Chapter 1 What is Organizational Behavior?

*)OB=Organizational Behaviour
The Importance of Interpersonal Skill
Sebuah survei terhadap 21.000 CFO dari 20 industri menyatakan bahwa penyebab utama
kegagalan dalam pengembangan karyawan adalah keahlian interpersonal.

Manfaat terhadap bisnis (business benefit) dengan meningkatkan kemampuan interpersonal

seorang manajer:
1. Mampu menghasilkan performa finansial yang baik
2. Menarik dan menjaga pekerja dengan performa yang tinggi
3. Meningkatkan kepuasan kerja dan persepsi positif terhadap pekerjaan
4. Mengurangi tingkat stres pekerja dan turnover.

Management and Organizational Behavior

Manager Individu yang mencapai targetnya melalui orang lain. Manajer

membuat keputusan, mengalokasikan sumber daya, dan
mengarahkan pekerjaan orang lain. Manajer melakukan
kegiatannya dalam organisasi.
(Disebut juga administrator untuk organisasi nonprofit)

Organization Unit sosial yang terkoordinasi secara sadar yang menjalankan

fungsi tertentu untuk mencapai tujuan.
Contoh: Perusahaan, rumah sakit, sekolah, unit militer, dsb.

Tugas suatu manajer dapat dikategorikan ke dalam empat aktivitas berikut:

● Planning
Suatu proses yang terdiri dari menentukan tujuan organisasi, strategi, dan rencana
untuk mengkoordinasi aktivitas.
● Organizing
Proses untuk menentukan pekerjaan yang perlu diselesaikan, siapa yang
menyelesaikan, dan kepada siapa pelaporan pekerjaan tersebut.
● Leading
Mengarahkan dan mengkoordinasi pekerjaan seseorang dan memotivasi mereka
● Controlling
Memonitor aktivitas dan memastikan pekerjaan yang telah dilaksanakan sesuai
dengan rencana dan melakukan tindakan koreksi (bila perlu)
1. Management Role
Berdasarkan Henry Mintzberg, terdapat tiga peran manajer:

Interpersonal

Figurehead Kepala simbolis, misalkan saat peresmian pembukaan

gedung baru biasanya manajer hadir untuk
pemotongan pita.

Leader Bertanggung jawab untuk mengarahkan pekerja

Liaison Menjaga hubungan dengan pihak eksternal yang

memberikan manfaat dan informasi bagi perusahaan

Informational

Monitor Menerima banyak informasi dan sebagai sumber

utama informasi

Disseminator Menyampaikan informasi dari pihak luar atau

sumber lain ke anggota internal organisasi

Spokesperson Menyampaikan informasi ke pihak luar mengenai

rencana, kegiatan, dan hasil perusahaan.

Decisional

Entrepreneur Mencari kesempatan dan menginisiasi suatu

proyek

Disturbance handler Mengambil tindakan koreksi apabila terdapat

gangguan

Resource allocator Mengalokasikan sumber daya seperti tenaga kerja,

biaya, dsb.

Negotiator Menjadi representatif organisasi dalam bernegosiasi

dengan pihak eksternal

2. Management Skill
● Technical Skill
Kemampuan untuk menerapkan kemampuan atau keahlian yang
terspesialisasi.
● Human Skill
Kemampuan untuk berkomunikasi, memotivasi, dan bekerja sama dengan
orang lain baik individu maupun kelompok
● Conceptual Skill
Kemampuan mental untuk menganalisis dan mendiagnosis suatu
permasalahan kompleks.
Jadi apa itu organizational behavior (OB)?
Organizational behavior merupakan studi yang mempelajari bagaimana dampak yang
diberikan dari individu, kelompok, dan struktur terhadap perilaku dalam organisasi.

Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study

Perilaku (behavior) tidak terjadi secara random. Kita dapat mengidentifikasi suatu
fundamental consistencies yang mendasari perilaku seseorang. Oleh karena itu, kita
menggunakan konsep studi sistematis untuk mempelajari perilaku.

Systematic Study Menganalisis hubungan, mengidentifikasi sebab-akibat (cause

and effect), dan menemukan simpulan berdasarkan bukti
ilmiah.

Evidence-Based Membuat keputusan manajerial berdasarkan bukti ilmiah terbaik

Management yang tersedia

Namun dalam membuat keputusan, kita juga menggabungkan systematic study dan
evidence-based management dengan intuition. Intuition merupakan perasaan naluriah yang
tidak didukung dengan suatu penelitian.

Disciplines that Contribute to OB

Terdapat beberapa cabang studi yang berkontribusi terhadap organizational behavior.
1. Psikologi
Ilmu yang mengukur, menjelaskan, dan terkadang mengubah perilaku individu.
Kontribusi terhadap studi OB adalah teori kepribadian dan psikologi industri.
2. Psikologi Sosial
Ilmu yang menggabungkan konsep psikologi dan sosiologi untuk mempelajari
bagaimana seseorang memengaruhi orang lain.
3. Sosiologi
Studi mengenai individu dan hubungannya dengan lingkungan sosialnya dan budaya.
4. Antropologi
Ilmu yang mempelajari masyarakat dan aktivitas mereka. Membantu dalam
memahami perbedaan nilai, budaya, dan kebiasaan masyarakat di berbagai tempat.
Few Absolute in OB
Berbeda dengan ilmu pasti, misalkan fisika, suatu teori/hukum dapat berlaku secara universal.
Berbeda dengan OB karena objek studinya adalah manusia, yang berbeda antara satu sama
lain, misalkan, tidak semua orang termotivasi dengan uang, dsb.

Namun, bukan berarti OB tidak dapat memberikan penjelasan atau memprediksi perilaku
seseorang secara valid. Lebih tepatnya, OB menggunakan variabel kontingensi.
Contingency variable merupakan faktor situasional atau variabel yang memengaruhi
hubungan antara dua atau lebih variabel.

Manager’s Challenges and Opportunities

1. Economic Pressures
Situasi ekonomi yang buruk, seperti resesi
2. Continuing Globalization
Tantangan globalisasi, di mana setiap organisasi di seluruh dunia dapat terhubung.
Terdapat beberapa cara efektif manajer untuk beradaptasi terhadap isu global:

Increased foreign assignment Penugasan karyawan di anak perusahaan atau

divisi di negara lain supaya dapat mempelajari
perbedaan budaya dan sensitivitas budaya.

Working with People from Bekerja dengan orang dari berbagai budaya
Different Cultures sehingga dapat memahami gaya manajemen apa
yang cocok untuk workforce yang berbeda-beda

Overseeing Job Movement to Pemindahan pekerjaan ke suatu negara dengan

Countries with Low-Cost biaya tenaga kerja yang relatif rendah.
Labor

Adapting to Differing Cultural Mempelajari terlebih dahulu perbedaan budaya

and Regulatory Norms dan peraturan hukum di suatu negara sebelum
melakukan operasi

3. Workforce Diversity
Workforce diversity merupakan konsep yang menyatakan adanya heterogenitas dalam
organisasi seperti gender, ras, usia, orientasi seksual, dsb.
4. Customer Service
Manajer harus dapat memastikan interaksi dengan konsumen berjalan lancar dan
menciptakan kepuasan konsumen.
5. People Skills
Kemampuan untuk menjelaskan dan memprediksi perilaku dari seseorang.
6. Networked Organization
Terdapat beberapa perusahaan yang dapat beroperasi dari jarak yang saling berjauhan,
seperti software programmer, system analyst, technical writer, dsb. Oleh karena itu,
diperlukan teknik manajemen yang berbeda untuk dapat membuat aktivitas yang tidak
berlangsung di tempat yang sama tersebut berjalan lancar.
7. Social Media
Media sosial dapat menjadi peluang bisnis (misalkan untuk memasarkan produk),
namun di sisi lain dapat menjadi tantangan, seperti penyalahgunaan media sosial oleh
pekerja.
8. Employee Well-being at Work
 Apabila beban pekerjaan terlalu berat atau lama dapat menyebabkan burnout, stres,
kelelahan, dan hal lain yang dapat menurunkan produktivitas.

9. Positive Work Environment

Menciptakan lingkungan kerja yang aman, nyaman, dan membuat pekerja merasa
menjadi bagian dari organisasi. Positive Organizational Scholarship merupakan
bagian dari OB yang mempelajari bagaimana suatu perusahaan dapat
mengembangkan kemampuan dan potensi individu.
10. Ethical Behavior
Membangun perilaku etis untuk setiap anggota organisasi. Ethical dilemmas and
choices adalah suatu situasi di mana seseorang harus mengidentifikasi suatu tindakan
yang etis dan tidak.

Developing an OB Model
Model merupakan suatu abstraksi dari realita, representasi sederhana dari suatu fenomena di
dunia nyata. Sebuah model menggambarkan input, proses, dan output.
1. Input
Input merupakan variabel berupa kepribadian, struktur kelompok, dan budaya
organisasi yang akan mengalami atau terjadi proses.
2. Process
Proses merupakan tindakan yang dilakukan oleh individu, kelompok, dan organisasi
yang berdampak pada suatu hasil (outcome).
3. Outcomes
Outcome merupakan variabel utama yang dipengaruhi oleh variabel yang lain.
Berikut beberapa hasil yang dapat muncul:

Attitudes and stress Sikap pekerja terhadap pekerjaan, bisa baik maupun
buruk. Stress merupakan proses psikologis sebagai suatu
respon terhadap tekanan situasi.

Task performance Tingkat kombinasi efektivitas dan efisiensi hasil kerja

Organizational Perilaku yang bukan merupakan bagian dari tuntutan

Citizenship Behavior perusahaan namun berkontribusi terhadap lingkungan
(OCB) psikologis dan sosial perusahaan.

