properties of the
fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction.
3. The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps.
4. The head change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream-reservoir
pressures, the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects. This
factor is a major item in determining the power requirements.
Halaman 108
99
5. Type of flow distribution. If non pulsating flow is required, certain types of pumps,
such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory. Similarly, if operation is
intermittent, a self-priming pump may be desirable, and corrosion difficulties may be
increased.
6. Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps are
readily adaptable for use with electric-motor or internal-combustion- engine drives;
reciprocating pumps can be used with steam or gas drives.
7. Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
Selected Pump:
From above factors that influence the pump selection, we select “HP centrifugal” for
pumping the Ammonia to the reactor.
Advantages of centrifugal pump
➢ They are simple in construction and cheap.
➢ Fluid is delivered at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations.
➢ They can be coupled directly to motor drives. In general, the higher the speed, the
smaller the pump and motor required for a given duty.
➢ The discharge line may be partly shut off or completely closed off without damaging
pompa.
➢ They can handle liquid with large amounts of solids.
➢ There are no valves involved in the pump operation.
➢ Maintenance costs are lower than for other types of pumps.
Perhitungan:
Mass flow rate of Ammonia = 42787.1 = 11.88
Density of Ammonia at inlet temperature and pressure (150
Hai
C & 1atm) = 618
Viskositas
=
1.52 × 10
-5
.
.
=
0,019
Halaman 109
100
Velocity in the pipe =
Velocity in the pipe =
.
=
.
.
Velocity in the pipe = 2.42
(Selecting 4 inch, schedule 40 pipes)
Reynolds Number
=
=
×.×.
.×
Reynolds Number = 98392
Flow is turbulent, so fanning friction factor (f) can be calculated by using:
Fanning friction factor = 0.0014 +
.
.
Friction factor (f)
= 0.005
Head losses in term of height of liquid flowing
=
×××
×
(L=10m)
Head losses ( )
= 0.186 m
Efficiency of a Pump =
78%
(From using Figure 12.17 of “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth
edition” at capacity of 0.019 or 68.4 )
Now, pump work is calculated by Using Bernoulli's equation:
W p = (Z 2 -Z 1 ) +
Δ
++
(∆P) = × = 115
Level difference between Discharge and suction (Z 2 -Z 1 ) = 10m
After putting all the values in above Bernoulli's Equation;
Wp
=
14
.
Page 110
101
Kekuasaan
=
Wp × mass flow rate =
14 × 11.88
Kekuasaan
=
166.32
.
=
1170 = 1568 hp
Pump Type
Single Stage (radial) HP Centrifugal
Fluid Handle
Amonia
Kapasitas
68.4
Efisiensi
0.78
Pressure Developed
115
Inlet Pressure
Atmospheric (1.01325 bar)
Outlet pressure
175 bar
Power Required
1568 hp
Losses due to Head
0.186 m
Density of fluid
618
Halaman 111
102
5.13 SELECTION OF COMPRESSOR
Movement of gases can be accomplished by use of fans, blowers, vacuum pumps, and
kompresor. Fans are useful for moving gases when pressure differences less than about 0.5
psi are involved. Centrifugal blowers can handle large volumes of gases, but the delivery
pressure is limited to approximately 50 psig. Reciprocating compressors can be employed
over a wide range of capacities and pressures, and they are used extensively in industrial
operasi. Sizes of reciprocating compressors ranging from less than 1 to 3000 hp are
available, and some types can give delivery pressures as high as 4000 atm.
Steps Involved in Compressor Calculations:
➢ Selection of Compressor Type according to requirement
➢ Calculation of Compressor Work for Single Stage
➢ Calculation of Discharge Temperature for Single Stage
➢ Calculation of Compressor Work and Discharge Temperature for Two Stages
➢ Calculation of Compressor Power for two stages
➢ Calculation of motor Power for two stages
Important Conditions Required for Calculations:
➢ Temperature = 25 o
C = 298 K
➢ Inlet Pressure P 1 = 1.01325 bar = 101325 pa
➢ Outlet pressure P 2 = 175 bar = 17500000 pa
➢ Mass flow rate into the compressor = 55371.54 = 15.38
➢ Molecular weight of fluid (CO 2 ) = 44
➢ Molar flow rate into the compressor =
.
= 0.35
.
➢ Density of CO 2 = 209.9
➢ Inlet volumetric flow rate =
.
. = 0.07
Selection of Compressor Type:
There are different types of compressors used in chemical and petrochemical industries,
Centrifugal and Positive Displacement Compressors are two main types. We select
“Centrifugal and Axial Compressor” for compress the CO 2 before entering the stripper, due to
alasan berikut:
Page 112
103
➢ Both centrifugal and axial units are continuous-flow compressors. Centrifugal
compressors, in general, are used for higher pressure ratios and lower flow rates.
➢ The pressure ratio in a single-stage centrifugal compressors used in petrochemical
industries is about 1.2 : 1
➢ Because of the low pressure ratios for each stage, a single compressor may include a
number of stages in one casing to achieve the desired overall pressure ratio.
