MODUL PRAKTIKUM

TEKNIK PENGOLAHAN PANGAN

DAN HASIL PERTANIAN
TMB 324

Tim Pengajar Praktikum

Dr. Ir. Usman Ahmad, M.Agr

Dr. Ir. Emmy Darmawati, M.Si
Dr. Ir. I Wayan Budiastra, M.Agr
Dr. Nanik Purwanti, S.TP.,M.Si

LABORATORIUM TEKNIK PENGOLAHAN PANGAN DAN HASIL PERTANIAN

DEPARTEMEN TEKNIK MESIN DAN BIOSTEM
FAKULTAS TEKNOLOGI PERTANIAN
IPB
2022

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 Topik setelah UTS
8. Destilasi Minyak Atsiri
9. Pengalengan Nanas
10. Laju Pembekuan pada Bahan Pangan
11. Pengeringan Bahan Pangan
12. Rheology Bahan Cair/ Pengemasan dan penyimpanan
13. Penurunan Mutu Produk Selama Penyimpanan
14. Penilaian Mutu Produk Hasil Pengalengan

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 PRAKTIKUM 8
PROSES PEMISAHAN DENGAN METODE DISTILASI

A. PENDAHULUAN
Proses ekstraksi atau pemisahan dalam industri pangan perlu dilakukan untuk
mendapatkan komponen-komponen bahan pangan yang spesifik (misalnya menghasilkan
gula dari tebu dan minyak goreng dari kelapa sawit) atau untuk mendapatkan komponen
bahan pangan yang tinggi nilainya (misalnya menghasilkan minyak atsiri dari tanaman
tertentu, enzim papain dari papaya, dan enzim rennet dari perut sapi). Metode pemisahan
bisa melibatkan panas (contoh: evaporasi dan distilasi) atau tanpa melibatkan panas
(contoh: separasi dengan membran, sentrifugasi, dan ekstraksi dengan pelarut (solvent
extraction)).
Proses pemisahan dengan distilasi atau penyulingan adalah salah satu metode
pemisahan campuran komponen berdasarkan perbedaan kecepatan atau kemudahan
menguap (volatilitas) bahan. Suatu bahan dengan campuran komponen tertentu
dididihkan sehingga menguap, dan uap yang kaya akan komponen tertentu dikondensasi
sehingga diperoleh produk tertentu dengan kemurnian yang lebih tinggi. Penggunaan
proses distilasi dalam industry pangan antara lain untuk mengkonsentrasikan minyak
atsiri, perisa (flavor), minuman beralkohol, dan pemurnian asam lemak.
Terdapat empat jenis distilasi yang umum digunakan yaitu distilasi sederhana,
distilasi fraksionasi, distilasi uap, dan distilasi vakum. Pada distilasi sederhana,
perbedaan titik didih yang jauh antar komponennya menjadi dasar pemisahan komponen,
atau dengan kata lain salah satu komponennya bersifat volatil. Komponen yang titik
didihnya lebih rendah akan menguap lebih dulu. Distilasi sederhana dilakukan pada
tekanan atmosfer. Contoh aplikasi umum distilasi adalah pemisahan campuran air dan
alkohol. Salah satu contoh rangkaian alat distilasi sederhana digambarkan pada gambar
1.
Distilasi fraksionasi digunakan untuk memisahkan komponen-komponen cair, dua
atau lebih, dari suatu larutan berdasarkan perbedaan titik didihnya. Distilasi ini juga
dapat digunakan untuk campuran dengan perbedaan titik didih kurang dari 20 °C dan
bekerja pada tekanan atmosfer atau dengan tekanan rendah. Distilasi ini digunakan untuk
merecovery aroma pada pemrosesan juice atau mengisolasi aroma tertentu pada
campuran minyak atsiri. Perbedaan distilasi fraksionasi dan distilasi sederhana adalah
adanya kolom fraksionasi. Di kolom ini terjadi pemanasan secara bertahap dengan suhu
yang berbeda-beda pada setiap platnya. Pemanasan yang berbeda-beda ini bertujuan
untuk pemurnian distilat yang lebih dari plat-plat di bawahnya. Semakin ke atas, semakin
tidak volatil cairannya.
Distilasi uap digunakan pada campuran senyawa-senyawa yang memiliki titik didih
mencapai 200 °C atau lebih. Distilasi uap dapat menguapkan senyawa-senyawa ini
dengan suhu mendekati 100 °C pada tekanan atmosfer dengan menggunakan uap atau air
mendidih. Sifat yang fundamental dari distilasi uap adalah dapat mendistilasi campuran
senyawa di bawah titik didih dari masing-masing senyawa campurannya. Aplikasi dari
distilasi uap adalah untuk mengekstrak beberapa produk alam seperti minyak eucalyptus
dari eucalyptus, minyak sitrus dari lemon atau jeruk, dan untuk ekstraksi minyak parfum
dari tumbuhan. Campuran dipanaskan melalui uap air yang dialirkan ke dalam campuran

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 dan mungkin ditambah juga dengan pemanasan.Uap dari campuran akan naik ke atas
menuju ke kondensor dan akhirnya masuk ke labu distilat.
Distilasi vakum biasanya digunakan jika senyawa yang ingin didistilasi tidak stabil
atau dapat terdekomposisi sebelum atau mendekati titik didihnya, atau campuran yang
memiliki titik didih di atas 150 °C. Metode distilasi ini tidak dapat digunakan pada
pelarut dengan titik didih yang rendah jika kondensornya menggunakan air dingin,
karena komponen yang menguap tidak dapat dikondensasi oleh air. Pompa vakum atau
aspirator digunakan dalam sistem distilasi ini untuk menurunkan tekanan.