Withdrawal Behavior Tindakan pekerja untuk memisahkan diri mereka dari

organisasi

Group Cohesion Derajat seberapa anggota dalam organisasi saling

mendukung dan membantu dalam pekerjaan

Group Functioning Kuantitas dan kualitas dari hasil suatu pekerjaan

kelompok
 Productivity Mengukur efektivitas dan efisiensi kerja.
● Efektivitas
Seberapa besar suatu organisasi dapat memenuhi
permintaan klien atau konsumen
● Efisiensi
Seberapa besar suatu organisasi dapat memenuhi
permintaan klien atau konsumen dengan biaya
rendah

Survival Seberapa besar kemampuan perusahaan untuk tetap

bertahan dan berkembang dalam jangka panjang

Employability Skills
Beberapa kemampuan kerja yang dapat diperoleh dengan mempelajari OB:
1. Critical thinking
2. Communication
3. Collaboration
4. Knowledge application and analysis
5. Social responsibility
Chapter 2: Diversity in Organizations
I. Diversity
A. Demographic Characteristics:
● Belakangan dalam lapangan kerja semakin banyak variasi latar
belakang pekerja. Di 2014, 47% pekerja di US adalah perempuan
dibanding di 1950 yang hanya ada 29,6%.
B. Levels of Diversity:
● Demografi biasanya hanya menyentuh surface level
diversity(perbedaan karakteristik yang mudah dikenali, misal gender,
ras, etnis, usia atau disabilitas. Umumnya tidak merefleksikan cara
orang berpikir atau merasakan namun bisa menimbulkan adanya
stereotip)
● Namun, kini orang lebih peduli pada deep level diversity(perbedaan
dalam nilai pribadi, personaliti dan preferensi kerja yang menjadi
secara progresif menjadi lebih penting untuk menentukan kesamaan
seseorang ketika hendak mengenal orang lain)
● Diversitas/kebhinekaan adalah konsep yang penting dalam OB karena
perbedaan antar individu membentuk preferensi pada reward, gaya
komunikasi, reaksi pada pemimpin, gaya negosiasi, dsb.
II. Discrimination
A. Stereotype Threat:
● Diskriminasi adalah sikap membeda-bedakan seseorang secara
sengaja, dengan dasar golongan yang berhubungan dengan
kepentingan tertentu
● Perbedaan yang mendasari diskriminasi biasanya berdasarkan pada
agama, etnis, suku dan ras
● Diskriminasi umumnya dilakukan oleh kelompok mayoritas kepada
minoritas
● Stereotipe adalah penilaian kepada seseorang hanya berdasarkan
persepsi pada kelompok dimana orang tersebut dapat dikategorikan
● Stereotipe adalah jalan pintas pemikiran yang manusia lakukan secara
intuitif agar menyederhanakan hal yang kompleks dan membantu
dalam pengambilan keputusan yang dianggap tepat
● Stereotype Threat: tingkat dimana secara internal kita setuju pada
persepsi, yang umumnya buruk, terhadap kelompok dimana kita
berada/dikategorikan.
● Ancaman stereotip ini bisa terjadi jika kita berada dalam posisi
minoritas, berada dalam ketakutan akan dihakimi, atau ketika kita
selalu diidentifikasikan dengan konotasi negatif kategori/grup kita.
● Biasa orang yang mengalami ancaman stereotip ini secara tidak sadar
melebih-lebihkan stereotipnya, mengidentifikasi diri dengan
stereotipnya, atau bisa dipengaruhi hasil kerjanya jika mereka
diingatkan akan stereotip mereka.
 B. Discrimination in the Workplace

III. Biographical Characteristics

Karakteristik biografi adalah karakteristik personal, contohnya umur, gender, ras dan lama
pengalaman, sifatnya objektif dan mudah didapat/ditemui lewat catatan personal.
Karakteristik ini termasuk representasi surface level diversity.
A. Age: merupakan hal yang signifikan untuk pertimbangan penerimaan
karyawan. Perusahaan cenderung memilih orang yang lebih tua karena
memiliki aspek yang belum dialami orang muda, namun kekurangannya orang
yang lebih tua dapat mengalami kesulitan beradaptasi dari dunia digital. Umur
dapat berefek pada: turnover, absenteeism, productivity, satisfaction
B. Sex: umumnya pria dianggap memiliki kemampuan matematis yang lebih
tinggi, sedangkan wanita dianggap memiliki kemampuan verbal yang lebih
baik. Secara umum, pria dan wanita dapat memiliki efektivitas yang sama
dalam menjadi pemimpin. Namun seringkali salah satu di antara jenis kelamin
ini, yang umumnya menonjol adalah wanita, mengalami diskriminasi jenis
kelamin dalam bentuk: pay gap, pay raise, maternal wall bias, opportunities
bias.
C. Race and Ethnicity: studi tentang ras dan etnis menunjukkan bahwa kedua
faktor ini memiliki hubungan terhadap pemutusan keputusan perekrutan,
evaluasi performa pekerja, bayaran/gaji, dan diskriminasi tempat kerja.
Positive diversity climate adalah keadaan dimana seluruh karyawan merasakan
bahwa seluruh karakteristik yang membuat mereka beragam/bhineka justru
dihargai, bukannya menghalangi mereka untuk maju.
D. Disabilities: penyandang disabilitas cenderung mendapat ekspektasi kerja
yang rendah serta sedikit kemungkinan untuk dipekerjakan. ADA Act di 1990
 menempatkan hukum bahwa pemberi kerja/employer harus membuat
akomodasi yang sesuai dalam lingkungan kerja agar individu dengan
disabilitas fisik maupun mental dapat tetap bekerja secara produktif.
E. Hidden Disabilities: disebut juga invisible disabilities. Yang terhitung di
dalamnya adalah disabilitas indra/sensory(tunarungu), autoimmune
disorders(rematik/arthritis), penyakit kronis(carpal tunnel), gangguan
kognitif/pembelajaran(ADHD), gangguan tidur(insomnia), masalah
psikologi(PTSD). Karyawan cenderung menyembunyikan keterbatasan yang
mereka alami dengan dasar tidak ingin atasan mereka menganggap mereka
tidak mampu dalam melakukan pekerjaan mereka

IV. Other Differentiating Characteristics

A. Tenure: masa kerja memiliki hubungan positif terhadap kinerja karyawan dan
produktivitas kerja
B. Religion: kepercayaan dapat menjadi isu pekerjaan saat kepercayaan/agama
mendorong/melarang perilaku tertentu
C. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: pekerja yang mengidentifikasi diri
sebagai seseorang dalam spektrum LGBT/queer dapat mengalami isu jika
pandangan terhadap identifikasi tersebut cenderung negatif dalam lingkungan
kerjanya.
D. Cultural Identity: erat kaitannya dengan ras dan etnis dimana norma budaya
masih mempengaruhi lingkungan kerja. Norma dari budaya satu bisa tidak
sesuai di budaya lain dan mengakibatkan isu.
V. Ability
Kemampuan adalah kapasitas individu dimasa terkini untuk melakukan berbagai tugas dalam
pekerjaannya. Kemampuan keseluruhan biasa terbentuk dari 2 faktor: intelektual dan fisikal.
A. Intellectual Abilities: kemampuan yang dibutuhkan ketika melakukan aktivitas
yang berhubungan dengan mental(berpikir, mencari alasan, memecahkan
masalah). Biasa diukur lewat IQ. GMA/general mental ability adalah faktor
intelegensi keseluruhan, ditunjukkan lewat korelasi positif antara dimensi
kemampuan intelektual spesifik(number aptitude, verbal comprehension,
perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial
visualization, memory).
 B. Physical Abilities: kemampuan yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan aktivitas
yang berhubungan dengan fisik. Penelitian telah mengidentifikasi 9
kemampuan dasar yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan tugas fisik(strength
factors: dynamic strength, trunk strength, tactic strength, explosive strength;
flexibility factors: extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility; other factors: body
coordination, balance, stamina)

VI. Implementing Diversity Management Strategies

A. Attracting, Selecting, Developing, and Retaining Diverse Employees
● Diversity management: suatu proses dan program yang membuat setiap orang menjadi
lebih sadar dan sensitif terhadap kebutuhan dan perbedaan dari orang lain.
● Metode untuk meningkatkan keragaman tenaga kerja: menargetkan pesan perekrutan
kepada kelompok demografis tertentu yang kurang terwakili dalam angkatan kerja
B. Diversity in Groups: keragaman dapat merusak kinerja tim atau justru
meningkatkan kinerja. Hal ini bergantung pada karakteristik individu dalam
 grup. Sehingga tugas manajer adalah menekankan kesamaan antara para
anggota.
C. Effective Diversity Programs: 3 komponen untuk meningkatkan program
tenaga kerja yang beragam adalah:
1. Memiliki kesempatan kerja yang setara dan perlakuan yang adil
2. Tenaga kerja yang beragam akan mampu melayani konsumen dan
klien yang beragam pula
3. Mengakui bagaimana perbedaan dalam perspektif dapat menjadi cara
yang berharga dalam meningkatkan kinerja untuk semua orang

VII. Implications for Managers

● Understand your organization’s anti-discrimination policies thoroughly and
share them with all employees.
● Assess and challenge your stereotype beliefs to increase your objectivity.
● Look beyond readily observable biographical characteristics and consider the
individual’s capabilities before making management decisions; remain open
and encouraging for individuals to disclose any hidden disabilities.
● Fully evaluate what accommodations a person with disabilities will need and
then fine-tune a job to that person’s abilities.
● Seek to understand and respect the unique biographical characteristics of each
individual; a fair but individualistic approach yields the best performance.
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
I. Attitudes
● Attitudes/sikap adalah pernyataan evaluatif atau pertimbangan mengenai
objek, orang, atau suatu peristiwa
● Komponen kognitif/Cognitive component: segment opini atau kepercayaan
dari sikap
● Komponen afektif/Affective component: segmen emosi atau perasaan dari
sikap
● Komponen perilaku/Behavioral component: intensi untuk berperilaku dengan
cara tertentu terhadap seseorang atau sesuatu
● Contoh:

●
II. Attitudes and Behavior
● Cognitive dissonance: adanya pertentangan yang dilihat oleh seseorang
mengenai sikap dan perilaku mereka
● Keinginan untuk mengurangi dissonance bergantung pada 3 faktor:
○ the importance of the elements creating dissonance
○ the degree of influence we believe we have over the elements.
○ the rewards of dissonance; high rewards accompanying high
dissonance tend to reduce tension inherent in the dissonance
(dissonance is less distressing if accompanied by something good, such
as a higher pay raise than expected)
● Hal paling kuat dari hubungan sikap dan perilaku adalah:
- Pentingnya sikap
- Kesesuaian nya dengan perilaku
- Aksesibilitas
- Kehadiran sikap tersebut
- Pengalaman terhadap sikap tersebut
*) An Ethical Choice office Talk: Since guidelines for acceptable office conversation are
almost nonexistent in the contemporary age of openness, personalization, and transparency,
you must decide what kinds of office talk are ethical and productive.
III. Job Attitudes
A. Job Satisfaction and Job Involvement
● Job satisfaction: perasaan positif mengenai pekerjaan seseorang yang
menghasilkan evaluasi terhadap karakteristiknya
● Job Involvement: tingkat seseorang mengidentifikasikan dirinya
dengan pekerjaannya, aktif berpartisipasi dan merasa performa penting
terhadap harga dirinya
● Psychological empowerment: kepercayaan karyawan terhadap tingkat
mereka mempengaruhi lingkungan kerja mereka, tingkat kompetensi
mereka, tingkat seberapa mereka diperlukan dalam pekerjaan mereka
dan seberapa tinggi otonomi mereka dalam pekerjaannya
B. Organizational Commitment:
● Organizational commitment: tingkat karyawan mengidentifikasikan
diri dengan sebuah organisasi dan goalnya, serta keinginan untuk tetap
menjadi bagian dari organisasi tersebut
C. Perceived Organizational Support:
● Perceived organizational support/POS: tingkat dimana karyawan
percaya bahwa organisasinya menghargai kontribusi karyawannya dan
peduli terhadap mereka
● POS penting di negara dengan power distance, yakni tingkat seberapa
orang dalam negara tersebut menerima kekuatan/kekuasaan dalam
institusi/organisasi disebar dengan tidak merata
D. Employee Engagement:
● Keterlibatan, kepuasan dan antusiasme individu terhadap pekerjaan
yang mereka lakukan
● The two top reasons for job engagement that participants in one study
gave recently were (1) having a good manager they enjoy working for
and (2) feeling appreciated by their supervisor.
E. Are These Job Attitudes Really All That Distinct? There is some
distinctiveness among attitudes, but they overlap greatly for various reasons,
including the employee’s personality. Generally, if you know someone’s level
of job satisfaction, you know most of what you need to know about how that
person sees the organization.
IV. Job Satisfaction
A. Measuring Job Satisfaction:
● Pengukuran akan kepuasan kerja sangat kompleks, namun ada 2
metode yang populer untuk digunakan yakni metode the single global
rating yang merespon pada pertanyaan seperti: “Dengan semua hal
dalam pertimbangan, seberapa puas Anda dengan pekerjaan Anda?”
kemudian dijawab dengan skala 1-5(tidak puas sampai sangat puas)
 ● Metode kedua adalah summation of job facets, yakni mengidentifikasi
beberapa faktor kepuasan pekerja pada tempat kerjanya, diukur dari
tipe pekerjaan, kultur, hubungan dengan kolega, skill yang dibutuhkan,
gaji dan kesempatan/jenjang karir. Serta superbidor.
B. How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? Job satisfaction levels can remain
quite consistent over time. For instance, U.S. average job satisfaction levels
were consistently high from 1972 to 2006. However, economic conditions
tend to influence job satisfaction rates. The facets of job satisfaction levels can
vary widely. People have typically been more satisfied with their jobs overall,
the work itself, and their supervisors and coworkers than they have been with
their pay and promotion opportunities.
V. What Causes Job Satisfaction?
A. Job Conditions: Generally, interesting jobs that provide training, variety,
independence, and control satisfy most employees. Interdependence, feedback,
social support, and interaction with coworkers outside the workplace are also
strongly related to job satisfaction, even after accounting for characteristics of
the work itself.
B. Personality: As important as job conditions are to job satisfaction, personality
also plays an important role. People who have positive core self-evaluations
(CSEs)—who believe in their inner worth and basic competence—are more
satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSEs. Additionally, in the
context of career commitment, CSE influences job satisfaction as people with
high levels of both CSE and career commitment may realize particularly high
job satisfaction
VI. Personal Inventory Assessments
A. Core Self Evaluation (CSE) Scale: kepercayaan akan harga diri dan
kompetensi dasar seseorang terhadap dirinya sendiri.
B. Pay: Pay does correlate with job satisfaction and overall happiness for many
people, but the effect can be smaller once an individual reaches a standard
level of comfortable living.
C. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): ? An organization’s commitment to
corporate social responsibility (CSR), or its self-regulated actions to benefit
society or the environment beyond what is required by law, increasingly
affects employee job satisfaction. Organizations practice CSR in a number of
ways, including environmental sustainability initiatives, nonprofit work, and
charitable giving. In sum, CSR is a needed, positive trend of accountability
and serving. It can also significantly contribute to increased employee job
satisfaction when managed well.
VII. Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
A. Job Performance: As several studies have concluded, happy workers are more
likely to be productive workers. Some researchers used to believe the
relationship between job satisfaction and job performance was a myth, but a
review of 300 studies suggested the correlation is quite robust.
 B. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB): OCBs include people talking
positively about their organizations, helping others, and going beyond the
normal expectations of their jobs. Evidence suggests job satisfaction is
moderately correlated with OCB; people who are more satisfied with their
jobs are more likely to engage in citizenship behavior.
C. Customer Satisfaction: Because service organization managers should be
concerned with pleasing customers, it’s reasonable to ask whether employee
satisfaction is related to positive customer outcomes. For frontline employees
who have regular customer contact, the answer is “yes.” Satisfied employees
appear to increase customer satisfaction and loyalty
D. Life Satisfaction: Until now, we’ve treated job satisfaction as if it were
separate from life satisfaction, but they may be more related than you think.53
Research in Europe indicated that job satisfaction is positively correlated with
life satisfaction, and your attitudes and experiences in life spill over into your
job approaches and experiences. Furthermore, life satisfaction decreases when
people become unemployed, according to research in Germany, and not just
because of the loss of income. For most individuals, work is an important part
of life, and therefore it makes sense that our overall happiness depends in no
small part on our happiness in our work (our job satisfaction).
VIII. The Impact of Job Dissatisfaction
What happens when employees dislike their jobs? One theoretical model—the
exit–voice–loyalty–neglect framework—is helpful for understanding the consequences of
dissatisfaction.
Respon dari ketidakpuasan pada pekerjaan adalah:
● Exit/Keluar: ketidakpuasan diekspresikan lewat perilaku yang diarahkan dengan
meninggalkan organisasi. Diukur dari individual termination dan collective
turnover(total loss dari pengetahuan, skill, kemampuan dan karakteristik lain
karyawan)
● Voice/Menyuarakan: ketidakpuasan diekspresikan lewat upaya aktif dan konstruktif
untuk memperbaiki kondisi
● Loyalty/Loyal: ketidakpuasan diekspresikan lewat menunggu secara pasif untuk
perubahan kondisi
● Neglect/Tidak Mempedulikan: ketidakpuasan diekspresikan lewat membiarkan
kondisi menjadi lebih buruk
*) Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) adalah tindakan yang secara aktif merusak
organisasi (ex: mencuri, perilaku agresif terhadap kolega, atau terlambat)
Generally, job dissatisfaction predicts CWB. People who are not satisfied with their work
become frustrated, which lowers their performance59 and makes them more likely to commit
CWB. One important point about CWB is that dissatisfied employees often choose one or
more of these specific behaviors due to idiosyncratic factors. According to U.K. research,
sometimes CWB is an emotional reaction to perceived unfairness, a way to try to restore an
employee’s sense of equity exchange
● Absenteeism/Ketidakhadiran: efek CWB dimana pegawai yang merasa tidak puas
seringkali berusaha tidak hadir
● Turnover/Pergantian: efek CWB atau dissatisfaction pada turnover lebih tinggi
dibanding ke ketidakhadiran. Here are some factors that help break the
dissatisfaction–turnover relationship. Employees’ embeddedness—connections to the
job and community— can help lower the probability of turnover, particularly in
collectivist (group oriented) cultures. Embedded employees seem less likely to want
to consider alternative job prospects.

IX. Myth or Science?

A. Happy Workers Means Happy Profits: All happiness is not created equal. An
employee who is happy because her coworker did most of the work on her
team’s project isn’t necessarily going to work harder, for instance. Some
happiness-inducers also seem unrelated to profit increases, such as Google’s
bowling alley and Irish pub, Facebook’s free chocolate lunches, and
Salesforce. com’s off-the-charts parties. Traditional benefits programs also
don’t necessarily yield higher job satisfaction, productivity, and profits. So the
moral of the story seems to be this: treat others as we want to be treated in the
workplace. It’s just good business.
B. Managers Often “Don’t Get It” : Regular surveys can reduce gaps between
what managers think employees feel and what they really feel. A gap in
understanding can affect the bottom line in small franchise sites as well as in
large companies.
 X. Implications for Managers
● Of the major job attitudes—job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational
commitment, perceived organizational support (POS), and employee
engagement—remember that an employee’s job satisfaction level is the best single
predictor of behavior.
● Pay attention to your employees’ job satisfaction levels as determinants of their
performance, turnover, absenteeism, and withdrawal behaviors.
● Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular intervals in order to
determine how employees are reacting to their work.
● To raise employee satisfaction, evaluate the fit between the employee’s work interests
and the intrinsic parts of the job; then create work that is challenging and interesting
to the individual.
● Consider the fact that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work
environment.

Chapter 5: Personality and Values

Personality
Kepribadian (personality) merupakan beberapa cara individu bereaksi dan berinteraksi
dengan orang lain.

Kepribadian seseorang dapat diukur secara umum menggunakan dua cara:

1. Self-Report Survey
Setiap individu mengevaluasi sikap mereka masing-masing. Namun terdapat potensi
untuk bias.
2. Observer-Rating Survey
Pengukuran dan penilaian sikap dilakukan oleh pihak independen lain. Contohnya
perilaku seorang karyawan diobservasi oleh rekannya yang lain.

Determinan dari kepribadian ditentukan oleh dua faktor: keturunan (heredity) dan lingkungan
(environment). Beberapa penelitian lebih menunjukkan aspek keturunan memiliki pengaruh
yang lebih kuat.

Heredity Faktor yang berasal dari konsepsi; biologis dan psikologis yang
diturunkan oleh orang tua

Environment Sikap yang dibentuk dengan keadaan lingkungan sekitar individu

Personality trait merupakan karakteristik yang bersifat abadi yang mendeskripsikan perilaku
seseorang.
Personality Framework
Sebuah kerangka (framework) diperlukan untuk mengkategorikan dan menjelaskan dimensi
kepribadian. Kerangka yang sering digunakan adalah: Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),
Big five personality, dan Dark Triad.
1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
MBTI merupakan tes kepribadian yang membagi menjadi empat karakteristik dan
dijabarkan secara detail menjadi 16 kombinasi tipe kepribadian.

a. Introversion (I) vs Introvert mendapat energi dengan berinteraksi dengan

Extraversion (E) diri sendiri, sementara ekstrovert mendapat energi
dengan berinteraksi dengan orang lain

b. Sensing (S) vs Sensing cenderung tertata, praktikal, dan fokus pada

Intuitive (N) detail. Intuitive cenderung spontan dan melihat
gambaran besar/umum.

c. Thinking (T) vs Thinking mengandalkan logika dalam menyelesaikan

Feeling (F) masalah, feeling mengandalkan perasaan dan nilai
personal.

d. Judging (J) vs Judging cenderung terkendali dan struktur, perceiving

Perceiving (P) cenderung fleksibel .