➢ The operating ratio of a centrifugal compressor is between that of surge, which is the
lower flow limit of stable operation, and choke, which is the maximum flow through
the compressor at a given operating speed.
Perhitungan:
(1) Adiabatic Head
=(
−1
)()(
)−1
Dimana;
=
Adiabatic head in .
R
=
Gas constant in .
→
0,199
= Inlet gas temperature in K
→
298
k
=
heat capacity ratio ( )
→
.
.
= 1.64
P1&P2=
Inlet and outlet pressures in kPa
Put all these values in above equation to get adiabatic head:
= 0.189 × 298 (
1,64
1.64 − 1
)(
7500
101.325
)(
.
.
)−1
= 630 .
(2) Adiabatic Power For Single Stage Compression:
=×
= 15.38 × 630
= 9690
Halaman 113
104
(3) Adiabatic Discharge Temperature:
= ()
= 298 (
7500
101.35
)
.
.
= 1600
(4) Efficiency:
75% from table 12.8 of “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth edition”
Compressor Type
Centrifugal
Fluid Handle
Carbon Di Oxide
Kapasitas
0,07
or 252
Efisiensi
0,75
Pressure Developed
115
Inlet Pressure
Atmospheric (101.325 kPa)
Outlet pressure
7500 kPa
Power Required
9690 kW
Inlet Temperature
298 K
Outlet Temperature
1600 K
Density of fluid
209.9
Heat Capacity Ratio Of Fluid
Handled (CO 2 )
1,64
Halaman 114
Halaman 115
CHAPTER 06: Mechanical Design
106
6.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR
The mechanical design of a reactor resemble with that of a pressure vessel. Hal ini umumnya
accepted that any closed vessel over 150 mm diameter, subjected to a pressure difference of
more than 1 bar, should be designed as a pressure vessel.
There are two types of vessels normally:
➢ Thin walled vessels
➢ Thick walled vessels
Our urea reactor is designed as thin walled vessel because it satisfies the condition that the
ratio of wall thickness to wall diameter is less than 1:10.
Basic design data required by a specialist designer will include followings:
➢ Vessel function
➢ Process materials and services
➢ Operating and design temperatures and pressures
➢ Material of construction
➢ Vessel dimensions and orientation
➢ Types of vessel heads to be used
➢ Opening and connections required
➢ Specifications of heating and cooling jackets or coils
➢ Specifications of internal fittings
Steps to be followed for designing a reactor:
➢ Vessel dimensions
➢ Material of construction selection
➢ Thickness of the shell required
➢ Type of trays required
➢ Total pressure drop estimation
➢ Head selection and thickness calculations
➢ Weight of the shell calculations
➢ Stress Calculations
Halaman 116
107
Selection of Material of construction:
Duplex stainless steel DP28W
Alloying Elements
Mass %
Cr
27.0
Ni
7.00
Mo
0,80
W
2.10
N
0,30
TOYO Engineering Co. (Designers of ACES process) and Sumitomo Metal Ind., Ltd. (SMI)
has jointly developed new duplex stainless steel DP28W for urea plant.
➢ Excellent corrosion resistance
• Improves reliability and maintainability
• Less maintenance cost
• Prolong life of equipment and plant
➢ Excellent passivation property
• Less passivation air injection
• Improves safety and operability
➢ High mechanical strength
• Reduce thickness & weight of pressure parts
• Reduce required surface area of tubes
halaman 117
108
Thickness of reactor wall:
Operating Pressure
=
175 bar
=
17.5
Design Pressure
=
(17.5-1) × 1.1
=
18.15
t=
+
Dimana;
t
=
Ketebalan
P
=
Design Pressure
=
18.15
D
=
Diameter of Reactor =
2.6 m =
2600 mm
f
=
Maximum Allowable Stress
= 240
C
=
Corrosion Allowance = 2mm
J
=
Joint Factor
=
1 (Fully Radiography)
Put all these values in above equation:
t=
.×
××.
+ 2 = 101.0983 mm = 0.1 m
Outer Diameter of Reactor:
OD =
ID + 2(t)
=
2.6 + 2(0.1) =
2.8 m
Halaman 118
109
Weight of the shell:
= 240
+ 0.8
Dimana;
=
a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, internal supports etc.
=
1.08 for vessels having only a few internals
=
mean diameter of vessel = ID + t = 2.6 + 0.1 = 2.7 m
=
height or length of cylindrical section of vessel = 26 m
=
wall thickness in mm
Put all these values in above equation to find the weight of shell:
= 240 × 1.08 × 2.7 26 + 0.8 × 2.7 101.0983 = .
=
Selection of Reactor Head:
There are basically three types of shell heads:
➢ Hemispherical
➢ Ellipsoidal
➢ Torispherical
The basic features and characteristics of these head types are given in tabulated form:
Halaman 119
110
Table 6.1 Comparisons between Different Head Types
Hemispherical
Ellipsoidal
Torispherical
Pressure bearing
Strongest in pressure
bearing (2 times P
than that of
Torispherical head)
Tekanan sedang
can be bear
Moderate pressure can
be bear
Majelis
Very difficult to join
with shell with the
help of flanges. Extra
sealing are required to
prevent leakage.