B. TUJUAN

Tujuan praktikum adalah memperkenalkan proses pemisahan dengan metode

distilasi sehingga mahasiswa mengerti tentang prinsip kerja distilasi, peralatan yang
digunakan, proses parameter yang harus diperhatikan dan pemanfaatannya.

C. ALAT DAN BAHAN

Batang serai yang sudah dicacah dan dilayukan, labu distilasi dengan 3 leher, pipa
penghubung, kondensor, separatory funnel, labu/gelas distilat, multi-unit extraction
heater, air murni, dan thermometer.

D. METODE

1. Perhatikan baik-baik peragaan dan penjelasan oleh dosen dan laboran.

2. Catat secara detail urutan prosedur yang harus dilakukan untuk memisahkan
minyak atsiri dari batang serai dengan cara distilasi. Detail prosedur yang anda
catat harus dituliskan dalam laporan.
3. Catat waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mendapatkan keseluruhan minyak atsiri (dari
awal pemanasan).
4. Hitung rendemen minyak atsiri dari cacahan batang serai yang diekstrak.

E. LAPORAN DAN DISKUSI

1. Buat laporan per kelompok, 1 kelompok terdiri atas 2 orang. Bagi setiap kelompok
yang sudah ada menjadi kelompok kecil yang terdiri atas 2 orang.
2. Laporan ditulis tangan dengan setiap orang bertanggung jawab menulis sebagian dari
isi laporan.
3. Cantumkan tandatangan di samping nama masing-masing sebagai bukti bahwa setiap
anggota kelompok berkontribusi terhadap isi laporan.
4. Bagian laporan terdiri atas: Pendahuluan, Tujuan, Alat dan Bahan, Metode, Hasil dan
Pembahasan, Kesimpulan, Daftar Pustaka.
5. Isi Pendahuluan: buat pendahuluan secara mandiri berdasarkan praktikum yang sudah
diperagakan pada saat praktikum. Isi pendahuluan yang sama dengan pendahuluan
modul praktikum diberi nilai 0. Pendahuluan dibatasi maksimum 1 lembar bolak balik
kertas folio bergaris.

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 6. Isi Tujuan, Alat dan Bahan: seperti yang tertulis dalam modul dengan tambahan
spesifikasi alat yang digunakan.
7. Isi Metode: Tuliskan metode secara detail dan urut sesuai dengan yang sudah
diperagakan selama praktikum.
8. Gambar bagian-bagian dari alat distilasi yang digunakan selama praktikum (boleh
diambil fotonya).
9. Isi Hasil dan Pembahasan:
 Gambarkan rangkaian alat distilasi yang digunakan selama praktikum dan jelaskan
masing-masing bagian dari rangkaian tersebut.
 Jelaskan prinsip kerja proses distilasi minyak atsiri dari batang serai pada
rangkaian alat yang sudah anda gambarkan!
 Kenapa batang serai perlu dilayukan terlebih dahulu?
 Berapa rendemen minyak atsiri batang serai yang diperoleh dan berapa lama waktu
yang dibutuhkan untuk memperoleh rendemen tersebut?
 Cari di literature berapa rendemen minyak atsiri batang serai yang diperoleh
dengan metode distilasi atau metode-metode yang lain!
 Faktor-faktor apa saja yang harus diperhatikan untuk melakukan proses pemisahan
dengan proses distilasi?

Keterangan gambar:
1. wadah air
2. labu distilasi
3. sambungan
4. termometer
5. kondensor
6. aliran masuk air dingin
7. aliran keluar air dingin
8. labu distilat
9. lubang udara
10. tempat keluarnya distilat
13. pemanas
14. air sebagai medium pemanas
15. larutan zat
16. wadah labu distilat

Gambar 1. Gambaran skematis rangkaian alat distilasi sederhana

F. DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Belitz, H.-D., Grosch, W., and Schieberle, P. 2009. Food Chemistry. 4 th revised and
extended Ed. Springer. Leipzig, Germany.
Fellows, P. J. 2009. Food Processing Technology 3 rd Ed. CRC Press & Woodhead
Publishing Ltd., Florida & Cambridge.