Kekurangan MBTI:
● Model MBTI ‘memaksakan’ orang ke satu ekstrim kategori, contohnya Anda
hanya dapat menjadi introvert atau ekstrovert, tidak bisa berada di tengah.
● Inkonsisten, terkadang hasil tes berbeda tergantung kepada mood individu

2. The Big Five Personality Model

Big five personality model merupakan penilaian kepribadian berdasarkan lima
dimensi dasar kepribadian. Lima dimensi/faktor tersebut adalah:

Conscientiousness Mengukur konsistensi dan keandalan seseorang.

Semakin conscientious, semakin bisa diandalkan,
kompeten, dan tanggung jawab.

Emotional stability Mengukur kemampuan individu mengatasi stres.

Individu dengan emosi stabil akan lebih tenang dan
percaya diri

Extraversion Mengukur pendekatan individu terhadap hubungan

sosial. Semakin ekstrovert, semakin sosial dan
terbuka

Openness to experience Mengukur ketertarikan dan keterbukaan terhadap hal

baru.
 Agreeableness Mengukur kecenderungan individu untuk tunduk.
Semakin tinggi agreeableness, semakin mengikuti
aturan dan kooperatif.

3. The Dark Triad

Jika big five adalah kepribadian yang diinginkan oleh masyarakat, dark triad adalah
kepribadian yang tidak diinginkan. Dark triad merupakan kumpulan sikap negatif
yang dibagi menjadi tiga: machiavellianism, narcissism, dan psychopathy.
● Machiavellianism
Derajat seberapa seorang individu pragmatis, kurang rasa emosional, dan akan
membenarkan apapun untuk mencapai tujuan mereka bahkan jika harus
mengorbankan pihak lain. “If it works, use it”
● Narcissism
Kecenderungan untuk sombong diri, merasa dirinya yang paling penting, dan
selalu memerlukan pujian yang berlebihan.
● Psychopaty
Kecenderungan untuk merasakan sedikit perhatian terhadap orang lain dan
tidak merasakan rasa bersalah ketika melukai orang lain.
 4. Other Traits
Selain dark triad, beberapa peneliti mulai mengemukakan sifat-sifat negatif lain yang
didasarkan melalui big five personality.

Antisocial Acuh tak acuh dan tidak berperasaan

Borderline Rasa harga diri dan percaya diri rendah

Schizotypal Eksentrik dan tidak teratur

Obsessive-compulsive Terlalu perfeksionis dan keras kepala

Avoidant Tidak mau menerima kritik orang lain

Other Personality Attributes Relevant to OB

Atribut-atribut lain yang berkontribusi dalam memprediksi perilaku dalam lingkup OB(3):
1. Core Self Evaluation (CSE’s)
Simpulan inti dari kemampuan, kompetensi, dan harga diri seorang individu.
Seseorang dengan CSE positif memahami kemampuan dirinya sendiri dan cenderung
lebih produktif. Individu dengan skor CSE negatif lebih kerap merasa insecure dan
tidak berdaya.
2. Self Monitoring
Karakter individu yang mengukur seberapa kemampuan seseorang dalam
menyesuaikan perilakunya terhadap situasi eksternal. Orang dengan self monitor
tinggi mampu beradaptasi dengan lingkungan kerja yang beragam.
3. Proactive Personality
Karakter yang mengidentifikasi peluang, menunjukkan inisiatif, dan mengambil
tindakan.

Personality, Job Search, and Unemployment

Sikap yang diinginkan dan tidak diinginkan pencari pekerja:

Desirable Undesirable

Proactive personality Hostility

Conscientiousness Low self esteem

Extraversion Low self efficacy

Personality and Situations
Terkadang, perilaku individu dipengaruhi dari situasi di mana mereka berada. Dalam konteks
OB, terdapat dua kerangka untuk menjelaskan hal tersebut:
1. Situation Strength
Perilaku seseorang akan bergantung pada kekuatan suatu situasi (situation strength).
Kekuatan situasi adalah derajat seberapa norma, isyarat, dan standar mengharuskan
perilaku yang benar. Situasi yang kuat dapat menciptakan tindakan yang benar.
Kekuatan situasi memiliki empat dimensi:

Clarity Derajat seberapa jelas dan tersedianya tanggung jawab kerja

Consistency Tingkatan seberapa isyarat atau persyaratan pekerjaan saling

kompatibel satu sama lain.

Constraint Tingkatan seberapa terbatasnya kebebasan seorang individu

dalam membuat keputusan sendiri

Consequence Derajat seberapa besar suatu keputusan atau tindakan

memiliki dampak terhadap organisasi, klien, dsb.

2. Trait Activation
Teori yang memprediksi bahwa beberapa perilaku atau tindakan dapat ‘diaktifkan’
dengan situasi, kajadian, atau intervensi tertentu.

Values
Value (nilai) merupakan keyakinan dasar bahwa terdapat suatu cara atau tindakan lebih baik
dari cara atau tindakan lain.
terminal
Value system (sistem nilai) merupakan hirarki berdasarkan intensitas nilai menurut individu

1. Importance and Organization of Value

.Adanya perbedaan nilai ekspektasi dengan perusahaan dapat menimbulkan
ketidakpuasan kerja. Contohnya, jika Anda bekerja mengharapkan gaji dibayarkan
berdasarkan performa dan ternyata perusahaan membagi gaji berdasarkan senioritas,
maka Anda akan merasa kecewa.
2. Terminal vs Instrumental Value
Menurut Milton Rokeach, nilai dapat dikategorikan ke dalam dua kelompok.

Terminal value Hasil akhir yang ingin dicapai oleh seseorang

Instrumental value Cara-cara dan perilaku yang dibutuhkan untuk mencapai

nilai terminal.
 3. Generational Value

Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to Workplace

1. Person-Job Fit
Menurut John Holland, person-job fit merupakan teori yang mengidentifikasi enam
tipe kepribadian dan kecocokan antara tipe tersebut dengan lingkungan pekerjaan
dapat menentukan kepuasan kerja dan turnover.

2. Person-Organization Fit
Teori yang menjelaskan bahwa individu tertarik dan masuk ke dalam organisasi
dengan nilai yang sama dan akan meninggalkan organisasi apabila nilai mereka tidak
kompatibel.
3. Other Dimensions of Fit
Terdapat dua kriteria kecocokan lain:
● Person-Group Fit
Kesesuaian seorang individu dengan tim kerja dalam organisasi
● Person-Supervisor Fit
Hubungan dan komunikasi yang baik antara pekerja dengan supervisor.
Cultural Value
1. Hofstede Framework
Kerangka yang menjelaskan variasi dalam nilai. Dikembangkan oleh Geert Hofstede.

Power Distance Derajat seberapa orang di suatu negara menerima bahwa

kekuatan dalam organisasi didistribusikan secara tidak
merata. Power distance tinggi berarti masyarakat
menerima ketimpangan kekuasaan dan vice versa.

Individualism vs Individualisme adalah budaya nasional yang menjelaskan

Collectivism seberapa seseorang lebih memilih untuk bekerja sendiri
dibandingkan bersama kelompok. Kolektivisme adalah
budaya yang berkaitan erat dengan kerapatan kelompok.

Masculinity vs Maskulinitas merupakan budaya nasional tentang seberapa

Femininity masyarakat menerima peran maskulin seperti dominasi,
ketegasan, dan kontrol. Femininitas merupakan budaya
yang memandang laki-laki dan perempuan tidak jauh
berbeda.

Uncertainty Derajat seberapa besar masyarakat di suatu negara lebih

Avoidance memilih situasi yang terstruktur atau yang spontan.
Uncertainty avoidance tinggi berarti menghindari
ketidakpastian dan vice versa.

Long-Term vs Orientasi jangka panjang mengantisipasi masa depan,

Short-Term sementara orientasi jangka pendek hanya fokus pada masa
Orientation sekarang.

2. GLOBE Framework
Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBEE) melakukan
penelitian dan menetapkan tambahan variasi nilai terhadap struktur Hofstede:
● Humane Orientation
Derajat seberapa masyarakat menghargai individu yang altruistik, dermawan,
dan ramah kepada orang lain
● Performance Orientation
Derajat seberapa masyarakat menghargai kelompok atas peningkatan dan
keunggulan performa kerja mereka

Chapter 6: Perception and Individual Decision Making

Perception = a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their environment. → perception bisa beda dgn objective reality
People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. →
persepsi menjadi realita dimana kita bersikap

Factors that influence perception

● Factors in the perceiver → interpretasi kita dipengaruhi oleh our personal
characteristics: attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectation.
“We hear what we want to hear, we see what we want to see” → it conforms our
thinking. Contoh: morning person liat yang bangun pagi sebagai orang yang rajin,
night owl mungkin masih bisa menganggap yang bangun siang sama rajinnya
● Factors in the target → the characteristics of the target affect our perception
● Factors in the situation (context) → waktu dan situasi memengaruhi. Contoh: orang
cabut pas di club malam sama cabut pas kelas beda kann padahal perceiver dan target
nya masih sama

Person Perception: Making Judgements about Others

Attribution Theory: when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine

whether it was internally or externally caused.
- Internally caused behaviour → it is under the personal control
- Externally caused behaviour → the situation forced the individual to do so
Determining factors:
○ Distinctiveness → whether an individual displays different behaviors in different
situations. Contoh: karyawan dateng telat -- apakah itu unusual behaviour (externally
caused) atau emg kebiasaan (internal)?
○ Consensus → If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way.
Contoh: semua karyawan yg disuruh lewat Tol BSD datengnya telat -- externally caused
○ Consistency → Does the person respond the same way over time? -- kalo iya, berarti
internally caused
Ilustrasi:
1 karyawan, si A, performance nya setara di setiap tugasnya (low distinctiveness), karyawan2
lain performance nya beda dari si A - entah better or worse - (low consensus), dan si A
performance nya konsisten (high consistency) → internal attribution

Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to underestimate the influence of external

factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the
behavior of others. Contoh: unachieved sales target dikata gara2 sales person nya males,
padahal emg sangat competitive dgn perusahaan lain
Self-serving bias → Individu & Organization cenderung mengatribusikan kesuksesan karena
internal factors, meanwhile failure karena external factors (blaming others or condition)

Common Shortcuts in Judging Others

● Selective perception → the tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the
basis of one’s interests, background, experience, and attitudes. We select according to
our interests, background, experience, and attitudes -- seeing what we want to see
Contoh: biasanya milih yg similar dgn pengalaman/kenalan kita
● Halo effect → The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance.
Contoh: ngeliat 1 karakter orang yg ceria, kita langsung asumsi dia pasti gaul,
ekstrovert dsb
● Contrast Effects → Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by
comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics -- reaksi kita dipengaruhi oleh situasi similar yg pernah kita alami
Contoh: di ajang bakat/interview, kalo udh ada org yg sangat bagus, next person bisa
terlihat jomplang
 ● Stereotyping → judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which
he or she belongs
Contoh: orang batak pasti galak → faktanya Rachel ga galak ok (y)