Easy joining with
shell by flanges.
Extra sealing is
tidak dibutuhkan.
Easy joining with shell
by flanges. Extra
sealing is not required.
Agitator assembly Very difficult to avoid
agitator from
fluktuasi.
Very easy to
maintain agitator
on a constant
speed without
fluktuasi.
A bit difficult
maintenance than that in
ellipsoidal heads.
Cost of forming
Most expensive
Less expensive
Less expensive
Ketebalan
perhitungan
Ratio of head
thickness to
cylindrical shell
thickness = 7/17
2
0,2
ii
saya
PD
t
JS
P
=
-
2
(
0.2)
ics
saya
s
PR C
t
JS PC
=
-
-
From above given criterion, we select hemispherical head for our case because of the
alasan berikut:
➢ Pressure inside the tank must not be fluctuating, therefore head should be so
tightly fixed with cylindrical shell and no leakage should be there. Untuk ini
purpose, best recommendations are for hemispherical heads.
➢ Its thickness calculations are easier than those for other two head types.
➢ Cost of forming these types of heads is lower than that for other two head types.
Thickness of the hemispherical head:
=
4 − 0.4
+
=
18.15 × 2600
4 × 240 × 1 − 0.4 × 18.15
+ 2 = 51 = .
Halaman 120
111
Thickness of the shell is 0.1 m and from above calculation it is clear that thickness of head is
half of the shell thickness.
Stress Calculations:
1) Longitudinal Stress
=
×.
=
.×
.
Longitudinal Stress
=
233.38
2) Circumferential Stress =
×.
Circumferential Stress =
116 .69
3) Dead weight Stress
=
=
.
....
Dead weight Stress
=
2350075.702 pa
=
2350075.702
Dead weight Stress
=
235
4) Compressive Stress
=
××
.
=
××.
Compressive Stress
=
777
Selection of Vessel Support:
The method used to support a vessel depends on:
➢ Size, shape and weight of the vessel
➢ The design temperature and pressure
➢ The vessel location and arrangement
➢ Internal and external fittings and attachments
Skirt support is selected for urea reactor. Skirt Support has following advantages:
➢ A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the
kapal. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations.
➢ Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell.
Halaman 121
112
Operating temperature
190
0
C
Operating pressure
17.5
Design temperature
190
0
C
Design pressure
18.5
Diameter
2.6 m
Reactor Length
26 m
Volume of reactor
147m
3
Residence time
24 min
Katalisator
No catalyst
Material of Construction
DP28W
Thickness of wall
0.1 m
Reactor external diameter
2.8m
Number of trays
10
Type of head
Hemispherical head
Thickness of head
0.05 m
Weight of shell
1992 kN
Longitudinal stress
233.38
Circumferential stress
116.69
Dead weight stress
235
Halaman 122
113
6.3 MECHANICAL DRAWING OF REACTOR
Scaling; 3m = 1in
Halaman 123
Page 124
115
7.1 INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
A chemical plant is combination of many integrated units which are responsible for
converting raw materials into useful products. During its operation a plant has to satisfy many
operating conditions and requirements specified by designer. Such requirements ask for
continuous checking system for a chemical plant. This system guarantees the satisfaction of
operational objectives. System is composed of equipments and humane support and known as
Instrumentation and process control.
(1) Safer Plant Operation
➢ To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
➢ To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and
automatic shut-down systems.
➢ To provide inter locks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures
(2) Production Rate
➢ To achieve the design product output.
(3) Product Quality
➢ To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards
(4) Cost
➢ To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
tujuan.
These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in which they
are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over another, other than that
of putting safety first. Product quality, production rate and the cost of production will be
dependent on sales requirements. For example, it may be a better strategy to produce a better
quality product at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a combination of
automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
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CHAPTER 07: Instrumentation and Process Control
116
7.2 COMPONENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
(1) Process
Process is defined as series of steps which are used to produce final desired product
from available raw materials. In this discussion the process is synthesis of urea.
(2) Control
Control is defined as use of techniques for fixing the given parameters of process
around required value. Sometimes we also use term process control for same meanings.
Parameter which is to be kept fixed is measured by some output variables ranging from
temperature to time and distance measurements. This signal is forwarded to a device which
compares the two values and sends error to final control element to take action. Ada
three main parts of a control system.
1. Sensor
( sensor, transducer and transmitter)
2. Controller ( processor, memory and summing circuit)
3. Final Control Element
( actuator, power control circuit )
(3) Control Loop
A control loop is a process management system which is designed to manipulate input
variable around set point. A control loop is said to be made of three or four steps listed below:
(saya)
Merasakan
(ii) compare
(iii) respond
(iv) Action
Control loops used in industries are mainly of two types:
➢ Feed Forward Control Loop
➢ Feed Backward Control Loop
Feed forward control loop measures disturbances and manipulates the controlled variable
langsung. While in feed backward control loop, we measure controlled variable and manipulate
the disturbances .