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 PRAKTIKUM 9
THERMAL PARAMETERS IN FOODS CANNING

A. INTRODUCTION
Canning is one of the food preservation methods by applying heat to the
canned products. In the canning process, food is classified into two groups, one is the
acid food with a pH less than 4.5, for example, the fruit products, and the other is the
non-acid foods with a pH higher than 4.5 like meat and fish.
The acid food is generally pasteurized, a heating process at 90-100 oC to kill
and inactivate a certain type of microorganism. Some horticultural products with a
pH higher than 4.5 could be treated by adding an acid solution with a low pH to meet
the requirement of pasteurization process.
The non-acid food requires higher and longer time in the canning process
called the sterilization, killing all the microorganism at a higher temperature of
100oC. The sterilization time is calculated upon the reference of the resistancy of
Clostridium botulinum, a toxic bactery, against heat.
The heat resistancy of microorganisms is expressed in Thermal Death Time
(TDT) that is the time required to kill the microorganisms at a certain degree of
temperature until they are left to one tenth of the initial number (Fig. 3.1).
The TDT curve in Fig 3.2 has a slope z, a number of degree ( oC) required to
reduce the TDT until one tenth. The z value is specific for each microorganism and
spore. As an example, the z value in Fig 3.2 is 10oC.

105

104
Number of
surviving
Slope = -k
microorganisms/
2.303
unit volume
103
T = 121oC

102
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time, second

Fig. 3.1. The first order destruction of microorganisms (Lund, 1975).

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 1000

100

Log cycle

10

Slope = - L
z = 10oC

90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Temperature, oC

Fig. 3.2. TDT curve indicating the heat resistancy of a microorganism used for canning
process (Lund, 1975).

It can be observed in Fig 3.2 that the heating process for one minute at 121.1 C is
equal to the heating for 10 minutes at 111.1 C or 100 minutes at 101.1 C. In other words,
F0 for the heating process is one minute. F 0 is the time required in the sterilization
process at 121.1 C. To understand the concept of F 0, an example is given as follows. F 0 3
minutes means that the product need to be heated until the temperature of 121.1 oC is
reached, then the heating process is maintained for 3 minutes, and after that, the cooling
process is applied.
The value of F0 varies according to the type of food, the can size and pH (Tables
3.1 and 3.2). To evaluate F 0 for a heating process, the temperature development of the
slowest heating point should be recorded by a thermocouple sensor. Generally, the
slowest heating point is at the center of the can if the mode of the heat transfer is
conduction when the main food is solid. However, in the convection mode when the food
is liquid, the slowest heating point will move from the center to the one third of the axis
from the bottom of the can. When the food is semi solid and semi liquid, the slowest
heating point will be in between depended upon its components. Fig 3.3 illustrates the
temperature development at the slowest heating point of a can during the sterilization
process in a retort. Data in Fig 3.3, together with the values of F 0 and z can be calculated
to determine the lethality of the microorganisms, hence the sterilization time.
 Table 3.1. F0 for various commercial products and can sizes (Board, 1977).
Products Can size (mm) F0
Asparagus all size 2-4
Green bean, in salt solution 84 x 115.5 3.5
Green bean, in salt solution 154 x 180.5 6
Chicken, no bone all size 6-8
Corn, in salt solution 84 x 115.5 9
Corn, in salt solution 154 x 180.5 15
Corn in cream 84 x 115.5 5-6
Mackerel in salt solution 74 x 118.5 2.9-3.6
Meat 84 x 115.5 6
Sweet peas, in salt solution 84 x 115.5 7
Sweet peas, in salt solution 154 x 180.5 11

Table 3.3. F0 for vegetables products at various pH and carbohydrate contents

(Board, 1977).
pH before heating carbohydrate (%)
3-6 9-12 > 15
4.5-5.0 0.5 1.0 2.0
5.0-6.0 3.0 4.5 6.0
> 6.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

120 Retort temperature 115.6oC

110

100

90 Convection

80

70 Conduction

60

50

40
20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minute)

Fig 3.3. Temperature development at the slowest heating point during sterilization
process (Board and Steele, 1978).
 B. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this exercise is as follows

1. To practice and observe the pineapple canning process.
2. To determine the temperature development of the slowest heating point in the
pineapple can during pasteurization.
3. To determine the thermal parameters fh and jh for heating, and fc and jc for
cooling process during pasteurization.

C. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT

Pineapple, sugar cane, can (record the size), blanching and exhausting
equipment, can sealer, retort, digital thermocouple.

D. METHODS

1. Process the pineapple following the canning procedure illustrated in Fig 3.5.
Add the sugar solution of 30o Brix. Each group prepare 4 cans of pineapple.
2. Put the cans in the retort. Pick up one can for the insertion of the thermocouple
sensor at the slowest heating point (5/12 th height from the can bottom along
the central axis).
3. Start the pasteurization process, record the temperature every one minute at the
first 15 minutes, and every 5 minute afterwards during heating.
4. Heat the can until 100oC, maintain the heating process at 100 oC for 20 minutes,
then start the cooling process.
5. Repeat procedure (3) during recording the cooling temperature.

E. DISCUSSIONS

1. Draw the heating and cooling curves, determine all the thermal parameters.
Discuss.
2. Calculate the yield of canned pineapple from the fruits: the weight of blanched
pineapple over the initial fruit weight.

Pineapple Fruits (record the initial fruit weight)

Peeling, removing of eye, washing

Removing of core, cutting into rings

with uniform thickness of 1.0-1.5 cm

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 Ring pineapple
(Record the ring weight)

Blanching Steam, 2 minutes

Blanched pineapple (record the blanched weight)

Filling in the can (record the pineapple weight per can)

Add sugar solution 30oC Brix

Exhausting Steam, 1 minute

Sealing the can

Pasteurization 100oC - 20 minutes

(record the temperature development)

Cooling, water until 40oC

Fig. 3.5. Canning process of pineapple.