These shortcuts are called heuristics, biasanya kita pake shortcut2 ini to make a quick
decision padahal bisa bias. Contoh2 terjadinya penggunaan shorcut ini:
● Employment interview → hasil penelitian bilang impressions tuh terbentuk dalam 10
detik pertama (first glance), susah utk ngubah impression di menit2 setelahnya.
Interviewer ngeliat the absence of unfavorable behaviour rather than the presence of
favorable ones
● Performance expectations → People attempt to validate their perceptions of reality
even when these perceptions are faulty
Self-fulfilling prophecy = A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a
second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in
ways consistent with the original perception.
Perilaku individu terpengaruh dgn ekspektasi org lain → expectations become reality
Pygmalion effect =
● Performance evaluation → harusnya di-evaluate secara objective (angka penjualan
dsb) tapi suka ada subjective factors

The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision Making

Decisions → Choices made from among two or more alternatives.
Problem → a discrepancy exists between the current state of affairs and some desired state,
requiring us to consider alternative courses of action.
one‘s problem = another person’s satisfactory state of affairs
Every decision requires us to interpret and evaluate information → influenced by our
perception to observe environment and make decisions

Decision Making in Organizations

1) Rational Decision Making → describes how individuals should behave in order to

maximize some outcome.
● Rational is characterized by making consistent, value-maximizing choices
within specified constraints.
● Assumption: complete information, able to identify all relevant options in an
unbiased manner, choose the option with the highest utility
● Steps:
 2) Bounded Rationality → constructing simplified models that extract the essential
features from problems without capturing all their complexity.
● Assumption: limited information-processing capability
● Seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient → Satisficing
● Reduce the complex problems to a level we can readily understand
● Decision: the first acceptable one (rather than an optimal one from rational
decision making)
3) Intuitive Decision Making → An unconscious process created out of distilled
experience.
● Occurs outside conscious thought
● relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information
● Fast (cepet dibuat keputusannya)
● affectively charged → engages the emotions

Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making

● Overconfidence Bias → terlalu pede/yakin terhadap sesuatu
● Anchoring Bias → tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately
adjust for subsequent information
Contoh: first impression selalu nempel di otak. Tp sbnrnya anchoring bias ini
diperluin buat profesi yg butuh persuasion skills
● Confirmation Bias → The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past
choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments.
● Availability Bias → The tendency for people to base their judgments on information
that is readily available to them. (jd berdasarkan info yg available skrg aja)
● Escalation of Commitment → An increased commitment to a previous decision in
spite of negative information → staying with a decision even if there is clear evidence
it’s wrong.
● Randomness Error → The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict
the outcome of random events.
● Risk Aversion → tendency to prefer a sure thing over a risky outcome (menghindari
risiko)
● Hindsight Bias → tendency to believe falsely, after the outcome is known, that we
would have accurately predicted it
Contoh: kita sbnrnya gatau siapa yg bakal menang, tp abis tanding bola nya selesai
ternyata Jerman menang, kita ngomong “ah emang obvious bgt Jerman bakal
menang”

Influences on Decision making: Individual Differences and Organizational Constraints

Individual Differences:
● Personality
● Gender
● Mental Ability
● Cultural Differences
● Nudging
Organizational Constraints yang memengaruhi Decision Making
● Performance Evaluation Systems → kriteria penilaian/evaluasi
● Reward Systems → hal apa yg diberikan reward oleh perusahaan
Contoh: perusahaan ngasih reward terhadap risk aversion, yaudah manajer pun jadi
konservatif
● Formal Regulations → aturan2 pemerintah, dsb
● System-Imposed Time Constraints → deadline2
● Historical Precedents → dipengaruhi kejadian2 di masa lalu

Ethics in Decision Making

Three ethical decision criteria
1) Utilitarianism → making decisions solely on the basis of their outcomes, ideally to
provide the greatest good for the greatest number (of people)
2) Make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges,
3) impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable
distribution of benefits and costs

Whistle-blowers = Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.

Behavioral ethics = Analyzing how people actually behave when confronted with ethical
dilemmas.

Creative Decision Making and Innovation in Organizations

three-stage model of creativity → creativity involves 3 stages:
● Causes causes (creative potential and creative environment),
● creative behavior, and
● creative outcomes (innovation)

Creative Behavior
1) Problem formulation → identifying a problem or opportunity requiring a solution
that is as yet unknown.
 2) Information gathering → when possible solutions to a problem incubate in an
individual’s mind.
3) Idea generation → developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant
information and knowledge.
4) Idea evaluation → evaluation of potential solutions to problems to identify the best
one.

Causes of Creative Behavior

1) Intelligence and Creativity → intelligent individuals have greater “working
memory” , they can recall more information related to the task at hand
2) Personality and Creativity → ada trait “openness to experience”
3) Expertise and Creativity → “expertise” is the foundation for all creative work and
thus is the single most important predictor of creative potential.
4) Ethics and Creativity → creativity is not correlated with ethicality

Creative Outcomes
Solusi yang:
- Novel → sesuatu yg baru
- Useful

Chapter 8: Motivation: From Concepts to Application

Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model

Job design = The way the elements in a job are organized.

Job characteristics model (JCM) → 5 core job dimensions:
1) Skill variety → The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities
2) Task identity → The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work.
3) Task significance → The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people
4) Autonomy → The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion
to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used
in carrying it out.
5) Feedback → The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job
results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.
Motivating Potential Score (MPS) → A predictive index that suggests the motivating
potential in a job.

MPS = (skill variety + task identity + task significance) x Autonomy x Feedback / 3

Job Redesign

Job rotation → The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.
Relational Job Design → Constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they
can make in the lives of others directly through their work.

Alternative Work Arrangements

Flextime → flexible work time;

Flextime employees must work a specific number of hours per week but may vary their hours
of work within limits

Job sharing → allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job.
Telecommuting → Working from home at least 2 days a week on a computer that is linked to
the employer’s office.

Employee Involvement and Participation (EIP) → A participative process that uses the input
of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success.

Example of EIP
 1. Participative Management → A process in which subordinates share a significant
degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.
2. Representative Participation → A system in which workers participate in
organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees.

Using Rewards to Motivate Employees

1) what to pay employees (decided by establishing a pay structure)
Balancing the
● Internal equity → the worth of the job to the organization (usually
established through a technical process called job evaluation)
● External equity → the competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to
pay in its industry (usually established through pay surveys).
2) how to pay individual employees (decided through variable-pay plans)
Variable-pay program (pay-for-performance) → A pay plan that bases a portion of
an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance
→ bentuk2nya: piece-rate, merit-based, bonus, profit-sharing, employee stock
ownership
● Piece-Rate Pay → A pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each
unit of production completed.
● Merit-Based Pay → A pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings.
● Bonus → A pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather
than historical performance.
● Profit-Sharing Plan → An organization wide program that distributes
compensation based on some established formula designed around a
company’s profitability.
● Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP) → A company-established
benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices,
as part of their benefits.
Evaluation of Variable Pay → evaluate the relationship of variable-pay program and
productivity

Using Benefits to Motivate Employees

Flexible benefits → A benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits
package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation.
Employee recognition program → A plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by
formally appreciating specific employee contributions.

Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior

Defining and Classifying Groups
Group adalah dua individu atau lebih yang saling berinteraksi dan berketergantungan, yang
bersatu untuk mencapai suatu tujuan. Group bisa jadi formal atau informal.
Formal group ditentukan oleh struktur perusahaan, dengan penyerahan pekerjaan dan tugas
ditentukan. Perilaku anggota tim ditentukan dan diarahkan ke tujuan perusahaan
Informal group tidak terstruktur secara formal dan tentu secara organisasi. Memenuhi
kebutuhan untuk social contact.

Social Identity
Social identity theory adalah tendensi untuk melekatkan diri ke pencapaian sebuah group.
SIT mengajukan teori bahwa orang-orang mempunyai reaksi emosional ke kegagalan atau
kesuksesan group mereka karena harga diri mereka terikat ke apapun yang terjadi ke group
tsb.
Dalam organizational dan work group, kita dapat membentuk identitas melalui
1. Relational identification, saat kita berhubungan dengan orang lain karena peran kita
2. Collective identification, saat kita berhubungan dengan aggregate characteristics dari
group kita

Ingroups and Outgroups

Ingroup favoritism terjadi saat kita melihat anggota dari group kita lebih baik dari lainnya,
dan orang yang tidak masuk group kita sama semua.
Outgroup terjadi karena adanya ingroup, biasanya sebuah group luar yang diketahui oleh
anggota ingroup.

Social Identity Threat

Ingroup dan outgroup dapat mengakibatkan social identity threat, yang mirip dengan
stereotype threat (Chapter 5). Dengan SIT, individu percaya mereka akan dinilai negatif
karena asosiasi mereka dengan group yang bernilai rendah.

Stages of Group Development

punctuated-equilibrium model A set of phases that temporary groups go through that
involves transitions between inertia and activity. Tahap2 dari model ini:
1. Pertemuan pertama mengatur tujuan group
2. Fase pertama dari aktivitas group is one of inertia sehingga perkembangannya lambat.
3. Transisi terjadi saat group sudah menghabiskan setengah dari waktu yang tersedia.
4. Transisi ini menginisiasi perubahan besar.
5. Fase kedua inertia terjadi setelah transisi.
6. Pertemuan terakhir group ditandai dengan percepatan aktivitas.
Group Property 1: Roles
Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position
in a social unit.
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
to give meaning to their environment.
Role Expectations are the way others believe you should act in a given context. In the
workplace, we look at role expectations through the perspective of the psychological
contract: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and employers
Role Conflict is a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations.
Interrole conflict is a situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different,
separate groups are in opposition.

Group Property 2: Norms

All groups have established norms—acceptable standards of behavior shared by members
that express what they ought to do and ought not to do under certain circumstances.

Norms and Emotions

In a task group, individuals’ emotions influenced the group’s emotions, and vice versa.
Norms dictated the experience of emotions for the individuals and for the groups

Norms and Conformity

As a member of a group, we desire acceptance by the group. Thus, we are susceptible to
conforming to group norms. Conformity is the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the
norms of the group.
People conform to their reference groups, important groups to which individuals belong or
hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.

Norms and Behavior

Norms can cover any aspect of group behavior. Norms in the workplace significantly
influence employee behavior.