Classification of Controllers:
In general the process controllers can be classified as:
1. Pneumatic controllers
2. Electronic controllers
3. Hydraulic controllers
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117
In the urea manufacturing, the controller and the final control element may be pneumatically
operated due to the following reasons:
➢ The pneumatic controller is very rugged and almost free of maintenance. Itu
maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in electronics, so
basically pneumatic equipment is simple.
➢ The pneumatic controller appears to be safer in a potentially explosive atmosphere
which is often present in the urea.
➢ Transmission distances are short. Pneumatic and electronic transmission systems are
generally equal up to about 250 to 300 feet. Above this distance, electronic systems
begin to offer savings .
Modes of Control:
The various types of control are called "modes" and they determine the type of response
diperoleh. In other words these describe the action of the controller that is the relationship of
output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that it is error that actuates the
pengontrol. The four basic modes of control are:
1. On-off Control
2. Integral Control
3. Proportional Control
4. Rate or Derivative Control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the control
sistem. The On-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the error
signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sits or completely sets the
sistem.
Alarms and Safety Trips and Interlocks:
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious, and potentially hazardous, deviations in process
kondisi. Key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and visual
alarms on the control panels.
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118
The basic components of automatic trip systems are:
➢
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a
preset valve is exceeded (the instrument).
➢
A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system of
pneumatic or electric relays.
➢
An actuator to carry out the required action; close or open a valve, switch off a
motor.
A safety trip can be incorporated in control loop; as shown in figure. In this system the high-
temperature alarm operates a solenoid valve, releasing the air on the pneumatic activator
closing the valve on high temperature.
Interlocks
Where it is necessary to follow the fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations-inter-locks are included to prevent operators
departed from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control system design,
as pneumatic and electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks .
7.3 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Measurement is defined as the extraction from physical and chemical systems or processes of
signals, which represent parameters or variable. The performance of an automation system
can never surpass that the associated measuring devices. A basic example is a human being.
1. Temperature Measurement and Control
Temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and inlet streams in
heat exchangers, reactors, etc. Most temperature measurements in the industry are made by
means of thermo-couples to facilitate bringing the measurements to centralized location. Untuk
local measurements at the equipment bi-metallic or filled system thermometers are used to a
lesser extent. Usually, for high measurement accuracy, resistance thermometers are used.
2. Pressure Measurement and Control
Like temperature pressure is a valuable indication of material state and composition. Faktanya,
these two measurements considered together are the primary evaluating devices of industrial
materials. Pumps, compressor and other process equipment associated with pressure changes
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119
in the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices. Thus pressure
measurement becomes an indication of energy increase or decrease.
Most pressure measurement in industry is elastic element devices, either directly connected
for local use or transmission type to centralized location. Most extensively used industrial
pressure element is the Bourden Tube or a Diaphragm or Bellows gauges.
3. Level Controller
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three most common are:
Following the position of a float, that is lighter then fluid
Measuring the apparent weight of a heavy cylinder as it buoyed up more or less by the liquid
(these are called displacement meters).
Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in the vapors
above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface
The differential pressure between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in
kapal.
4. Flow Measurement and Control
Flow-indicator-controllers are used to control the amount of liquid. Also all manually set
streams require some flow indication or some easy means for occasional sample
pengukuran. For accounting purposes, feed and product stream are metered. Sebagai tambahan
utilities to individual and grouped equipment are also metered. Most flow measures in the
industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser extent Variable Area is used, as are the
many available types as special metering situations arise.
These are used to control feed rate into a process unit. Orifice plates are by far the most type
of flow rate sensor. Normally, orifice plates are designed to give pressure drops in the range
of 20 to 200inch of water. Venture tubes and turbine meters are also used.
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120
Figure 9.1 Vaporizer Control
7.4 CONSIDERATION OF PFR IN ACES UREA PLANT
➢ Level Measurement
A sensor measures a level of reacting fluids inside PFR and signals to controller. If level is
below or above the given level signal is sent towards the exit stream control element at urea
larutan. As a result it throttles between open-closed situations.
➢ Temperature Measurement
In PFR operation, temperature is controlled by controlling the flow rate of water inside
reaktor. This water removes heat from reactor by absorption of heat. In case that temperature
is raised inside, water inlet valve is opened and it removes higher amounts of heat from
reactor while stabilizing temperature.
➢ Composition Measurement
A sensor for measuring composition is also introduced into system as higher N/C ratio will
cause energy load on plant. Similarly, lower ratio will cause less conversion leading towards
in-economic process.
For this reason, composition controller checks the valve on fresh ammonia stream maintain
N/C ratio around 4/1.
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121
Figure 9.2 Process Control Scheme of PFR Installed in ACES Urea Plant
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123
8.1 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY (HAZOP)
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of systematic
qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and can be applied to a
whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its database the usual sort of
plant and process information and relies on the judgment of engineering and safety experts in
the areas with which they are most familiar. The end result is, therefore reliable in terms of
engineering and operational expectations, but it is not quantitative and may not consider the
consequences of complex sequences of human errors. The objectives of a HAZOP study can
diringkas sebagai berikut:
➢ To identify areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.
➢ To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
➢ To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
➢ To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard
potensi.
➢ To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.
8.2 STEPS CONDUCTED IN HAZOP STUDY
➢ Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study.