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 REFERENCES

BOARD, P.W. 1977. Determination of Thermal Processes for Canned Foods. Circ.
Div.Fd. Res. CSIRO No. 7.
BOARD, P.W., and R.J. STEELE. 1978. Calculating heat sterilisation processes for
canned foods. Food Tech. in Australia. 30(5) : 169-173.
HELDMAN, D.R., and SINGH, R.P. 1981. Food Process Engineering. 2nd ed AVI Publ.
Co., Westport, CT, USA.
LUND, D.B. 1975. Heat processing. In : Fennema, O.R. Editor. Principles of
Food Science. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y., USA

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 PRAKTIKUM 10
DETERMINATION OF FOOD THERMAL PROPERTIES
DURING FREEZING

A. INTRODUCTION

Freezing is one of the food preservation methods by lowering its temperature under
its freezing point. By freezing a part of food water content, the activity of enzymes and
micro-organisms can be slowered or stopped to maintain the food quality. The quality of
frozen food is regarded as close to the fresh food eventhough it is incomparable to the
refrigerated food.
The frozen food requires a frozen storage. In general, food is frozen under the
temperature of -20oC and stored at a temperature between -18oC to 20oC. If the storage
temperature fluctuates and reaches over than -15 oC, the quality can be deteriorated. And if
the fluctuating temperature occurs more than 24 hours, all frozen foods have to be
removed, cooked, and consumed. The frozen food can be maintained for a long time, such
as one year, provided the storage temperature remains stable at -18oC or lower.
The rate of freezing determines the freezing time, and influences the product
structure. The slow freezing process will destroy the food product by creating large ice
crystals that rupture the cell walls. The damage will only be detected after thawing. The
rupture of the cell walls will cause the outflow of cell plasm containing the food nutrients,
and the deformation of the food texture. This can be avoided when the freezing process is
done rapidly creating fine ice crystals inside and among the cells.
The freezing rate is influenced by various factors such as the medium temperature,
the size and geometry of product, and the product thermal properties: heat capacity (cp),
density () and thermal conductivity (k). Freezing will change the composition of water
and ice inside the product, and in turn, change also its thermal properties.
To determine the freezing rate and the temperature distribution inside the food
product, it is important to understand the changes of the product thermal properties.
Comini et al. (1974) described the changes linearly as illustrated in Fig 6.1., while
Tarnawski (1976) established mathematical functions non-linearly (Fig 6.2).

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 k
latent heat effect
k, Cp

Cp
Cp
k

Tf Tp Ti T

Fig 6.1. The function of food product thermal properties over temperature during
freezing (Comini et al., 1974).

a
k, Cp, a

Cp
k

Tfr T

Fig 6.2. The non-linear function of food product thermal properties over
temperature during freezing (Tarnawski, 1976).

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 
k

k, , Cp

Cp
 Cp
k

Tfr T
Fig 6.3. Development of food product thermal properties during freezing
(Heldman and Gorby, 1974).

Heldman and Gorby (1974) developed a computer model to predict the changes based on
the water fraction remained unfrozen inside the food product (Fig 6.3). The equations
used by Heldman and Gorby (1974) are as follows.
 L.MW  1 1 
Xw  exp     ....................................................................(1)
 R  Tbo Tb 

EMS . Xw . MW
MS  .....................................................................................(2)
EMW (1 Xw )

EMS  1  IWC
......................................................................................(3)
EMW  WC  UFWC
where :
Xw : water fraction
L : latent heat for freezing, kJ/kg
MW : molecular weight of water, mol
R : gas constant, 8.314 kJ/kg mol K
Tbo : water freezing point, K
Tb : product freezing point, K
EMS : effective mass of solid
EMW : effective mass of water
MS : molecular weight of solid, kmol
WC : water content
IWC : initial water content
UFWC: unfrozen water content

1 WC EMI EMS
   ...................................................................................(4)
 W I S

EMI  1  WC  EMS .......................................................................................(5)

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 where:
EMI: effective mass of ice
 : density of product, kg/m3
I : density of ice, kg/m3
W: density of water, kg/m3
S : density of solid, kg/m3

The density of solid is previously determined by inserting the initial product density,
and initial water content into eq. (4) where EMI is zero prior to freezing.

1
S 
 1 IWC  ....................................................................................(6)
  
 0 W 
(Heldman and Gorby, 1974)

.......The enthalpy of product is calculated based on the density of product components

(solid, water, ice) and the unfrozen water content at the reference temperature of –40 oC.