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives is for the
organization’s values to hold normative sway over employees. Positive group norms may
well beget positive outcomes, but only if other factors are present (e.g. positive cooperation
norms)

Negative Norms and Group Outcomes

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) or deviant workplace behavior (also called
antisocial behavior or workplace incivility) is voluntary behavior that violates significant
organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its
members.
Evidence demonstrates deviant workplace behavior is likely to flourish where it’s supported
by group norms.

Norms and Culture

People in collectivist cultures have different norms than people in individualist cultures. But
people's orientation may be changed, even after years of living in one society.

Group Property 3: Status

Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by
others—permeates every society.
According to status characteristics theory, status tends to derive from one of three sources:
1. The power a person wields over others.
2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.
3. An individual’s personal characteristics.
Status and Norms
High-status individuals may be more likely to:
● deviate from norms when they have low identification (social identity) with the group.
● eschew pressure from lower-ranking members of other groups.
● better able to resist conformity pressures than their lower-status peers.
● particularly able to disregard conformity norms if doesn’t need or care about the
group’s social rewards

Status and Group Interaction

People tend to become more assertive when they seek to attain higher status in a group.
Lower-status members tend to participate less actively in group discussions.

Status Inequity
Perceived inequity creates disequilibrium, which inspires various types of corrective
behaviors. Hierarchical groups can lead to resentment among those at the lower end of the
status continuum. Groups generally form an informal status order based on ranking and
command of needed resources.

Status and Stigmatization

The status of people with whom you are affiliated can also affect others’ views of you.
“stigma by association” effect can result in negative opinions and evaluations of the person
affiliated with the stigmatized individual, even if the association is brief and purely
coincidental.

Group Status
Culturally, sometimes ingroups represent the dominant forces in a society and are given high
status, which can create discrimination against their outgroups. When high-status groups then
feel the discrimination from low-status groups, they may increase their bias against the
outgroups.

Group Property 4: Size and Dynamics

Large groups are better for fact-finding or idea-generating. Smaller groups are better at doing
something productive.
Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively
than when alone. It may be caused by a belief that others in the group are not carrying their
fair share, or diffusion of responsibility.
The stronger an individual’s work ethic is, the less likely that person is to engage in social
loafing. The greater the level of conscientiousness and agreeableness in a group, the more
likely that performance will remain high whether there is social loafing or not
There are ways to prevent social loafing:
1. set group goals, so the group has a common purpose to strive toward;
2. increase intergroup competition, which focuses on the shared group outcome;
3. engage in peer evaluations;
4. select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups; and
5. base group rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions

Group Property 5: Cohesiveness

Groups differ in their cohesiveness—the degree to which members are attracted to each other
and motivated to stay in the group.
Cohesiveness affects group productivity. The relationship between cohesiveness and
productivity depends on the group’s performance-related norms.

Relationship among Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity

What can you do to encourage group cohesiveness?
1. Make the group smaller,
2. encourage agreement with group goals,
3. increase the time members spend together,
4. increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership,
5. stimulate competition with other groups,
6. give rewards to the group rather than to individual members,
7. physically isolate the group.

Group Property 6: Diversity

Diversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one
another. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a
group’s tenure. Although differences can lead to conflict, they also provide an opportunity to
solve problems in unique ways.
One possible side effect in diverse teams—especially those that are diverse in terms of
surface-level characteristics—is faultlines, or perceived divisions that split groups into two
or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience,
and education. Although research on faultlines suggests that diversity in groups is potentially
a double-edged sword, recent work indicates they can be strategically employed to improve
performance.

Group Decision Making

Groups versus the Individual

Strengths of Group Decision Making Weaknesses of Group Decision Making

● Generate more complete information ● Time-consuming.

and knowledge.
● Offer increased diversity of views
● Lead to increased acceptance of a
solution.
● Participating members are more
likely to support it enthusiastically
● There are conformity pressures (The
desire by group members to be
accepted and considered an asset to
the group can squash any overt
disagreement)
● Can be dominated by one or a few
 and to encourage others to accept it members.
later ● Suffer from ambiguous
responsibility.

Effectiveness and Efficiency

Group decisions are generally
● more accurate, but they are less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate
person
● More creative
● Have more degree of acceptance
● But take more time

Groupthink and Groupshift

Groupthink relates to norms and describes situations in which group pressures for
conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.
Groupshift describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when
discussing a given set of alternatives to arrive at a solution.

Group Decision-Making Techniques

Interacting groups are typical groups in which members interact with each other
face-to-face.
Brainstorming is an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all
alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
Nominal group technique is group decision-making method in which individual members
meet face-to-face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion. Nominal
group technique steps:

1. Before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes down ideas
about the problem.
2. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group. No discussion
takes place until all ideas have been presented and recorded.
3. The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
4. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea
with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
Chapter 10: Understanding Work Teams

Differences Between Groups and Teams

Work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information, make decisions, and
help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. The group’s
performance is merely the summation of each member’s individual contribution.

A work team, on the other hand, generates positive synergy through coordination. The
individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of the individual
inputs.
Types of Teams

1. Problem-solving teams are groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department

who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency,
and the work environment.
2. Self-managed work teams are groups of employees (typically 10 to 15 in number)
who perform highly related or interdependent jobs; these teams take on some
supervisory responsibilities.
3. Cross-functional teams employees from about the same hierarchical level but from
different work areas who come together to accomplish a task.
4. Virtual teams are teams that use computer technology to tie together physically
dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
For virtual teams to be effective, management should ensure that
1. Trust is established among members,
2. Progress is monitored closely, and
3. The efforts and products of the team are publicized throughout the organization.
Multiteam systems, collections of two or more interdependent teams that share a
superordinate goal. This system is used to answer demand for higher coordination.

Creating Effective Teams

Key components of effective teams:
1. The resources and other contextual influences that make teams effective.
2. The team’s composition.
3. Process variables are events within the team that influence effectiveness.

Team Context: What Factors Determine Whether Teams Are Successful?

● Adequate Resources: teams are part of a larger organization system; every work
team relies on resources outside the group to sustain it.
● Leadership and Structure: teams can’t function if they can’t agree on who is to do
what and ensure all members share the workload.
● Climate of Trust: trust is the foundation of leadership; it allows a team to accept and
commit to the leader’s goals and decisions.
● Performance Evaluation and Reward System: group-based appraisals, profit
sharing, small-group incentives, and other system modifications can reinforce team
effort and commitment.

Team Composition
● Abilities of Members: a team’s performance depends in part on the knowledge,
skills, and abilities of individual members.
● Personality of Members: the personality traits of individuals are as important to
teams as the overall personality characteristics of the team.
● Allocation of Roles: teams have different needs, and members should be selected to
ensure that all the various roles are filled.
● Diversity of Members: diversity in function, education, and expertise are positively
related to team performance, but these effects are small and depend on the situation.
● Cultural Differences: cultural diversity seems to be an asset for tasks that call for a
variety of viewpoints but have more difficulty learning to work with each other and
solving problems.
● Size of Teams: generally speaking, the most effective teams have five to nine
members.
● Member Preferences: high-performing teams are likely to be composed of people
who prefer working as part of a group.

Team Processes
● Common Plan and Purpose: effective teams begin by analyzing the team’s mission,
developing goals to achieve that mission, and creating strategies for achieving the
goals.
● Specific Goals: successful teams translate their common purpose into specific,
measurable, and realistic performance goals.
● Team Efficacy: effective teams have confidence in themselves; they believe they can
succeed.
● Team Identity: A team member’s affinity for and sense of belongingness to his or her
team.
 ● Team Cohesion: a situation in which members are emotionally attached to one
another and motivated toward the team because of their attachment.
● Mental Models: the members of an effective team share accurate mental
models—organized mental representations of the key elements within a team’s
environment that team members share.
● Conflict Levels: conflict has a complex relationship with team performance, and it’s
not necessarily bad.
Relationship conflicts—those based on interpersonal incompatibility, tension, and
animosity toward others—are almost always dysfunctional.
Task conflicts—stimulate discussion, promote critical assessment of problems and
options, and can lead to better team decisions, though it may not lead to more
innovative products.
● Social Loafing: effective teams undermine this tendency by making members
individually and jointly accountable for the team’s purpose, goals, and approach.

Turning Individuals into Team Players

Selecting: Hiring Team Players

❏ When hiring team members, be sure candidates can fulfill their team roles as well as
technical requirements.
❏ Personal traits appear to make some people better candidates for working in diverse
teams.

Training: Creating Team Players

❏ Training specialists conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the
satisfaction that teamwork can provide.
❏ Workshops help employees improve their problem-solving, communication,
negotiation, conflict management, and coaching skills.

Rewarding: Providing Incentives to Be a Good Team Player

❏ Promotions, pay raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to individuals
who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues, sharing
information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed new skills.’
❏ The opportunity for personal development of oneself and teammates can be a very
satisfying and rewarding experience.

Chapter 12: Leadership

- Leadership/Kepemimpinan: kemampuan untuk mempengaruhi suatu kelompok agar
bisa menuju keberhasilan dari visi perusahaan tersebut.
- Manajemen: Penggunaan wewenang yang melekat pada pangkat formal yang ditunjuk
untuk mendapatkan kepatuhan dari anggota organisasi
- Hubungan leadership dg manajemen: Manajer memiliki peran penting dalam
mengatur dan mengelola sebuah perusahaan dan sebagai pemandu para staffnya
 sehingga haruslah memiliki sifat leadership agar dapat mempengaruhi para staffnya
untuk bisa mencapai visi yang diinginkan

Teori Leadership

Trait theories: Teori yang mempertimbangkan kualitas pribadi dan karakteristik yang
membedakan pemimpin dari non-pemimpin yang berdasarkan serta berfokus pada kualitas
dan karakteristik pribadi
- Teori yang mempertimbangkan ciri-ciri kepribadian, sosial, fisik, atau intelektual
untuk membedakan pemimpin dari non-pemimpin
- Tidak terlalu berguna sampai dicocokkan dengan Big Five Personality
1. Openness (Imagination,Feelings,Action,Ideas)
2. Conscientiousness (Competence, Self-Discipline)
3. Extroversion (Sociability, Assertiveness)
4. Agreeableness (Cooperative, Trust-worthy)
5. Neuroticism (Tendency Toward Unstable Emotions)
- Sifat kepemimpinan yg esensial menurut trait theories:
1. Ekstroversi
2. Kehati-hatian
3. Keterbukaan
4. Kecerdasan Emosional (Berkualitas)
- Sifat dapat memengaruhi kepemimpinan, tetapi dalam memprediksi kemunculan
pemimpin (pemimpin adalah sifat alamiah) bukan keefektifan/bagaimana menjadi
pemimpin.