➢ Select the HAZOP study team.
➢ Collect data. The odore16 has listed the following materials that are usually
dibutuhkan.
• Process description.
• Process flow sheets.
• Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all raw
materials, intermediates, and products.
• Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs).
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CHAPTER 08: HAZOP Study
124
• Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications.
• Process control logic diagrams.
• Layout drawings.
• Operating procedures.
• Maintenance procedures.
• Emergency response procedures.
• Safety and training manuals.
➢ Conduct the study. When the nodes are identified and the parameters are
identified, each node is studied by applying the specialized guidewords to each
parameter. These guide words and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP
prosedur.
They are listed in Table (8.1)
Table 8.1 HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings
Guide Words
Berarti
Tidak
Kurang
Lebih
Bagian dari
Sebaik
Membalikkan
Selain daripada
Negation of design intent
Quantitative decrease
Quantitative increase
Qualitative decrease
Qualitative Increase
Logical opposite of the intent
Complete substitution
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8.3 SAFETY OF THE UREA PLANT
It is must to consider occupational safety and health when designing a manufacturing plant.
Safety is the major factor in any industrial process to safeguard employees, environment,
surrounding living peoples etc. Also there are legal obligations which are imposed by
government for chemical processing factories to operate and maintain.
When considering the safety, it is mainly due to the risk of urea which is the main product of
plant and ammonia; one of the main raw materials for production and risk caused by other
intermediate product.
Safety factors relevant to urea:
Stability and Reactivity
➢ Produce biuret when expose to heat.
➢ Urea has high solubility. So it should store under dry conditions.
➢ It has high stability and low reactivity with normal conditions.
Sifat mudah terbakar
➢ Urea is non-flammable material
Flash point : Not applicable
Flammability limits : Not applicable
Auto-ignition temperature : Not applicable
The substance decomposes on heating above melting point, producing toxic gases, and reacts
violently with strong oxidants, nitrites, inorganic chlorides, chlorites and per chlorates,
causing fire and explosion hazard .
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126
8.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Classified as hazardous chemical according to criteria in the HS (Minimum Degrees of
Hazard) Regulations 2001
Route of entry and health hazards:
➢ Harmful if swallowed. - It may cause irritation
➢ Harmful if inhaled.
➢ Causes serious eye irritation.
➢ Harmful to terrestrial vertebrates .
8.5 FIRST AID (EMERGENCY PROCEDURE)
In the event of an emergency, remove the victim from further exposure, send for medical
assistance, and initiate the following emergency procedures:
Kulit
➢ Wash exposed area with soap and water. If irritation persists, get medical attention as
soon as possible.
Eyes
➢ Wash eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lids occasionally. Mencari
Medical Aid.
Inhalasi
➢ Remove to fresh air. Jika tidak bernafas, berikan pernapasan buatan. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen.
Proses menelan
➢ If swallowed, induce vomiting immediately after giving two glasses of water. Tak pernah
give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.
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127
Pemadam Api
Any means suitable for extinguishing surrounding fire. Fire extinguisher should available in
any risky places in the plant.
Extinguishing media: CO 2 , foam, dry powder, water
Handling & Storage:
Precautionary Statements
➢ Keep out of reach of children.
➢ Avoid breathing vapors, or dusts.
➢ Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
➢ Do not eat drink or smoke when using this product.
➢ Avoid unintended release to the environment.
➢ Use with adequate ventilation.
➢ Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothes.
Exposure Control:
Exposure Standards
Workplace Exposure Standards (WES): Particulates not otherwise classified
Inspirable dust 10mg/m3
Respirable dust 3mg/m
3
Disposal Considerations
Observe local authority restrictions that may apply. Collection into sealable
Containers and dispose of in an approved land fill.
Rinse containers thoroughly prior to re-use. Otherwise render unusable, and dispose of as
limbah.
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Figure 8.1
CHAPTER 08: HAZ
128
Figure 8.1 HAZOP method flow diagrams
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129
9.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
An Environment Impact Assessment is an assessment of the possible positive impact or
negative impact which the project may have on the natural environment. Tujuan dari
assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider environmental impacts used to decide
whether to proceed with the project. The International Association for Impact Assessment
(IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting,
evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development
proposal sebelum keputusan utama diambil dan komitmen dibuat.
Objectives of EIA Assessment:
➢ To ensure that proponents take primary responsibility for protection of the
environment influenced by their proposals
➢ To ensure that best practicable measures are taken to minimize adverse impacts on the
environment, and that proposals meet relevant environmental objectives and standards
to protect the environment, and implement the principles of sustainability
➢ To provide opportunities for local community and public participation, as appropriate,
during the assessment of proposals
➢ To encourage proponents to implement continuous improvement in environmental
performance and the application of best practice environmental management in
implementing their proposal
➢ To ensure that independent, reliable advice is provided to the Government before
decisions are made
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CHAPTER 09: Environmental Impact
130
9.2 IMPACT OF THE UREA PLANT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
In the early part of previous decade ammonia consumption per ton of final product of 575 kg
or even higher used to be acceptable. This figure implies however a loss of some 8 kg per
tonne of final product produced (Table 9.1), which for a 2000 mtd plant would result in a loss
of 16 mtpd ammonia either in the form of urea or straight ammonia. Presently ammonia
consumptions of some 567 kg per tonne are released in the large single stream plants. Sejak
this figure is very close to the theoretical consumption figure, the conclusion is that losses in
steady operation are approaching the zero targets.