H  EMS . CpS . (T  40)  ( WC  UFWC ) L 

WC . CpW (T  40)  EMI . CpI (T  40 ) ........................................(7)
(Lescano and Heldman, 1973)
CpI  1.9058  (0.0021) (T) ........................................................................(8)
(Dickerson, 1979)
[ICp  (IWC x W )]
Cp S  ........................................................................(9)
EMS
H
Cp product  ....................................................................................(10)
T

where:
H = enthalpy, kJ/kg
Cp = heat capacity, kJ/kg K
0 = initial density of product, kg/m3
ICp= initial heat capacity of product, kJ/kg K

To predict the thermal conductivity (k) the following equations are used
(Kopelman, 1966).
 1 Q 
k  kc  
1 / 3  ........................................................................(11)
 1  Q (1  M ) 
 kd 
Q  M 2 / 3 1   ....................................................................................(12)
 kc 
where:
M : volume fraction of discontinuous phase
k : thermal conductivity of product, W/m K
Kc : thermal conductivity of continuous phase, W/m K
Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 15
 Kd : thermal conductivity of discontinuous phase, W/m K

........The calculation is done in two steps. Firstly, the water-ice system where water is
considered as a continuous phase, and ice is a discontinuous phase. Secondly, the
water-ice and solid system where water-ice is considered as a continuous phase, and
solid is a discontinuous phase. Hsieh et al. (1977) predicted the thermal properties of
various horticultural products as described in Fig 6.4 - 6.6.

1 Asparagus
30 2 Carrots
3 Cherries
Heat capacity (kJ/kg K)

25 4 Peas
5 Plums
6 Strawberries
20

15

10 5
3 4
2 1
5 6 2, 6
1 3
45
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
T (oC)
Fig 6.4. Predicted heat capacity of various fruits and vegetables during freezing
(Hsieh et al., 1977).

4.0 1
6
2
3
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

5
3.0 4

2.0
1 Asparagus
2 Carrots
3 Cherries
1.0 4 Peas 6
1
5 Plums 3
6 Strawberries 5
2
4
0
-170 -150 -130 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30 -10 10
T (oC)

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 16

 Fig 6.5. Predicted thermal conductivity of various fruits and vegetables during
freezing (Hsieh et al., 1977).

1.08
1 Asparagus 3
2 Carrots
1.06 2
3 Cherries
4 Peas
1.04 5 Plums 5
6 Strawberries 6
1.02 1
Density (unit)

1.00 4
3
0.98 5
2
0.96 6
1
0.94 4

0.92
-170 -150 -130 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30 -10 10 30
T (oC)
Fig 6.6. Predicted density of various fruits and vegetables during freezing
(Hsieh et al., 1977).
B. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the exercise are:

1. To predict the changes of thermal properties of ground beef during freezing using a
computer simulation.
2. To observe the characteristic of thermal property changes during the transformation of
liquid phase into the solid phase.

A. METHODS

1. Develop a computer program to predict the changes of thermal properties (, Cp and
k) of ground beef during freezing.
2. Use Fig 6.7 as a reference, and parameters in Table 6.1 as inputs.

B. DISCUSSION

1. Plot the changes of the beef thermal properties over the temperature.
2. Discuss the change mechanism of the thermal properties from the liquid phase into the
solid phase.

Tabel 6.1. Parameter input dalam program komputer untuk pembekuan (Purwadaria
dan Heldman, 1982)

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 Parameter Symbol Value
Water heat capacity (kJ/kgK) CPW 4.18
Initial heat capacity of product (kJ/kgK) ICP 3.43
Ice density (kg/m3) DI 920
Water density (kg/m3) DW 1000
Initial beef density (kg/m3) IPD 1060
Initial thermal conductivity of beef (W/mK) IK 0.4
Ice thermal conductivity (W/mK) (dicari dengan persamaan 8) KI -
Water thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.58
Initial water content (kg H2O/kg padatan) IWC 0.7030
Unfrozen water content (kg H2O/kg padatan) UFWC 0.01
Latent heat of freezing (kJ/kg) LW 335
Water molecular weight (kg/kg mole) MW 18.0
Initial freezing point (oC) TF -1.5
Gas constant (kJ/kg mol K) R 8.314

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REFERENCES

Comini, G., C. Bonacina and S. Barina. 1974. Thermal properties of foodstuffs. Int.
Institute of Refr. Meeting of commissions B1, C1 and C2, Bressanone, Italy. Bulletin
Annex : 163.
Dickerson, J.R., R.W. 1969. Thermal properties of food. In: D.K. Tressler. 1969. The
Freezing Preservation of Foods. 4th ed. Vol. II. The AVI Pub. Co., Inc., Westport,
Ct., USA.
Heldman, D.R. and D.P. Gorby. 1974. Predictions of thermal conductivity in frozen food.
ASAE Paper No. 74-6016.
Hsieh, R.C., L.E. Lerew and D.R. Heldman. 1977. Prediction of freezing times for foods
as influenced by product properties. J. Food Proc. Engr., 1:183.
Lescano, C.E. and D.R. Heldman. 1973. Freezing rates in cod fish muscle. ASAE Paper
No. 73-367.
Purwadaria, H.K. and D.R. Heldman. 1982. A finite element model for predicton of
freezing rates in food product with anomalous shapes. Trans. ASAE Vol. 25:827.
Tarnawski, W. 1976. Mathematical model of frozen consumption products. Int. J. Heat
and Mass Transfer, 19:15.