Behavioral theories: Teori yang mengusulkan perilaku tertentu itu membedakan pemimpin
dari non-pemimpin
1. Memperkasai Struktur (task-oriented): Sejauh mana pemimpin akan mendefinisikan
dan menstruktur peranan bawahannya dalam pencapaian tujuan
2. Keramahan/Consideration (relationship-oriented): Sejauh mana pemimpin akan
memiliki hubungan pekerjaan
3. Employee-oriented leader: Menekankan hubungan interpersonal
4. Production-oriented leader: Menekankan pada aspek teknis/tugas dari pekerjaan

Trait vs Behavioral theories:

- Trait theory: Kepemimpinan merupakan sifat yang permanen dan mengikat pribadi
sehingga kita harus mengidentifikasi pemimpin berdasarkan sifatnya. Kata Kunci :
What We Are, Can’t Change
- Behavioral theory: Kepemimpinan merupakan kemampuan/skill yang dapat diajarkan
kepada siapapun jadi kita harus mengidentifikasi perilaku yang tepat. Kata Kunci :
What We Do, Can Change

Contingency theories
Meskipun teori sifat dan perilaku membantu kita memahami kepemimpinan, ada komponen
penting yang hilang: lingkungan tempat pemimpin berada
- Tiga teori kunci:
1. Fiedler’s Model
2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
3. Path-Goal Theory

Fiedler’s model
- teori ini menunjukkan hubungan antara orientasi pemimpin atau gaya kepemimpinan
dengan kinerja kelompok yang berbeda di suatu kondisi situasional yg berbeda2
- Kinerja kelompok yang efektif bergantung pada kesesuaian yang tepat antara gaya
kepemimpinan dan situasi yg dihadapi
- Mempertimbangkan Tiga Faktor Situasional:
1. Hubungan pemimpin-anggota: tingkat kepercayaan dan kepercayaan pada
pemimpin
2. Struktur tugas: derajat struktur dalam pekerjaan
3. Kekuatan posisi: kemampuan pemimpin untuk mempekerjakan, memecat, dan
memberi penghargaan
- Keefektifan: harus berubah menjadi pemimpin yang cocok dengan situasi atau
mengubah variabel situasional agar sesuai dengan pemimpin saat ini. Teori ini
dipengaruhi oleh stres yg dihadapi pemimpin juga dan bagaimana respon pemimpin
thd stress
1. Leadership Style: Menggunakan LPC test, Apakah task oriented atau relationship
oriented?
2. The Situational Favorableness Kontrol Leader terhadap lingkungan/ situasi
(Leader-member relation, task structure, position power)
Situational leadership
Teori yang menunjukkan bagaimana leadership style yang berbeda-beda menyesuaikan
dengan tingkat perkembangan para pengikutnya atau followers readiness.
- Model yang berfokus pada "kesiapan" pengikut. Pengikut dapat menerima atau
menolak pemimpin
- “Kesiapan” adalah sejauh mana orang memiliki kemampuan dan kemauan untuk
menyelesaikan tugas tertentu
- Efektivitas bergantung pada respons pengikut terhadap tindakan pemimpin
- Dengan teori ini bisa dilihat bahwa seorang leader dapat dengan fleksibel merubah
cara kepemimpinannya sesuai dengan perkembangan atau development bawahannya.

Teori Path-Goal (House)

- Leaders help clarify the “path” to the worker’s goals
- Teori ini berfokus pada bagaimana pemimpin mempengaruhi persepsi dari
pengikutnya tentang tujuan pekerjaan, tujuan pengembangan diri, dan jalur yang
dibutuhkan untuk mencapai tujuan.
- Tugas pemimpin adalah membantu pengikut dlm meraih goals. Pemimpin akan
menyediakan pengarahan, dukungan, dan memastikan tujuan pengikutnya sudah
sesuai dengan keseluruhan tujuan organisasi
- Empat jenis pemimpin:
1. Directive: berfokus pada pekerjaan yang harus diselesaikan
2. Supportive: berfokus pada kesejahteraan pekerja
3. Participative: berkonsultasi dengan karyawan dalam pengambilan keputusan
4. Achievement-oriented: menetapkan tujuan yang menantang
Leader Participation Model
Sebuah teori kepemimpinan yang menyediakan satu set aturan untuk menentukan bentuk dan
jumlahnya pengambilan keputusan partisipatif di berbagai situasi.
- Bagaimana seorang pemimpin membuat keputusan sama pentingnya dengan apa yang
diputuskan
- Variabel situasional berinteraksi dengan atribut kepemimpinan untuk memengaruhi
perilaku pemimpin. Perilaku pemimpin harus menyesuaikan dengan cara tugas
disusun dalam organisasi.
- Ini adalah model normatif yang memberi tahu para pemimpin bagaimana partisipatif
berada dalam pengambilan keputusan mereka tentang decision tree
1. Lima gaya kepemimpinan
2. Dua belas variabel kontingensi

Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Menciptakan small group dalam suatu group, dimana small group tsb berisi orang2 yg
paling cocok dan dipercayai oleh pemimpin, serta akan memiliki performance yg
tinggi, turnover rendah, dan job satisfaction tinggi.
- In Grup
1. Anggota mirip dengan pemimpin
2. Di lingkaran dalam komunikasi pemimpin
3. Menerima lebih banyak waktu dan perhatian dari pemimpin
4. Diberikan tanggung jawab dan penghargaan yang lebih besar
- Out Grup
1. Dikelola oleh aturan dan kebijakan formal
2. Kurang perhatian pemimpin
3. Lebih mungkin untuk menghianati organisasi

Charismatic Leadership & Transformational Leadership

- Karismatik→ Memiliki atribut kepahlawanan atau kemampuan kepemimpinan yang
luar biasa. Cenderung lebih didengarkan. (visioner, sensitive, risk taker, out of the
box)
● Dark side of charismatic leadership; Tidak semua pemimpin karismatik
selalu bekerja untuk kepentingan organisasi, ada yang lebih mementingkan
kepentingan pribadi sehingga mereka membangun suatu perusahaan tanpa
memikirkan dampak terhadap pengikutnya.
- Transaksional: membimbing/memotivasi para pengikut yang diarahkan menuju
tujuan yang ditetapkan
- Transformational: menginspirasi pengikut utk melebihi kepentingan diri sendiri dan
berkemampuan utk memiliki pengaruh secara mendalam dan luar biasa thd
pengikutnya.
 - Authentic leadership: Pemimpin yang mengetahui siapa mereka, apa yang mereka
yakini dan nilai, dan bertindak sesuai nilai tersebut.
- Ethical leadership: menetapkan standar etika yang tinggi, memberi contoh dari
perilaku mereka, mendorong dan memberikan imbalan integritas pada orang lain.
Mempromosikan perilaku normatif melalui tindakan pribadi dan hubungan
interpersonalnya di tempat kerja.
- Socialized Charismatic leadership: menyampaikan nilai-nilai yang berpusat pada
orang lain (tidak mementingkan diri sendiri) melalui pemimpin yang mencontohkan
perilaku etis
- Servant leadership: Melampaui kepentingan pemimpin sendiri dan akan
menitikberatkan pada kesempatan untuk membantu para pengikutnya agar bertumbuh
dan berkembang. kepemimpinan yang berawal dari perasaan tulus yang timbul dari
dalam hati untuk melayani, menempatkan kebutuhan pengikut sebagai prioritas,
menyelesaikan sesuatu bersama orang lain dan membantu orang lain dalam mencapai
suatu tujuan bersama. Efeknya:
1. Menghasilkan komitmen tinggi
2. Meningkatkan potensi team
3. Meningkatkan prestasi dan kreativitas pekerja
- Positive Leadership: How leaders can have a positive impact on their organizations
through building trust and mentoring.

Trust
- Kepercayaan: keadaan psikologis yang muncul ketika Anda setuju untuk membuat
diri Anda rentan terhadap orang lain karena Anda memiliki ekspektasi positif tentang
bagaimana keadaan akan berubah.
- Atribut kunci terkait dengan kepemimpinan
- Pengikut yang mempercayai pemimpinnya akan menyelaraskan tindakan dan sikap
mereka dengan perilaku / permintaan pemimpin
- Trust-desired actions - desired attitudes
- Develope trust:

Mentoring
Mentoring: pekerja senior (mentor) yang mendukung dan menyokong pekerja yg krg
berpengalaman (ada fungsi karier dan fungsi psikologis).
- Tujuannya adalah untuk menunjukkan bagaimana organisasi benar-benar bekerja di
luar struktur dan prosedur formal.
- Fungsi:
Finding n Creating Effective Leader
- Selecting: Mengidentifikasi pemimpin yang efektif.
- Training: Pelatihan dan pengembangan kepemimpinan merupakan hal yang penting.

CHAPTER 13 – POWER AND POLITICS

Power and Leadership

● Power → Suatu kapasitas yang dimiliki A untuk mempengaruhi perilaku B sehingga B

bertindak sesuai dengan keinginan A.
● Dependence → Semakin besar dependence B pada A, semakin besar power A dalam
hubungan tersebut. (A memiliki sesuatu yang dibutuhkan B)

Bases of Power

● Formal Power → Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization.

- Coercive Power → A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results
from failing to comply.
- Reward Power → Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards
that others view as valuable.
- Legitimate Power → The power a person receives as a result of his or her position
in the formal hierarchy of an organization. (formal authority to control and use
organizational resources based on the person’s structural position in the
organization)
● Personal Power → from an individual’s unique characteristics.
- Expert Power → Influence based on special skills or knowledge. Kita mengikuti
saran dari orang ahli (pekerjaan terspesialisasi) untuk mencapai tujuan.
- Referent Power → Influence based on identification with a person who has
desirable resources or personal traits. Referent power develops out of admiration of
 another and a desire to be like that person. (B kagum/ hormat ke A → A punya
power terhadap B). Contoh: bintang iklan yang punya power karena beberapa orang
mengagumi dia → memperlancar pemasaran.

Which Bases of Power Are More Effective?

→ Personal Power, both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’
satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance.

Dependence: The Key to Power

● The General Dependence Postulate
- Dependence B besar pada A → power A > B.
- Semakin luas pilihan à semakin sedikit power yang diberikan ke orang lain.
Contoh: organisasi mengembangkan banyak supplier dibandingkan hanya 1 agar
tidak terlalu bergantung pada 1 supplier.

● What Creates Dependences?

- Importance of the resource to the organization
- Scarcity of the resource; dependency relationship in the power of occupational
categories
- Non-substitutability of the resource >> the fewer viable substitutes for a resource,
the more power control over that resource provides.