Table 9.1 Ammonia releases from urea plants
Early nineteen eighties
8 kg NH3/mt final product
Presently
0.7 kg NH3/mt final product
Not only ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea releases from process plants have a negative
influence on the environment but also the unnecessary use of energy is negative from an
environmental point of view and from the economic point of view as well .
9.3 EMISSIONS TO AIR
Air emissions may be categorized as either fugitive or point source emissions.
➢ Fugitive Emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive
emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapor from vats, open vessels, or
spills and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline roof-vents and open doors
of a building as well as equipment leaks, and leaks from valves and flanges are also examples
of fugitive emissions .
➢ Point Source Emissions
These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single point source
into the atmosphere. Above table highlights common air emissions from urea manufacturing
proses .
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9.4 EMISSIONS TO WATER
Emissions of substances to water can be categorized as discharges to:
➢ Surface waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries);
➢ Coastal or marine waters
➢ Storm water
Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances to water,
most facilities emitting above listed substances to waterways are required by the relevant
environment authority to closely monitor and measure these emissions. The existing sampling
data can be used to calculate annual emissions. If no wastewater monitoring data exists,
emissions to process water can be calculated based on a mass balance or using emission
faktor.
9.5 EMISSIONS TO LAND
Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, and sediments.
Emissions arising from spills, leaks, and storage and distribution of materials containing listed
substances may also occur to land. These emission sources can be broadly categorized as:
➢ Surface impoundments of liquids and slurries; dan
➢ Unintentional leaks and spills.
In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used to
estimate emissions from the facility. Keempat tipe tersebut adalah:
➢ Sampling or direct measurement;
➢ Mass balance;
➢ Fuel analysis or other engineering calculations; dan
➢ Emission factors.
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CHAPTER 09: Environmental Impact
132
9.6 ELIMINATION METHODS
Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and emission at
extremely low levels:
1. N/C ratio meter
2. Waste water treatment section
3. Absorbers
4. Special operational facilities
1. N/C ratio meter in the Synthesis section
Instead of using a gas chromatograph or a mass spectrometer in the gas phase of the synthesis
section, Nitrogen/Carbon (N/C) ratio meters are installed in the liquid phase (reactor liquid
outlet) of the urea synthesis section. The principle of this N/C meter is based on the linear
relationship between liquid density and the N/C ratio. The density is measured continuously
with a solartron meter, being an instrument in which vibrations are measured in an extremely
accurate way whereby the vibrations are a measure of the density of the reactor liquid.
This N/C ratio meter allows the process at all times to be operated at the optimum ratio to
achieve highest reactor efficiency combined with higher energy efficiency. Special procedures
are used to eliminate emissions during start-up.
2. Urea plant waste water treatment section
The process water in urea plants contains ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea. Itu
concentrations of these components vary within a range depending on the operating
conditions, On average, the concentrations in the process water are about 6 wt.% ammonia, 4
wt.% carbon dioxide and 1 wt.% urea.
Sources of the ammonia and urea are:
➢ Condensate from the evaporators.
➢ Off-gases from the recirculation section, which are absorbed in the process water.
➢ Off-gases from the synthesis section, which are absorbed in the process water.
➢ Flush and purge water for pumps.
➢ Liquid drains.
The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea
from the process condensate. For every tonne of urea produced, approximately 0.3 tonnes of
water are formed. This water is usually discharged from the urea concentration and
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133
evaporation section of the plant. Removal of ammonia and urea from wastewaters can be a
problem as it is difficult to remove one in the presence of the other.
One method used to overcome this problem is the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium carbamate,
which is decomposed to ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases can then be stripped from
the wastewaters. Urea plants are in operation that produces wastewaters with ammonia and
urea levels below 1ppm. This water can then be used for a variety of purposes depending on
the required quality suchas cooling water or Boiling Feed Water make-up. The recovered
ammonia and carbon dioxide are returned to the process to be subsequently converted into
urea.
3. Absorbers
Absorbers are used in urea plant to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified as
berikut:
The vent from the synthesis section of the plant
The purge from the urea synthesis section contains inerts, ammonia and carbon
dioksida. To avoid ammonia emissions from this purge a low pressure absorber is installed in
purge stream. First the ammonia is washed out with a large flow of low concentrated and
cooled process water and secondly the remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate
or clean waste water.
The vent from the low pressure section of the plant
The ammonia and carbon dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation section, the
Process Water Treatment System and the evaporation section are washed out in an
atmospheric absorber where large amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used
to absorb all the ammonia present in off gases.