Gunakan excel untuk melakukan simulasi perubahan thermal properties bahan dalam
proses pembekuan dengan data-data awal yang ada dalam Tabel di atas. Tahapan
perhitungan thermal properties bahan selama proses pembekuan digambarkan dalam
diagram alir dibawah :

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 19

 PRAKTIKUM 11
DETERMINATION OF FOOD DRYING RATE

A. INTRODUCTION
Drying has been known for a long time as one of the preservation method for food
and agricultural products. Drying, in general is the removal of part of the product water
content by heat at a temperature lower than the boiling point. However, at present, the
drying techniques may use high temperature at short time (HTST), or ultra temperature
in seconds. The principal of drying is the removal of water content until it limits the
existence of free moisture content. The limitation of free moisture content will develop
constraints to the growth of microorganisms and the enzyme activities inside the
products.
The drying mechanism will be influenced by the product properties, the behaviour
of the contact between heated air and the product surface, and the characteristics of heat
and mass transfer from outside into the product and vice versa. In drying, it is essential
to consider the drying capability, capacity, temperature, air humidity and time required
to dehydrate the product from its initial to final moisture content.
The rate of drying, in the beginning, will depend on the rate of heat and mass
transfer from the product surface to the surrounding air. When the product reaches the
critical moisture content where the free moisture content has been removed, then the
rate of drying will be determined by the rate of water movement from the inside to the
product surface, and the distant it has to go through.
The characteristics of drying curve is commonly used as the basics to describe the
mechanism of heat and mass transfer during the drying process and to compare the
product properties in selecting the drying method. The characteristics of the drying
curve is obtained by plotting the drying rate versus the dry basis moisture content as
illustrated in Fig 4.1. The air properties can be observed from a psychrometric chart.

B. OBJECTIVES

1. Assessment of drying characteristics for various food and agricultural products.

2. Determination of the drying rate for various products.
3. Observation of the quality of dried products.
4. Comparing the dried products from mechanical drying with sundrying.

C. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

The dried commodities are apples, carrots, potatoes and red beans. The
equipment used in the experiments are tray dryer using the electrical energy, sundrying
rack, thermocouples, and supporting tools.

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D. METHODS

Determining the Rate of Drying

1. Follow the steps explained in the preparation of commodities prior to drying in Fig
4.3.
2. Divide the prepared products into two parts, one for mechanical drying and one for
sundrying.
3. For observation of the drying rate, make samples to be weighed every 15 minute in
the first hour, and every 30 minute in the following hours until the final moisture
content of about 5% we basis.
4. Determine the initial moisture content of products using the oven method.
5. Record the product temperature and the drying air temperature at the same time
period as item (3).

Quality Observation for Dried Products

1. Observe the quality of dried products visually covering colour, shrinkage and
browning. Compare with the fresh products.
2. Determine the rehydration coefficient following the step describe by Fig 4.3.

E. DISCUSSIONS

1. Calculate the mechanical drying yield and the sundrying yield.

2. Draw the curves for the development of drying air temperature and product
temperature against time during the drying process.
3. Draw the graphs of the product drying rate (g H 2O/100 g solid) versus time, and
versus the moisture content (dry basis).
4. Calculate the rehydration coefficient.
5. Cut the apple slices and potato cubes into halves, and observe the browning reaction
from the surface to the center. Discuss.
6. Compare the performances of the mechanical drying with the sundrying.

REFERENCES

Heldman, D.R. and R.P. Singh. 1981. Food Process Engineering. 2 nd ed. AVI Pub.
Co., Westport, CT, USA.

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 21

 Decreasing Constant
Drying Rate Drying Rate

C B
Drying Rate (g H2O/m2 hr)
A
Critical
Moisture Content

D
Bound Free Moisture Content
Moisture
Content
E
Moisture Content (g H2O/g solid)
Fig. 4.1. Characteristics of a drying curve (Heldman and Singh, 1981).

Fresh Products - Weigh

Peeling, trimming, washing, draining1)

Net Products - Weigh

Cut into definite form and size2)

Fresh Cut Products - Weigh

Blanching, 1 minute, Steam

Blanched Products, Weigh

Divide into two parts

Tray Drying Sundrying

Fig 4.2. Preparation for drying the commodities.

1)
Apple and potato should be soaked into the water during handling to reduce browning.
2)
Apple is sliced radially with a circle length of 0.5 cm, potato is diced into 1 cm cubes, and
carrot is sliced cross-sectionally with a thickness of 0.5 cm.

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 22

 Weigh Weigh
100 g dried products 100 g dried products

Soak in cool water, Soak in boiling water,

15 minutes 5 minutes

Drain Drain
5 minutes 5 minutes

Weigh Weigh

Calculate the rehydration Calculate the rehydration

coefficient coefficient

Drain weight after soaking

Re hydration Coefficien 
100 g

Fig. 4.3. Determination of rehydration coefficient.