Power Tactics
Power Tactics → Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.
9 distinct influence tactics:
1) Legitimacy – relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with
organizational policies or rules.
2) Rational persuasion – presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to
demonstrate a request is reasonable.
3) Inspirational appeals – developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s
values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
4) Consultation – increasing the target’s support by involving him or her in deciding how
you will accomplish your plan.
5) Exchange – rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following
request.
6) Personal appeals – asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.
7) Ingratiation – using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.
8) Pressure – using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.
9) Coalitions – enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Using Power Tactics

Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation → efektif bila audiens sangat
tertarik pada hasil dari proses pengambilan keputusan.
Pressure → paling tidak efektif
Ingratiation and legitimacy → dapat mengurangi reaksi negatif jika audiens tidak terlalu
peduli dengan hasil dari proses pengambilan keputusan/ kebijakannya rutin.
Rational persuasion → taktik yang efektif di seluruh tingkat organisasi.
Harder tactics → exchange, coalition, and pressure
Softer tactics → rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation
Soft tactic is more effective than hard tactic.

How Power Affects People

Power Variables
Negative effects:
- The toxic effects of power depend on the weider’s personality.
- The corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems.
- We have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. One study showed that
simply expressing gratitude toward powerful others makes them less likely to act
aggressively against us.
Positive effect:
Power energizes and increases motivation to achieve goals. It also can enhance our
motivation to help others.

Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace

Sexual harassment → segala aktivitas yang tidak diinginkan yang bersifat seksual yang
memengaruhi pekerjaan seseorang dan menciptakan lingkungan kerja yang tidak bersahabat.
Mungkin terjadi karena ada perbedaan power yang besar (supervisor - karyawan). Terjadi di
organisasi yang memiliki tingkat keadilan rendah (kebijakan dan prosedur longgar/ tidak
konsisten).

Pelecehan seksual dapat berdampak merugikan bagi individu dan organisasi, tetapi dapat
dihindari. Peran manajer sangat penting:

1. Pastikan kebijakan aktif mendefinisikan apa yang termasuk pelecehan seksual,

memberi tahu karyawan bahwa mereka dapat dipecat karena perilaku yang tidak pantas,
dan menetapkan prosedur untuk mengajukan keluhan.
2. Yakinkan karyawan bahwa mereka tidak akan menghadapi pembalasan jika mereka
mengajukan keluhan.
3. Selidiki setiap keluhan, dan beri tahu departemen hukum dan SDM.
4. Pastikan pelanggar disiplin atau diberhentikan.
5. Siapkan seminar internal untuk meningkatkan kesadaran karyawan tentang masalah
pelecehan seksual.

Intinya adalah bahwa manajer memiliki tanggung jawab untuk melindungi karyawan mereka
dari lingkungan kerja yang tidak bersahabat.
Politics: Power in Action
Definition of Organizational Politics
Political behavior → Activities that are not required as part of a person’s formal role in the
organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
Menggunakan kekuasaan untuk memengaruhi pengambilan keputusan dalam suatu
organisasi.
Political behavior → withholding key information from decision makers, joining a coalition,
whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information to the media,
exchanging favors with others for mutual benefit, and lobbying on behalf of or against a
particular individual or decision alternative.

The Reality of Politics

One person’s “selfless effort to benefit the organization” is seen by another as a “blatant
attempt to further his or her interest.”
An organization can be politics-free if all members of that organization hold the same goals
and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are
completely clear and objective.

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
Individual Factors
1. High self-monitors → more sensitive to social cues, exhibits higher levels of social
conformity, and is more likely to be skilled in political behavior.
2. Internal locus of control → more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to
manipulate situations in their favor.
3. High Mach Personality → will to manipulate and the desire for power—is consistent
with using politics as a means to further personal interests.
4. Organizational investment → The more a person expects increased future benefits from
the organization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he or
she is to use illegitimate means.
5. Perceived job alternatives → the more alternate job opportunities an individual
has—due to a favorable job market, possession of scarce skills or knowledge,
prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization—the more likely
the person is to employ politics.
6. Expectations of success → An individual with low expectations of success from
political means is unlikely to use them.

Organizational Factors
1. Reallocation of resources
2. Promotion opportunities
3. Low trust
 4. Role ambiguity
5. Unclear performance evaluation system
6. Zero-sum reward practices
7. Democratic decision making
8. High performance pressures
9. Self-serving senior managers

How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?

Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee performance, perhaps because
employees perceive political environments to be unfair, which demotivates them.

Kualifikasi:
1. The politics–performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual’s
understanding of the “hows” and “whys” of organizational politics.
2. Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership.
3. When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive
behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change.
Defensive behaviors → Reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change.
Impression Management (IM)
IM → The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of
them.
The Ethics of Behaving Politically
There are some questions you should consider:
1. What is the utility of engaging in politicking?
2. Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?
CHAPTER 14 – CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

A Definition of Conflict
Conflict → A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively
affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
Functional conflict → Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its
performance.
Dysfunctional Conflict → Conflict that hinders group performance.

Types of Conflict
Task conflict → Conflict over content and goals of the work.
Relationship conflict → Conflict based on interpersonal relationships.
Process conflict → Conflict over how work gets done.

Loci of Conflict
Dyadic conflict → Conflict that occurs between two people.
Intragroup conflict → Conflict that occurs within a group or team.
Intergroup conflict → Conflict between different groups or teams.
The Conflict Process

Stage I: Potential opposition or Incompatibility

Munculnya kondisi yang menjadi penyebab adanya konflik. Kondisi tersebut dibagi menjadi
3 kategori:
Communication. Kurang komunikasi, komunikasi yang buruk, hambatan dalam komunikasi
dapat menjadi sumber konflik, karena bisa menyebabkan salah paham dan informasi tidak
tersampaikan dengan baik.
Structure. Dapat mencakup ukuran kelompok, tingkat spesialisasi dalam tugas yang
diberikan, gaya kepemimpinan, sistem penghargaan dan tingkat ketergantungan antar
kelompok. (penyebab: beda kepentingan/tujuan)
Personal Variables. Potensi konflik ini karena kepribadian dan emosi kita, juga karena
ketidaksukaan kita terhadap seseorang.

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

Kondisi (stage I) → perceived conflict → felt conflict (konflik muncul)
Perceived conflict = Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that
create opportunities for conflict to arise.
Felt conflict = Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness,
frustration, or hostility.

Pihak yang berkonflik punya persepsi masing-masing yang dipengaruhi emosi mereka.
Negative emotion: oversimplify issues, lose trust, and put negative interpretations on the
other party’s behavior.
Positive emotion: increase our tendency to see potential relationships among elements of a
problem, take a broader view of the situation, and develop innovative solutions.

Stage III: Intentions

Intention → Decisions to act in a given way.
5 Conflict-handling intentions:
● Competing → A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the impact on the other
party to the conflict. (Assertive and Uncooperative)
● Collaborating → A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy
fully the concerns of all parties. (Assertive and Cooperative)
 ● Avoiding → The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. (Unassertive and
Uncooperative)
● Accommodating → The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’s
interests above his or her own. (Unassertive and Cooperative)
● Compromising → A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up
something. (Midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness)

Conflict-handling intentions punya 2 dimensi: assertiveness and cooperativeness

● Assertiveness: menunjukkan sejauh mana suatu pihak berusaha untuk memuaskan
kepentingannya sendiri.
● Cooperativeness: menunjukkan sejauh mana suatu pihak berusaha untuk memuaskan
kepentingan pihak lain.

Stage IV: Behavior

Untuk mengimplementasikan intention.
Conflict management → The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the
desired level of conflict.
Stage V: Outcomes
The action–reaction interplay between conflicting parties creates consequences.
Functional Outcomes: dapat meningkatkan group performance karena meningkatkan
kualitas keputusan, merangsang kreativitas dan inovasi, mendorong minat dan keingintahuan
di antara kelompok dan mendorong evaluasi diri dan perubahan.
Dis-functional Outcomes: dapat menurunkan group performance karena mengurangi
efektivitas dan kekompakkan kelompok sehingga fungsi kelompok terhenti.

Negotiation
A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on
the exchange rate for them.

Bargaining Strategies
2 general approaches to negotiation:
Distributive Bargaining: Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a
win–lose situation.
Integrative Bargaining: Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a
win–win solution.

The Negotiation Process

Preparation and Planning
Mengumpulkan informasi (about other party) dan mengembangkan strategi.
Determine your and other side’s best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA).
BATNA → the least the individual should accept.

Definition of Ground Rules

Defining with the other party the ground rules and procedures of the negotiation itself. (who
will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply?
To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will you follow a specific procedure if an impasse
is reached? )

Classification and Justification

When you have exchanged initial positions, you and the other party will explain, amplify,
clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. Provide the other party with any
documentation that supports your position.

Bargaining and Problem Solving

This is where both parties need to make concessions.

Closure and Implementation

Formalizing your agreement and developing procedures necessary for implementing and
monitoring it.

Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness

Personality traits in Negotiations
Traits do not appear to have a significantly direct effect on the outcomes of either bargaining
or negotiating processes (except extraversion, which is bad for negotiation effectiveness)

Mood/ emotions in Negotiations

In distributive negotiations, it appears that negotiators in a position of power or equal status
who shows anger negotiate better outcomes because their anger induces concessions from
their opponents. In integrative negotiations, positive moods and emotions appear to lead more
integrative agreements.

Culture in Negotiations
Choose cross-cultural negotiators who are high on openness to experience, and to avoid
factors such as time pressure that tend to inhibit learning about the other party.

Gender Differences in Negotiations

- Women negotiate no differently from men, although men apparently negotiate slightly
better outcomes.
- Men and women with similar power bases use the same negotiating styles.
- Women’s attitudes toward negotiation and

Negotiating in a Social Context

Reputation
Your reputation is the way other people think and talk about you. When it comes to negotiation,
having a reputation for being trustworthy matters. In short, trust in a negotiation process opens the
door to many forms of integrative negotiation strategies that benefit both parties. The most effective
way to build trust is to behave in an honest way across repeated interactions.

Relationships
- The social, interpersonal component of relationships with repeated negotiations means
that individuals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start
to think about what is best for the other party and the relationship as a whole.
- Repeated negotiations built on a foundation of trust also broaden the range of options,
since a favor or concession today can be offered in return for some repayment further
down the road.

Third Party Negotiations

Mediator → A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning,
persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. The end job is to encourage forming a solution.
Arbitrator → A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning,
persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. But the end job is to provide a solution.
Conciliator → A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between
the negotiator and the opponent. The end job is to encourage communication/