4. Special start-up, shut-down and draining facilities
A change in the start-up procedure of the urea synthesis section has reduced the impact on the
environment considerably. Presently the ability to measure the feed flows (NH 3 and CO 2 )
very accurate in combination with the ability to measure the N/C ratio have enabled us to feed
the synthesis section from the very beginning of the start-up with the correct NH 3 /CO 2 ratio,
thus eliminating the need, during the initial stage of start-up, to vent excess CO 2 accompanied
by some NH 3 into the atmosphere.
Special shut-down and draining facilities assure that non converted NH 3 and CO 2 are
recovered by the process after a shut-down.
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135
Before the plant to be operated, specified money must be supplied to purchase and install the
peralatan. The capital needed to supply the necessary plant facilities is called fixed capital
investment while that for the operation of the plant is called the working principal and sum of
two capitals is called total capital investment.
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Sejak,
Net profit = total income - all expenses
It is essential that chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in
proses manufaktur. Capital must be allocated for direct plant expenses; such as those
for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides direct expenses, many other indirect
expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to
didapat. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product
distribution costs and cost for interplant communication .
10.1 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST
Cost in year A = Cost in year B ×
Cost of major equipments of Urea ACES plant is calculated by using CEPCI (Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index) of September 2001 and then evaluated that cost by using above
rumus.
Cost index In September 2003
=
397
Cost Index in 2014
=
603
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CHAPTER 10: Cost Estimation
136
Table 10.1 Purchased Cost of equipments in 2003
Sr. No. Equipment
Jumlah
Peralatan
Per Equipment
Cost In 2003
(US Dollar)
Total Cost In 2003
(US Dollar)
1
Otoklaf
Reactor
1
123,000
123,000
2
Stripper
1
16.400
16.400
3
Condenser
2
38,300
76,600
4
Scrubber
1
7,460
7,460
5
Kekosongan
Evaporator
2
23,900
47,800
6
CO 2
Kompresor
1
10,0000
10,0000
7
NH 3 Pump
1
115.000
115.000
8
Prilling Tower
1
20,0500
20,5000
Total
691260 $
Cost in 2014 = 691260 ×
=
1049949 $
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137
10.2 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) + Working Capital Investment
(WCI)
A. Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
Fixed Capital Investment =
Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
(1) Direct Cost
Sr. No.
Barang
% Purchased
Equipment Cost
Total biaya
(US Dollar)
1
Equipment Cost
100%
1049949
2
Instalasi
25%
262487.25
3
Instrumentation &
Kontrol
10%
104994.9
4
Piping
25%
262487.25
5
Elektrifikasi
20%
209989.8
6
Bangunan
30%
314984.7
7
Service Facilities
40%
419979.6
8
Land Requisition
4%
41997.96
Total
2666870.46 $
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138
(2) Indirect Cost
Sr. No.
Barang
% Purchased
Equipment Cost
Total biaya
(US Dollar)
1
Rekayasa &
Pengawasan
10%
104994.9
2
Konstruksi
10%
104994.9
3
Kontraktor
5%
52497.45
Total
$ 262487.25
Fixed Capital Investment = 26, 66870.46 + 26, 2487.25 = 52, 9357 $
B. Working Capital Cost (WCI)
WCI = 15% of FCI
WCI = 0.15(52, 9357) = 79403 $
Now, Total Capital Cost = FCI + WCI
Total Capital Cost = 52, 9357 + 79,403 = $ 56, 5760
10.3 TOTAL PRODUCT COST (TPC)
(A) Direct Production Cost
1. Operating Labor Cost
=
0.10(TPC)
2. Utility Cost
=
0.20(TPC)
3. Maintenance & Repair Cost
=
0.04(FCI)
=
$ 21174.28
4. Operating & Supply Cost
=
0.15(Maintenance & Repair Cost)
Operating & Supply Cost
=
$ 3176.142
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139
5. Laboratory & Testing Cost
=
0.15 (Labor Cost)
Laboratory & Testing Cost
=
0.15(0.10×TPC)
6. Patents & Royalties
=
0.03(TPC)
Direct Product Cost
=
1+2+3+4+5+6
Direct Product Cost
=
0.10(TPC) + 0.20(TPC) + 41997.96
=
6299.694 + 0.015(TPC) + 0.03(TPC)
Direct Product Cost (DPC)
=
0.345(TPC) + 24350.422
(B) Fixed Charges
1. Deprecation
=
0.10(FCI)
=
$ 52935.7
2. Local Tax
=
0.015(FCI) =
$ 7940.35
3. Insurance
=
0.01(FCI)
=
$ 5293.57
Fixed Charges
=
1+ 2 +3
=
$ 66169.62
(C) Plant Overhead Cost
Plant Overhead Cost =
60% of Labor and Maintenance Cost
Plant Overhead Cost =
0.60 [0.10(TCP) + 21174.28]
(D) Administrative Expenses
Administrative Expenses
=
25% of Labor Cost
Administrative Expenses
=
0.25× [0.10 (TCP)]
(E) Distributions & Market Expenses
Distributions & Market Expenses =
10% of Total Product Cost
Distributions & Market Expenses =
0.10(TCP)
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140
(F) R&D Cost
Research & Development Cost
=
5% of FCI
Research & Development Cost
=
$ 26467.85
(G) Interest
Bunga
=
8% of FCI
Bunga
=
42348.56 $
Now, Total Product Cost (TPC)
=
A+B+C+D+E+F+G
Total Product Cost (TPC)
=
0.345(TPC) + 24350.422+ 66169.62
0.60 [0.10(TPC) + 21174.28] +
0.25× [0.10 (TPC)] + 0.10(TPC)
26467.85+ 42348.56
TPC
=
68816.41 + 0.53 (TCP)
1-0.53 TCP
=
68816.41
Total Product Cost (TPC)
=
$ 146417.8936
10.4 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
(A) Income
Wholesale selling price per bag (50 kg) in Pakistan = 1800 Rs. = 18 $
Per kg price of Urea in Pakistan
=
0.36 $
Total Income
=
Selling Price × Quantity of Product
Quantity of Product (Urea)
=
74714.92
=
53794742
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141
Total Income
=
53794742 × 0.36
Total Income
=
$ 1.9× 10
(B) Gross Profit
Laba kotor
=
Total Income – Total Product Cost
Laba kotor
=
1.9× 10 - 146417.8936
Laba kotor
=
$ 1.88 × 10
(C) Net Profit
Let the tax rate is 40 %
Pajak
=
0.40 (Gross Profit) =
7541432.843
Net profit
=
Total Income – Taxes
Net Profit
=
1.9 × 10 – 7541432.843
=
$ 11 × 10
(D) Pay out Period
Pay out Period
=
Pay out Period
=
,
.×
.