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 23

 PRAKTIKUM 12
RHEOLOGI BAHAN CAIR

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 24

 PRAKTIKUM 13
COMPUTER SIMULATION TO PREDICT QUALITY CHANGES
IN PACKAGED FOOD DURING STORAGE

A. INTRODUCTION
Processed foods inside a packaging will experience a quality degradation during
storage such as the changes of colour to browning in dried cabbages, the changes of
flavour in potato chips, the changes of texture due to water vapour adsorption in dried
products, and the deterioration of food nutrients due to oxidation. Factors influencing the
quality changes come from the storage environmental conditions covering the temperature,
the relative humidity, the existence of oxygen and water vapour, the light intensity, and the
solubility of metal ions. The type, thickness, and surface area of the packaging material,
and the initial moisture content of food also play important roles in the food quality
changes.
The changes in the stored foods may be explained by the kinetics of reaction
theory. By arranging certain mathematical equations, a product expiration date can be
determined. This means a critical quality parameter of the food product has been
deteriorated and reached the acceptance threshold of consumers. Simultaneously, its
quality level has also decreased to the value printed on the packaging label claimed by the
producers. The expiration date is important to warn the consumers whether they should
purchase and eat the sold products. On the other hand, it also protects the producers
against the risk of quality deterioration beyond the expiration date.
The time from the foods are readily produced by the industries to the expiration
date is called the shelf life. Half time means the time when the foods have reached 50% of
their shelf life. The conventional method to determine the shelf life of a food product is
by storing the product in a room temperature until it has been rejected by a taste panel.
However, this method will take a long time especially for products such as dried milk, and
canned food that are capable to maintain good quality in months.
A recent method to evaluate the shelf life is by applying a computer simulation.
The threshold value used for the product is an essential quality parameter that is critical to
the consumers. The simulation is developed by arranging a number of mathematical
equations representing the influence factors in a real case.
The following is an example from the phenomen of the ascorbic acid (vitamine C)
degradation in the breakfast cereals (Purwadaria and Heldman, 1980). The rate of the
ascorbic degradation has been analyzed to be the first order, expressed as

(1)
where :
C : ascorbic acid concentration, %
t : storage time, day
k : the rate of the degradation, 1/day

Eventhough, the fluctuating storage temperature may provide a specific influence

that can be calculated by the Arrhenius equation (Heldman and Singh, 1981), it will be

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 25

 assumed constant at a given centigrade for this case. Thus, eq. (1) can be rewritten as
follows
(2)

The rate of the ascorbic acid degradation, k, is also tempered by the water activity inside
the packaging (aiw). The relationship of k and a iw in a cereal product was obtained
experimentally to be a linear function (Purwadaria and Heldman, 1980).

(3)

The water activity, aiw, is calculated from the BET equation (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller,
1938)

(4)

where :
M : equilibrium moisture content of food (dry basis), g H2O/100 g solid
wm : monomolecular moisture content
c : energy constant

The transmission of water vapour from the atmosphere into the packaging through
the film will increase the rate of ascorbic acid degradation, k. The amount of water vapour
permeating through the film packaging is asumed to be fully adsorbed by the food product,
and is expressed mathematically as follows:

(5)

where :
dM : additional moisture content of food, g H2O/100 g solid
g H 2O . mm
K : permeability coefficient of packaging film, 2
m . mmHg . hour
A : film surface area, m2
x : film thickness, mm
Ws : weight of food product, g
p : absolute vapour pressure, mm Hg
a0w : water activity of outside air

Knowing all the previous mentioned equations, a computer flow chart can be developed
at a constant temperature and relative humidity as illustrated in Fig. 1 (Purwadaria,
1977).

B. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this lab practices are to assess the factors contributing to the
quality deterioration of packed food during storage, to observe the behaviour of ascorbic

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 26

 acid degradation and the water vapour mass transmission into packaging, and to apply
the computer simulation in predicting the shelf life of the food product.

Start
t=0

Input : C0, dt, M0, a0w, p, x, Wm, C, K, A, Ws

aiw / Mt (1 - aiw) = 1 / wmc + (c - 1) aiw / wmc

kt = 0.0107 + 0.0765 aiw

Ct+dt = Ct exp (-kt dt) Print Ct + dt

dM = (K /x) (A / Ws) pdt (a0w - aiw)

Mt+dt = Mt + dM

Fig 1. Computer flow chart to predict the ascorbic acid degradation in a cereal product at
constant T and RH (Purwadaria, 1977).

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 27

C. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
The food product is a breakfast cereal packed inside a wax paper bag and cardboard
box. The product characteristics are listed in Table 1. A PC will be used in running
the simulation.

D. METHODS
1. Develop a computer program to predict the ascorbic acid degradation in a cereal
product, inside a package, during storage.
2. Assess the influencing factors (food, packaging film and environment) and observe
their behaviours.

E. DISCUSSION
1. Run the computer program for a 4 month storage time with dt = 1 day
2. Print the computer program and outputs.
3. Draw the curves illustrating the increasing food moisture content, and water activity
inside the packaging, and the ascorbic acid degradation.
4. Compare the results with data obtained from the references and use the objectives as
pointers.
5.
Table 1. Input data for the computer simulation

Sources Parameters or Value Unit

Variables
Food Product M0 2 g H2O/100 g solid
c 25 -
wm 4.1
Ws 200 g
C 100 %
Packaging Film A 0.04 m2
X 0.9 mm
K 0,174 g H 2 O . mm
2
m . mmHg . day
o
Environment T 30 C
a0w 0.7 -
P 33 mmHg