= 6.9 ≈ 7
Pay out Period
=
7 years
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143
11.1 INTRODUCTION OF ASPEN HYSYS
AspenTech is the world's leading supplier of software that optimizes process manufacturing.
Aspen Tech was foundend in 1981 by Dr. Larry Evans, a professor of chemical engineering at
MIT. Larry Evans, now 69, was named one of 7 heroes of US manufacturing by FORTUNE
magazine in 1999 and was elected to the National A cademy OF Engineering in 2001 for
“leadership in the development and application of integrated systems for modeling, simulation
and optimization of industrial chemical processes.”
AspenONE software enables process industry companies to optimize their engineering,
manufacturing, and supply chain operations. As a result, AspenTech customers are better able
to increase capacity, improve margins, reduce costs, become more energy efficient, and
achieve operational excellence goals.
HYSYS is a powerful simulation engineering tool, has been uniquely created with respect to
the program architecture, interface design, Engineering capabilities, and interactive operation.
The various components that comprises HYSYS provide an extremely powerful approach to
steady state modeling.
Hysys is widely used in colleges and universities in introductory and advanced courses
especially in chemical engineering. In industry the software is used in research, development,
modeling and design. HYSYS serves as the engineering platform for modeling processes and
design from upsteam, through gas processing and cryogenic facilities, to refining chemical
proses.
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CHAPTER 11: Simulation in HYSYS
144
Steps Involved In Simulation Of Aspen Urea Synthesis Section:
Following are the steps done for the simulation of synthesis section of ACES
Urea plant:
➢ Open New File.
➢ Add Components.
➢ Add Fluid Package.
➢ Add Reaction.
➢ View of Reaction.
➢ Select The Desired Reaction.
➢ Add Set To Fluid Package.
➢ Enter Simulation Environment.
➢ Select Equilibrium Reaction And Drag It Into Main Screen.
➢ Name The Streams.
➢ Enter Stream Conditions (Feed)
➢ Vapor Steam Conditions Shown.
➢ Show Full Process with Tables.
View of Reactor and Scrubber in Simulation Environment:
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11.2 COMPLETE SYNTHESIS SECTION
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1. Peters, MS and Timmerhaus, KD, “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering “, 5
th
ed, McGraw Hill, 1991 .
2. JM Coulson and JF Richardson: “Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering”,
volume 6, 5
th
Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 2001.
3. Ludwig, EE, “Applied Process Design, 3
rd
ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional Publishers,
2002.
4. JM Coulson and JF Richardson: “Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering”,
volume 2, 4
th
Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 1998.
5. McCabe, WL, Smith, JC, Smith JC, Harrioatt, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering”, 5
th
Ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., 1993.
6. Kern DQ, “Process Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill Inc., 2000.
7. Levenspiel, O., “Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3
rd
ed ,John Wily and Sons Inc.,
1999 .
8. Stephanophoulos, G., “Chemical Process Control”, Prentice Hall, 2007.
9. Perry, RH, “Perry's RH, “Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook”, 7
th
Ed,
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1997.
10. Manual of Toyo Corporation
11. ACES21_Brochure
12. Fertilizer Manual by UN industrial developmental organization
13. Khan Eqan Ali, “Fertilizers in Pakistan, Demand, Production and Imports” March 30,
2011.
14. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13728575/Urea-Final-Report
15. http://www.stamicarbon.com/
16. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
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CO 2 + 2NH 3 → NH 2 COONH 4 ΔH = -37,4 Kcal

NH 2 COONH 4 ↔ NH 2 CONH 2 + H 2 O ΔH = + 6,3 Kkal

Berbagai proses pembuatan urea adalah:

E NERGY B ALANCE C ALCULATIONS

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