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 28

Menghitung nilai aw

Gunakan excel untuk melakukan simulasi perubahan vitamin C dengan langkah-langkah

sebagai berikut:
1. Dengan menggunakan data yang ada dalam Tabel akan dapat dihitung nilai aw awal.
2. Nilai aw digunakan untuk menghitung nilai kt
3. Nilai kt digunakan untuk menghitung perubahan nilai C (konsentrasi vitamin C)
4. Nilai aw digunakan untuk menghitung perubahan nilai M (Mt)
5. Nilai Mt digunakan untuk menghitung nilai aw yang baru (setelah t waktu)
6. Kembali lakukan langkah ke 2 sampai dengan t = 4 bulan( 4 x 30 hari)

REFERENCES

Brunauer, S., P.H. Emmett, and E. Teller. 1938. Adsorption of gases in multimolecular
layers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 60:309.
Heldman, D.R. and R.P. Singh. 1981. Food Process Engineering 2 nd ed. AVI Pub. Co.,
Westport Connecticut.
Purwadaria, H.K. 1977. Simulation of Nutrient Stability in Dry Foods During Storage. MS
Thesis. Agricultural Engineering Dept. Michigan State University
Purwadaria, H.K. and D.R. Heldman. 1980. Computer simulation of vitamin degradation in
a dry model food system during storage. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 3(1) :
7-28.

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 29

 PRAKTIKUM 14
QUALITY EVALUATION IN FOODS CANNING

A. INTRODUCTION
Canning is one of the food preservation methods by applying heat to the
canned products. In the canning process, food is classified into two groups, one is the
acid food with a pH less than 4.5, for example, the fruit products, and the other is the
non-acid foods with a pH higher than 4.5 like meat and fish.
o
The acid food is generally pasteurized, a heating process at 90-100 C to kill
and inactivate a certain type of microorganism. Some horticultural products with a
pH higher than 4.5 could be treated by adding an acid solution with a low pH to meet
the requirement of pasteurization process.
However, it is necessary to store the canned food and investigate it condition
after canning process, to make sure that the thermal process was right and the food
can be stored for relatively long period.

B. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this exercise is to evaluate the quality of canned pineapple
and compare it with the commercial product.

C. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT

Canned food of pineapple already undergo canning process in the previous
activities and stored in room temperature..

D. METHODS

1. Evaluate the can (Table A.1.) and the pineapple quality (Table A.3) using the
quality standard (Table A.2) in the Appendix A.
2. Compare the product with the commercial canned pineapple.

E. DISCUSSIONS

1. Open the canned food and separate solid part from its liwuid
2. Calculate the yield of canned pineapple: the weight of pineapple over the weight
of liquid.
3. Observed the quality of the pineapple according to available quality tables in this
sheet.
4. Discuss the results of quality evaluation.

Modul TPP 2018[Type text] Page 30

 Table A.1. Evaluation form for pineapple can.

Parameter Quality Score

Can 1 Can 2 Can 31)
1. Vacuum Pressure (kPa)
2. Head space (cm)
3. Weight of Content (g)
4. Drained Weight (g)
5. Can Capacity (g)
6. Drained Weight Index
7. Initial Weight of Pineapple (9)
8. Ratio of Drained Weight over Initial Weight
of Pineapple
o
9. Sugar concentration ( Brix)
1) Describe can 1, 2, 3
Notes.
1. Vacuum pressure : measure with the vacuum meter (kPa)
2. Headspace : height of empty space from the surface of food to the can
seam (cm)
3. Weight of Content : weight of pineapple plus sugar solution (g)
4. Drained weight : weight of pineapple after drained in 5 minute (g)
5. Drained weight index :
[drained weight/(can weigth – empty can weight)] x 100

6. Can capacity : weight of water filling up the can (g)

Table A.2. Quality standard of canned pineapple.

Parameter Criteria Score

1. Drained Weight Drained Weight Index
70 20
68 19
66 18
62 17
58 16
54 15
40 14
2. Wholeness Wholesome
Wholeness : no broken ring or 80-100 % *) 18-20
cut 70-80 % 16-17
60-70 % 14-15
3. Color Condition
Uniform and solid yellow 80-100 % *) 17-30
without white or dark yellow 70-80 % 24-26
spots 60-70 % 21-23
4. Defects Condition
Partly rotten and or chrushed. 80-100 % *) 17-30
Existence of eye, core and 70-80 % 24-26
skin parts 60-70 % 21-23
*) No cut ring (cincin tidak putus)

Modul Praktikum Teknik Pengolahan Pangan 31

 Table A.3. Evaluation form for canned pineapple

Parameter Quality score

Can 1 Can 2 Can 3
1. Drained Weight (20%)
A 18 – 20
B 16 – 17
C 14 – 15**
Inferior <14
2. Wholeness (20%)
A 18 – 20
B 16 – 17
C 14 – 15
3. Color (30%)
A 27 – 30
B 24 – 26*
C 21 – 23
Inferior <21
4. Defects (30%)
A 27 – 30
B 24 – 26*
C 21 – 23
Inferior <21
TOTAL ( ) ( ) ( )
Total A > 90, B : 80 - 89, C : 70 - 79, Inferior < 70
* critical, ** very critical, classify one grade lower eventhough the other parameters are OK.

Modul Praktikum Teknik Pengolahan Pangan 32